157-585: In the history of Ukraine , the Black Council ( Ukrainian : Чорна рада , romanized : Chorna rada ) was a council ( rada ) of Ukrainian Cossacks in which participated a large number of ordinary Cossacks, as well as local commoners (usually a Cossack rada was convened among the Cossack starshyna ). The name comes from the Ukrainian word чернь ( chern [ uk ] , "blacks"),
314-470: A revolt , and, with the help of Denmark , blockaded maritime trade to neutral Elbląg (Elbing). Báthory, unable to penetrate the city's extensive fortifications, succumbed to the demands for greater privileges and freedoms. However, his successful Livonian campaign ended in the annexation of Livonia and the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (modern-day Estonia and Latvia , respectively), thus expanding
471-614: A Greco-Scythian polity formed in this context, became a regional power, blending Greek traditions with local elements. It thrived until the 4th century AD, when invasions by the Goths and later the Huns disrupted its stability. The Roman Empire , expanding its reach into the region, briefly annexed the Bosporan Kingdom from 62 to 68 AD under Emperor Nero . During this period, the reigning Bosporan king , Tiberius Julius Cotys I ,
628-670: A centuries-long tradition of a nobles' democracy ( Golden Liberty ). Henry already posed as a candidate before Sigismund's death and received widespread support from the pro-French factions. The choice was a political move aimed at curtailing Habsburg hegemony, ending skirmishes with the French-allied Ottomans , and profiting from the lucrative trade with France. It was also believed that an Austrian Archduke could be too powerful and attempt to limit noble privileges. French envoys had also offered large amounts of bribes, amounting to several hundred thousand ecus . Upon ascending
785-514: A century, from the mid-17th century to the end of the 18th, while its neighbours stabilised their internal affairs and increased their military might. The Commonwealth did eventually make a serious effort to reform its political system, adopting in 1791 the Constitution of 3 May 1791 , which historian Norman Davies calls the first of its kind in Europe. The revolutionary Constitution recast
942-687: A complex social structure, with local chieftains leading tribal groups. They also practiced paganism , with a pantheon of gods tied to nature, such as Perun (god of thunder) and Dazhbog (sun god). By the time of the Antes Union's decline, the cultural and religious practices of the Slavs had already begun to influence neighboring peoples, laying the groundwork for the Slavic cultural sphere that would emerge later in Eastern and Southeastern Europe . In
1099-572: A contract with merchants of Gdańsk, who controlled 80% of this inland trade, to ship the grain north to that seaport on the Baltic Sea . Countless rivers and waterways in the Commonwealth were used for shipping purposes, including the Vistula , Pilica , Bug , San , Nida , Wieprz , and Neman . The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with river ports and granaries . Most of
1256-463: A demeaning term for rank-and-file Cossacks and lowly folk in general, "plebs". The most famous of these was the Black Council of 1663 . Usually Black Rada signified drastic changes among the starshyna . This Ukrainian history –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . History of Ukraine The history of Ukraine spans thousands of years, rooted in
1413-521: A devastating raid by the Pannonian Avars , led to a fragmentation of the early Slavic federation. Despite this, many of these tribes maintained their distinct identities until the formation of larger political entities in the early second millennium, such as Kievan Rus' , which began to consolidate Slavic lands. The Early Slavs were primarily agrarian, relying on subsistence farming, and lived in semi-nomadic communities. Over time, they developed
1570-536: A focus on fertility cults, as evidenced by numerous figurines and symbolic artifacts. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture began to decline around 3000 BC, possibly due to environmental changes, resource depletion, or pressures from neighboring steppe cultures. The Sredny Stog culture (ca. 4500–3500 BC) emerged to the east of the Cucuteni-Trypillian zone, on the Pontic-Caspian steppe . It marked
1727-501: A mass scale were opened to satisfy the demands of the nobility as consumers. At the height of the Great Northern War a coalition ( Warsaw Confederation ) against Augustus II was formed by Stanisław Leszczyński and other magnates sponsored by Sweden. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was formally neutral at this point, as Augustus entered the war as Elector of Saxony. Disregarding Polish negotiation proposals supported by
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#17327724736591884-478: A mixture of: The end of the Jagiellonian dynasty in 1572 – after nearly two centuries – disrupted the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government. Power increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility. When presented with periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not establish
2041-441: A nobleman's landholding comprised a folwark , a large farmstead worked by serfs to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. This economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes and nobles in the early years of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of the grain trade . The economic strength of Commonwealth grain trade waned from the late 17th century on. Trade relationships were disrupted by
2198-508: A semi- nomadic lifestyle. They utilized copper and bronze tools and weapons , demonstrating early metallurgical skills. Many scholars associate the Yamna culture with Proto-Indo-European speakers , as their migrations and cultural diffusion likely influenced vast areas of Europe and Asia . Following the Yamna culture, the Catacomb culture (ca. 2800–2200 BC) emerged, encompassing much of
2355-519: A series of blows during the following decades. Władysław's brother, John II Casimir , proved to be weak and impotent. The multicultural and mega-diverse federation already suffered domestic problems. As persecution of religious and ethnic minorities strengthened, several groups started to rebel. A major rebellion of self-governed Ukrainian Cossacks inhabiting south-eastern borderlands of the Commonwealth rioted against Polish and Catholic oppression of Orthodox Ukraine in 1648, in what came to be known as
2512-547: A sophisticated hunter-gatherer culture, known for their blade-based lithic technologies and artistic expression. The region likely served as a vital hub for human activity, offering both shelter and access to diverse ecological resources. The archaeological record in Ukraine highlights the area's importance as a crossroads for early human populations migrating through Europe. From the earliest stone tools to evidence of complex social structures and artistic traditions, Ukraine offers
2669-613: A state that was unusual for its time, although somewhat similar political systems existed in the contemporary city-states like the Republic of Venice . Both states were styled "Serenissima Respublica" or the " Most Serene Republic ". At a time when most European countries were headed toward centralization , absolute monarchy and religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with decentralization , confederation and federation, democracy and religious tolerance . This political system unusual for its time stemmed from
2826-416: A strong and long-lasting dynasty . This policy often produced monarchs who were either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. Furthermore, aside from notable exceptions such as the able Stefan Batory from Transylvania (1576–86), the kings of foreign origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. This
2983-455: A substantial increase in the power of the Polish magnates , and the transformation of szlachta democracy into magnate oligarchy . The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies bribed by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. This sapped the Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and anarchy for over
3140-468: A term used from 1573 on), included: The three regions (see below) of the Commonwealth enjoyed a degree of autonomy . Each voivodship had its own parliament (sejmik), which exercised serious political power, including choice of poseł ( deputy ) to the national Sejm and charging of the deputy with specific voting instructions. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania had its own separate army, treasury and most other official institutions. Golden Liberty created
3297-468: A transitional phase between the Neolithic and the emergence of the early Bronze Age steppe cultures. This culture is among the earliest to show evidence of horse domestication , which became a defining feature of steppe societies. Early indications of mound burial (kurgans) began to appear, reflecting evolving social hierarchies and ritual practices. The Sredny Stog culture played a significant role in
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#17327724736593454-404: A valuable lens into the evolution and adaptation of early humans over hundreds of thousands of years. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture (ca. 4,500–3,000 BC), centered in modern-day Romania , Moldova , and Ukraine , represents one of the most advanced Neolithic civilizations in Europe. These people were known for their impressive settlements, some of which were among the largest in the world at
3611-687: Is often regarded as the golden age of Kievan Rus'. One of Yaroslav's key achievements was his decisive defeat of the Pechenegs , who had long been a threat to the state. To commemorate this victory, Yaroslav ordered the construction of the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, a structure that still stands as a symbol of this prosperous era. He also founded the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra and supported the election of Hilarion of Kiev as
3768-570: Is remembered as one of Kievan Rus' most capable leaders. He ascended the throne amid internal strife and external threats, yet worked diligently to stabilize the fragmented territories of Rus'. Monomakh's reign achieved relative unity through efforts to reduce feuds among princes and reinforce central authority. His military successes, particularly against the Polovtsy (Cumans), secured the region's borders. Diplomatically, he forged strong ties with Europe, notably through his marriage to Gytha of Wessex ,
3925-550: Is the Tale of Bygone Years (or Primary Chronicle ), written no earlier than the 11th century. In its 'legendary' part, it narrates the Rus' raid on Constantinople and the formation of a state centered in Kiev during the second half of the 9th century. The Chronicle, in particular, mentions the names of the leaders of the raid on Constantinople — Askold and Dir — and calls them retainers of
4082-620: Is the discovery of a dwelling constructed from mammoth bones , a testament to Neanderthal ingenuity and adaptation to harsh Ice Age environments. These structures highlight their ability to organize resources and create durable shelters. The Crimean Mountains hold significant evidence of early modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) during the Upper Paleolithic period. The Buran-Kaya cave sites have yielded artifacts, such as tools and ornaments, along with skeletal remains, dating to approximately 32,000 BC. These Gravettian settlements reflect
4239-691: The Balkans . His primary goal was to create a lasting base in Bulgaria , strengthening his strategic position in southeastern Europe. However, his ambitions in the Balkans were thwarted after a Byzantine counterattack. In 972, while returning from his Balkan campaign, Sviatoslav was ambushed and killed by the Pechenegs near the Dnieper River. After Sviatoslav's death, a power struggle ensued among his sons. Yaropolk , Sviatoslav's eldest son, assumed
4396-505: The Danube River , never again to threaten central Europe. John Sobieski's death in 1696 arguably ended the period of national sovereignty, and Poland's relative authority over the region dwindled swiftly. By the 18th century, destabilization of its political system brought the Commonwealth to the brink of civil war and the state became increasingly susceptible to foreign influence. The remaining European powers perpetually meddled in
4553-734: The Four-Year Sejm 's May Constitution , came too late. The country was partitioned in three stages by the Russian Empire, the German Kingdom of Prussia , and the Austrian Habsburg monarchy . By 1795, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been completely erased from the map of Europe. Poland and Lithuania were not re-established as independent countries until 1918. The political doctrine of
4710-583: The Frankish chronicle Annals of St. Bertin , where members of an embassy from the north, arriving in the Byzantine Empire , referred to themselves as Rus'. The second notable mention of the Rus' occurred in 860, when they launched a bold and unexpected naval raid on Constantinople from the territory around present-day Kiev. Commanding a fleet across the Black Sea , the Rus' forces struck at
4867-705: The Khazars , another semi-nomadic people from Central Asia. The Khazars founded the Khazar Khaganate , a powerful and influential state near the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus . The Khaganate's territory expanded to include parts of modern-day western Kazakhstan , eastern Ukraine , southern Russia , and northern Azerbaijan . The Khazars were noted for their religious tolerance and political pragmatism, famously adopting Judaism as their state religion in
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5024-677: The Khmelnytsky Uprising . It resulted in a Ukrainian request, under the terms of the Treaty of Pereyaslav , for protection by the Russian Tsar. In 1651, in the face of a growing threat from Poland, and forsaken by his Tatar allies, Khmelnytsky asked the Tsar to incorporate Ukraine as an autonomous duchy under Russian protection. Russian annexation of Zaporizhian Ukraine gradually supplanted Polish influence in that part of Europe. In
5181-619: The Kyiv Metropolitan , marking a significant step in the independence of the Kievan church. Yaroslav's reign was also notable for the introduction of the first written legal code — Rus' Truth , which established a foundation for legal governance in the state. Additionally, Yaroslav engaged in extensive marriage diplomacy, forming alliances by arranging marriages between his daughters and European royalty. However, after Yaroslav's death, Kievan Rus' began to fragment, as his sons divided
5338-735: The Novgorod Republic , and others. Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian Commonwealth The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and also referred to as Poland–Lithuania or the First Polish Republic , was a federative real union between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , existing from 1569 to 1795. This state
5495-704: The Ottoman Empire , major regional power in and around Black Sea , which also had some of its own directly-administrated areas as well. In the 17th century, the Cossack rebellion led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky marked a turning point in the Ukraine' history. The uprising , which began in 1648, was fueled by grievances against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 's nobility, religious tensions, and social inequalities. This rebellion led to
5652-660: The Ottoman Empire . In 1683, the Battle of Vienna marked the final turning point in the 250-year struggle between the forces of Christian Europe and the Islamic Ottomans. For its centuries-long opposition to Muslim advances, the Commonwealth would gain the name of Antemurale Christianitatis (bulwark of Christianity). During the next 16 years, the Great Turkish War would drive the Turks permanently south of
5809-644: The Polish Enlightenment began to sprout. In 1764, aristocrat Stanisław August Poniatowski was elected monarch with the connivance and support of his former lover Catherine the Great , a German noblewoman who became Empress of Russia. Poniatowski's attempts at reform were met with staunch resistance both internally and externally. Any goal of stabilizing the Commonwealth was dangerous for its ambitious and aggressive neighbours. Like his predecessors, he sponsored artists and architects. In 1765 he founded
5966-572: The Pontic steppe , a region central to the spread of the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages , Indo-European migrations , and domestication of the horse . In antiquity, the area was part of Scythia and later inhabited by Goths , Huns , and Slavic tribes . Southern Ukraine was colonized by the Greeks and Romans , leaving a significant cultural heritage. Ukraine enters into written history with
6123-466: The Radhanite Jews, to operate along vast routes that stretched from China to the Byzantine Empire . These trade routes facilitated the exchange of goods, culture, and ideas across Eurasia . The origins of the Kievan state and the etymology of its name, Rus', continue to be subjects of scholarly debate. One theory, often called the ' Norman theory ', posits that the term Rus' originated from
6280-605: The Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations (1791). In the preamble of the Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations (1791) the dualistic nature of the state was confirmed and separate monarchial titles of Stanisław August Poniatowski were included: King of Poland ( Polish : Krol Polski ) and Grand Duke of Lithuania ( Polish : Wielki xiązę litewski ), also the land envoys of the Polish Crown and
6437-537: The Scandinavian Varangians , who were active in trade and military ventures across Eastern Europe in the early medieval period. Proponents of this theory argue that the Varangians, also known as the Rus', initially brought a political and military influence that shaped the emerging state structure, with the term Rus' eventually becoming synonymous with the region and its people. In contrast,
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6594-576: The Serpent's Walls , which stretched for 1,000 kilometers, safeguarding Kievan Rus' from external threats. Despite these accomplishments, Kievan Rus' entered a turbulent period of internal strife following Vladimir's death in 1015, as his sons fought for control. This era of internecine conflict lasted until 1019, when Yaroslav the Wise emerged victorious and assumed the throne. Ruling jointly with his brother Mstislav until 1036, Yaroslav presided over what
6751-547: The Third Statute of Lithuania in which it was stated that the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth is a federation of two countries – Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland where both countries have equal rights within it. In the 17th century and later it was also known as the 'Most Serene Commonwealth of Poland' ( Polish : Najjaśniejsza Rzeczpospolita Polska , Latin : Serenissima Res Publica Poloniae ),
6908-641: The Thirty Years' War ; this neutrality spared the country from the ravages of a political-religious conflict that devastated most of contemporary Europe. During this period, Poland was experiencing a cultural awakening and extensive developments in arts and architecture; the first Vasa king openly sponsored foreign painters, craftsmen, musicians and engineers, who settled in the Commonwealth at his request. Sigismund's eldest son, Ladislaus succeeded him as Władysław IV in 1632 with no major opposition. A skilled tactician, he invested in artillery , modernised
7065-594: The Ukrainians , including the Polans , Severians , Drevlians , White Croats , Dulebes , Ulichs , and Tivertsi . The migration of these tribes from Ukraine throughout the Balkans contributed to the foundation of several South Slavic nations, while northern migrations, reaching as far as Lake Ilmen , gave rise to the Ilmen Slavs , Krivichs , and Radimichs . The collapse of the Antes Union in 602, following
7222-499: The Union of Vilnius and Radom and the Union of Grodno . Lithuania's vulnerable position and rising tensions on its eastern flank persuaded the nobles to seek a closer bond with Poland. The idea of a federation presented better economic opportunities, whilst securing Lithuania's borders from hostile states to the north, south and east. Lesser Lithuanian nobility were eager to share the personal privileges and political liberties enjoyed by
7379-676: The Warsaw Corps of Cadets , the first state school in Poland for all classes of society. In 1773 the king and parliament formed the Commission of National Education , the first Ministry of Education in European history. In 1792, the king ordered the creation of Virtuti Militari , the oldest military decoration still in use. Stanisław August also admired the culture of ancient kingdoms, particularly Rome and Greece; Neoclassicism became
7536-472: The bourgeoisie , resulted in a fairly slow process of urbanization and thus a rather slow development of industries . The nobility could also regulate the price of grain for their advantage, thus acquiring much wealth. Some of the largest trade fairs in the Commonwealth were held at Lublin . Several ancient trading routes such as the Amber Road ( Pic. 4 ) extended across Poland–Lithuania, which
7693-418: The ' anti-Norman theory ' suggests that the term Rus' has indigenous Slavic or Baltic roots, developing independently of Scandinavian influence. Advocates of this theory assert that Eastern Slavic tribes already had established political and social frameworks before any contact with the Varangians, and that these tribes were naturally progressing toward political consolidation. According to this perspective,
7850-657: The 16th century. From Gdańsk, ships carried cargo to the major ports of the Low Countries , such as Antwerp and Amsterdam . The land routes, mostly to the German provinces of the Holy Roman Empire such as the cities of Leipzig and Nuremberg , were used for the export of live cattle (herds of around 50,000 head) hides , salt, tobacco, hemp and cotton from the Greater Poland region. In turn,
8007-531: The 370s with the arrival of the Huns , a nomadic group from Central Asia . The Huns were powerful warriors and ultimately brought the Ostrogoths under their control, leading to major shifts in Gothic society and governance. To the north of the Ostrogothic territory was the Kyiv culture , a Slavic archaeological culture that thrived from the 2nd to the 5th centuries AD. As the Huns expanded their influence across Eastern Europe, this culture also came under threat. Many Slavic and other local groups were affected by
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#17327724736598164-454: The 7th century, the territory of modern Ukraine was at the core of the state of the Bulgars , often referred to as Old Great Bulgaria . This state, with its capital at Phanagoria (located in what is now the Taman Peninsula), controlled a significant part of the northern Black Sea region. The Bulgars, a semi- nomadic people from Central Asia , were known for their sophisticated society, military organization, and far-reaching influence. By
8321-437: The 8th century, although Christianity , Islam , and other faiths were also practiced within their borders. The Khazars played a key role in the politics and economy of Eastern Europe and the Pontic-Caspian steppe . Their control over trade routes contributed to the establishment of the Pax Khazarica , a period of relative peace and stability that fostered safe long-distance trade. This stability allowed traders, including
8478-419: The Americas rendered the Commonwealth's supplies less crucial which resulted in financial losses. Augustus III spent little time in the Commonwealth, instead preferring the Saxon city of Dresden . He appointed Heinrich von Brühl as viceroy and minister of Polish affairs who in turn left the politics to Polish magnate families, such as the Czartoryskis and the Radziwiłłs . It was also during this period that
8635-461: The Commonwealth entirely ceased to exist only four years after its adoption. The economy of the Commonwealth was predominantly based on agricultural output and trade, though there was an abundance of artisan workshops and manufactories – notably paper mills , leather tanneries , ironworks , glassworks and brickyards . Some major cities were home to craftsmen, jewellers and clockmakers. The majority of industries and trades were concentrated in
8792-426: The Commonwealth imported wine, beer, fruit, exotic spices, luxury goods (e.g. tapestries , Pic. 5 ), furniture, fabrics as well as industrial products like steel and tools. The agricultural sector was dominated by feudalism based on the plantation system ( serfs ). Slavery was forbidden in Poland in the 15th century, and formally abolished in Lithuania in 1588, replaced by the second enserfment. Typically
8949-402: The Commonwealth of the Polish Kingdom, or the Commonwealth of Poland. Western Europeans often simplified the name to 'Poland' and in most past and modern sources it is referred to as the Kingdom of Poland, or just Poland. The terms 'Commonwealth of Poland' and 'Commonwealth of Two Nations' ( Polish : Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów , Latin : Res Publica Utriusque Nationis ) were used in
9106-472: The Commonwealth was our state is a republic under the presidency of the King . Chancellor Jan Zamoyski summed up this doctrine when he said that Rex regnat et non-gubernat ("The King reigns but [ lit. 'and'] does not govern"). The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a Senat and an elected king ( Pic. 1 ). The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in King Henry's Articles as well as in pacta conventa , negotiated at
9263-454: The Commonwealth's influence into the Baltics . Most importantly, Poland gained the Hanseatic city of Riga on the Baltic Sea . In 1587, Sigismund Vasa – the son of John III of Sweden and Catherine Jagiellon – won the election, but his claim was overtly contested by Maximilian III of Austria , who launched a military expedition to challenge the new king. His defeat in 1588 at the hands of Jan Zamoyski sealed Sigismund's right to
9420-517: The Early Slavs remain uncertain, though several theories suggest they may have originated near the Polesia region, a marshy area between modern-day Belarus and Ukraine . This period marks a transition from the Kyiv culture to the establishment of Slavic tribes across Eastern Europe. In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Antes Union (a tribal confederation) is generally believed to have been situated in present-day Ukraine. The Antes are considered ancestors of several Slavic tribes that would later form
9577-400: The East Slavic tribe of the Polans , inhabitants of the Middle Dnieper region, adopted the name Rus' for their land and were regarded as the most advanced among the East Slavs. Thus, they played a central role in forming a new tribal union centered around Kiev. From the first half of the 10th century, the first confirmed ruler of the Kievan state, as documented in foreign sources, was Igor
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#17327724736599734-498: The Grand Duchy of Lithuania ( Polish : posłow ziemskich Korony Polskiey, y Wielkiego Xięstwa Litewskiego ) were mentioned. The English term Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and German Polen–Litauen are seen as renderings of the 'Commonwealth of Two Nations' variant. Other informal names include the 'Republic of Nobles' ( Polish : Rzeczpospolita szlachecka ) and the 'First Commonwealth' ( Polish : I Rzeczpospolita ) or 'First Polish Republic' ( Polish : Pierwsza Rzeczpospolita ),
9891-687: The Great and Yaroslav the Wise . Kievan Rus' started to disintegrate in High Middle Ages , with Kievan monarchs competing and fighting over the throne in the core Rus' land, while experiencing Turkic raids from Southern Ukraine . In 13th century Kievan Rus' was destroyed by the Mongol invasion , leaving its core in Dnieper Ukraine absolutely devastated, but the Kingdom of Ruthenia (Galicia-Volhynia) succeeded Kievan Rus' under King Daniel . In 14th and 15th centuries, majority of Ukrainian territories became part of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia , while Galicia and Zakarpattia came under Polish and Hungarian rule. Lithuania kept
10048-446: The Greeks '. A significant section of this route ran along the Dnieper River , and Kiev was an important transshipment point, allowing control over trade along the Dnieper, Pripyat , and Desna rivers. The Middle Dnieper region began to serve as a political, cultural, and economic center for the East Slavic world. It eventually came to be known as the Rus' land in the narrow sense of this term. According to The Tale of Bygone Years ,
10205-428: The Hunnic invasions, resulting in changes in settlement patterns and local governance. In 454 AD, a decisive battle known as the Battle of Nedao marked a turning point. The Ostrogoths, along with other Germanic tribes, rebelled against the Huns and contributed to their defeat. Following this victory, the Ostrogoths were permitted by the Romans to settle in Pannonia (modern-day Hungary ), marking their departure from
10362-490: The Kingdom of Poland; the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was more rural and its economy was driven by farming and clothmaking. Mining developed in the south-west region of Poland which was rich in natural resources such as lead , coal, copper and salt. The currency used in Poland–Lithuania was the złoty (meaning "the golden") and its subunit, the grosz . Foreign coins in the form of ducats , thalers and shillings were widely accepted and exchanged. The city of Gdańsk had
10519-447: The Middle Paleolithic period (approximately 45,000–43,000 BC), provide significant evidence of Neanderthal activity. Molodova is known for its rich cultural layers attributed to the Mousterian tradition, showcasing the use of fire, mammoth bone processing, and possible construction of primitive shelters. These sites, located along the Dniester River , are particularly notable for their evidence of advanced behavior. One remarkable feature
10676-401: The Old , whom the Primary Chronicle identifies as a prince. Information in the Chronicle regarding governance during this period is considered relatively reliable. The princely retinue played a significant role in governance, accompanying rulers on campaigns and collecting tribute from subjugated local Slavic tribes . The collected tribute (such as furs , honey , hides , wax , and slaves )
10833-410: The Poles to take and occupy Moscow for the next two years. The disgraced Vasili IV of Russia was transported in a cage to Warsaw where he paid a tribute to Sigismund; Vasili was later murdered in captivity. The Commonwealth forces were eventually driven out on 4 November 1612 (celebrated as Unity Day in Russia). The war concluded with a truce that granted Poland–Lithuania extensive territories in
10990-427: The Polish szlachta , but did not accept Polish demands for the incorporation of the Grand Duchy into Poland as a mere province, with no sense of autonomy. Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł (Radvila Rudasis) and his cousin Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł , two prominent nobles and military commanders in Lithuania, vocally opposed the union. A fierce proponent of a single unified Commonwealth was Sigismund II Augustus , who
11147-523: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Muscovy. The Cossack Hetmanate 's autonomy was progressively eroded, culminating in its abolition by Catherine the Great in the late 18th century. Simultaneously, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's internal decline and external pressures from neighboring powers facilitated the partitions of Poland . These partitions allowed the Russian Empire to incorporate vast Ukrainian territories, including those previously under Polish control. Western Ukraine, however, came under
11304-608: The Scandinavian Rurik dynasty . According to the Chronicle, a representative of this dynasty, Oleg the Wise , allegedly came to Kiev from Novgorod in 882, killed Askold and Dir, and took control of the Kiev state. This narrative contains chronological errors—for example, it incorrectly dates the Constantinople raid to 867—and lacks corroboration from archaeological evidence, which suggests that Novgorod itself
11461-577: The Soviet Union. The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) fought for independence, though parts of Ukrainian society also collaborated with occupying forces. Post-war, Soviet control was reestablished, and Crimea was transferred to Ukraine in 1954. Ukraine became independent when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. This started a period of transition to a market economy , in which Ukraine suffered an eight-year recession . Subsequently however,
11618-734: The Swedish parliament, Charles crossed into the Commonwealth and vanquished the Saxe-Polish forces at the Battle of Kliszów in 1702 and at the Battle of Pułtusk in 1703. Charles then succeeded in dethroning Augustus and coercing the Sejm (parliament) to replace him with Stanisław in 1704. Augustus regained the throne in 1709, but his own death in 1733 sparked the War of the Polish Succession in which Stanisław once more attempted to seize
11775-426: The Ukrainian lands. Meanwhile, the Black Sea ’s northeastern shores were dotted with ancient Greek colonies , such as Tyras , Pontic Olbia , and Hermonassa . Established as early as the 6th century BC, these colonies developed into important cultural and trading centers under Roman and later Byzantine rule. These cities continued to thrive until the 6th century AD, when Byzantine influence began to wane. In
11932-706: The Wise's death, his sons divided the lands, which significantly accelerated political fragmentation. Although his succession plan aimed to prevent conflict, it ultimately sowed the seeds of feudal division. The Council of Liubech , convened by several princes, including Vladimir Monomakh , sought to settle disputes and clarify the inheritance of principalities. This agreement formalized Kievan Rus's division into regional hereditary principalities, thereby legalizing fragmentation. The adage "Let everyone hold his own" emerged, signifying that each prince would govern his own territory without interference from others. Vladimir Monomakh, who served as Grand Prince of Kiev from 1113 to 1125,
12089-518: The area of modern Ukraine , which they referred to as Oium . This region is linked to the archaeological Chernyakhov culture , known for its unique mix of local and Gothic influences. The Goths in this region soon divided into two main groups: the Visigoths (Western Goths) and the Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths). The Ostrogoths established a stronghold in Ukraine but faced significant changes in
12246-618: The army and fiercely defended the Commonwealth's eastern borders. Under the Treaty of Stuhmsdorf , he reclaimed regions of Livonia and the Baltics which were lost during the Polish-Swedish wars. Unlike his father who worshipped the Habsburgs, Władysław sought closer ties with France and married Marie Louise Gonzaga , daughter of Charles I Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua , in 1646. The Commonwealth's power and stability began waning after
12403-463: The ascendance of the szlachta noble class over other social classes and over the political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as
12560-480: The assembly in protest. Sigismund II used his authority as grand duke and enforced the Act of Union in contumaciam . In fear, the absent nobles promptly returned to the negotiations. The Union of Lublin was passed by the gathered deputies and signed by attendees on 1 July, thus creating the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Sigismund's death in 1572 was followed by an interregnum during which adjustments were made to
12717-568: The authority of the Grand Prince of Kiev was notably weakening. Regional princes, bolstered by local resources and armies, began to resist central control. Additionally, the vast geography and economic diversity of Rus' impeded unity, as various regions developed their own trade routes and systems. External threats from nomadic groups, such as the Pechenegs and Polovtsy ( Cumans ), further exacerbated regionalism, compelling local rulers to focus on defending their territories. After Yaroslav
12874-530: The behaviors and adaptive strategies of early members of the genus Homo , likely Homo erectus , as they expanded into the continent during the Lower Paleolithic period. The Neanderthal presence in Ukraine is well-documented through archaeological findings, particularly at the Molodova sites, which are located in the modern-day Chernivtsi region in southwestern Ukraine. These sites, dating to
13031-480: The conflict. However, after Oleg's death, he returned with a Varangian army. By 980, Vladimir had defeated Yaropolk and consolidated power, becoming the sole ruler of Kievan Rus'. During the reign of Vladimir the Great, Kievan Rus' expanded significantly, notably through the conquest and annexation of Red Ruthenia , Transcarpathia , and Korsun . These territorial gains made Kievan Rus' the largest state in Europe at
13188-542: The conservative magnates and Pope Innocent XII , who in turn voiced their endorsement. Imperial Russia and Habsburg Austria also contributed by financing Frederick, whose election took place in June 1697. Many questioned the legality of his elevation to the throne; it was speculated that the Prince of Conti had received more votes and was the rightful heir. Frederick hurried with his armies to Poland to quell any opposition. He
13345-455: The constitution as the "contagion of democratic ideas". Meanwhile, Prussia and Austria used it as a pretext for further territorial expansion. Prussian minister Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg called the constitution "a blow to the Prussian monarchy", fearing that a strengthened Poland would once again dominate Prussia. In the end, the 3 May Constitution was never fully implemented, and
13502-408: The constitutional system; these adjustments significantly increased the power of the Polish nobility and established a truly elective monarchy . On 11 May 1573, Henry de Valois , son of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici , was proclaimed King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in the first royal election outside Warsaw . Approximately 40,000 nobles cast a vote in what was to become
13659-584: The country's affairs. Upon the death of a king, several royal houses actively intruded in the hope of securing votes for their desired candidates. The practice was common and apparent, and the selection was often the result of hefty bribes directed at corrupt nobles. Louis XIV of France heavily invested in François Louis, Prince of Conti , in opposition to James Louis Sobieski , Maximilian Emanuel of Bavaria and Frederick Augustus of Saxony . The latter's conversion from Lutheranism to Catholicism awed
13816-593: The country. Russia feared the revolutionary implications of the 3 May Constitution's political reforms and the prospect of the Commonwealth regaining its position as a European power. Catherine the Great regarded the May constitution as fatal to her influence and declared the Polish constitution Jacobinical . Grigori Aleksandrovich Potemkin drafted the act for the Targowica Confederation , referring to
13973-615: The creation of the Cossack Hetmanate , a semi-autonomous polity in central and eastern Ukraine. In 1654, the Cossack Hetmanate allied with the Tsardom of Moscow through the Treaty of Pereyaslav . The nature of this alliance has been widely debated by historians. Some argue that it established a protectorate relationship, with Muscovy offering military support in exchange for loyalty, while others believe it symbolized
14130-542: The crown, this time with the support of France. The Pacification Sejm culminated in Augustus III succeeding his father. The relative peace and inactivity that followed only weakened Poland's reputation on the world stage. Aleksander Brückner noted that Polish customs and traditions were abandoned in favour of everything foreign, and neighbouring states continued to exploit Poland to their advantage. Moreover, Western Europe's increasing exploitation of resources in
14287-418: The daughter of English King Harold II . As an educated ruler, Monomakh authored The Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh , offering insights on governance, morality, and leadership. His reign is often regarded as one of the last periods of unity before Rus' descended further into division. Monomakh's son, Mstislav the Great , preserved some unity during his reign from 1125 to 1132. However, following his death,
14444-472: The dominant form of architectural and cultural expression. Politically, however, the vast Commonwealth was in steady decline and by 1768, it started to be considered by Russians as a protectorate of the Russian Empire despite the fact that it was still an independent state. A majority of control over Poland was central to Catherine's diplomatic and military strategies. Attempts at reform, such as
14601-401: The dominant partner in the union. Polonization of nobles was generally voluntary, but state efforts at religious conversion were sometimes resisted. After a long period of prosperity, the Commonwealth entered a period of protracted political, military, and economic decline. Its growing weakness led to its partitioning among its neighbours, Austria , Prussia , and Russia , during
14758-595: The early 6th century AD, the Bosporan Kingdom on the Crimean Peninsula came under the rule of a Hunnic king named Gordas . Gordas maintained friendly relations with the Byzantine emperor Justinian I , but this ended when Gordas was killed in a local revolt around 527 AD. Justinian seized the opportunity to intervene, occupying the Bosporan Kingdom and further extending Byzantine influence over
14915-458: The east and marked its largest territorial expansion. At least five million Russians died between 1598 and 1613, the result of continuous conflict, famine and Sigismund's invasion. The Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21) forced Poland to withdraw from Moldavia in southeastern Europe, but Sigismund's victory over the Turks at Khotyn diminished the supremacy of the Sultanate and eventually led to
15072-608: The eastern territories became the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (part of the USSR ), while western Ukraine was absorbed by Poland, Romania , and Czechoslovakia . Under Soviet rule, initial policies of Ukrainianization gave way to oppressive Russification . The Holodomor famine of 1932–1933, a man-made disaster, caused the deaths of 4-5 millions Ukrainians. During World War II , Ukraine endured brutal occupations by both Nazi Germany and
15229-743: The economy experienced a high increase in GDP growth until it plunged during the Great Recession . This period was marked by economic challenges, the rise of nationalism , and growing tensions with Russian Federation . In 2013, the Euromaidan protests began in response to President Viktor Yanukovych ’s rejection of an EU association agreement . The Revolution of Dignity followed, leading to Yanukovych’s ousting. Russia annexed Crimea in 2014 and supported separatist movements in Donbas , initiating
15386-498: The end of the Jagiellonian dynasty and introduced an elective monarchy , whereupon members of domestic noble families or external dynasties were elected to the throne for life. The Commonwealth's parliamentary system of government and elective monarchy , called the Golden Liberty , was an early example of constitutional monarchy . The General Sejm , the bicameral Parliament , held legislative power; its lower house
15543-683: The end of the 7th century, the Bulgars faced increasing pressure from neighboring tribes and empires. Most of the Bulgar tribes migrated in various directions—some settled in the Balkans , where they eventually established the First Bulgarian Empire . Other groups moved towards the Volga region, forming Volga Bulgaria , which became a prominent center of trade and culture. The remaining parts of Old Great Bulgaria were eventually absorbed by
15700-502: The erstwhile Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Polish–Lithuanian federal state with a hereditary monarchy and abolished many of the deleterious features of the old system. The new constitution: These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors, which had been content to leave the Commonwealth alone as a weak buffer state, but reacted strongly to attempts by king Stanisław August Poniatowski and other reformers to strengthen
15857-469: The establishment of the medieval state of Kievan Rus' . In Dnieper Ukraine , the tribe of Polans served as the organizers of Kievan Rus' state, beginning to name themself and their land Rus' in 9th century, a word that probably derived from Varangians , who laid the foundation of the state itself. It emerged as one of the most powerful and advanced nations of Europe at that time, with Kyiv meeting its golden age and Christianization under Vladimir
16014-720: The genesis of the later Yamna culture . The Yamna culture (ca. 3300–2600 BC), also known as the Pit Grave culture, was a dominant force in the early Bronze Age across the Pontic-Caspian steppe. This culture is often linked with the spread of Indo-European languages and reflects a shift toward a more mobile, pastoralist lifestyle. The Yamna culture is characterized by its burial mounds (kurgans), often accompanied by grave goods such as weapons , ornaments , and animal sacrifices . The economy relied heavily on livestock, including sheep , cattle , and horses , which supported
16171-460: The king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of senators . The Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the " Golden Liberty " ( Latin : Aurea Libertas or Polish : Złota Wolność ,
16328-669: The late 18th century. Shortly before its demise, the Commonwealth adopted a major reform effort and enacted the 3 May Constitution , which was the first codified constitution in modern European history and the second in modern world history after the United States Constitution . The official name of the state was the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ( Polish : Królestwo Polskie i Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie , Lithuanian : Lenkijos Karalystė ir Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė , Latin : Regnum Poloniae Magnusque Ducatus Lithuaniae ). The Latin term
16485-572: The latter relatively common in historiography to distinguish it from the Second Polish Republic . In Lithuania, the state is referred to as 'Republic of Both Nations' ( Lithuanian : Abiejų Tautų Respublika ). The Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania underwent an alternating series of wars and alliances across the 13th and 14th centuries. The relations between the two states differed at times as each strived and competed for political, economic or military dominance of
16642-474: The local Ruthenian traditions, and was gradually influenced by Ruthenian language , law and culture , until Lithuania itself came under Polish influence , following the Union of Krewo and Union of Lublin , resulting in two countries merging into Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth , leaving Ukrainian lands under the dominance of Polish crown . Meanwhile Southern Ukraine was dominated by Golden Horde and then Crimean Khanate , which came under protection of
16799-661: The mass baptism of the people of Kiev in the Pochaina River and built the first stone church in Kievan Rus' — Church of the Tithes . He also introduced the Charter on Church Courts and Tithes , thereby securing a strong relationship between the church and state. Unlike the earlier attempts of his grandmother, Princess Olga, Vladimir's reforms had a lasting impact, deeply influencing the religious and cultural development of
16956-538: The murder of Osman II . This secured the Turkish frontier for the duration of Sigismund's rule. In spite of the victories in the Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629) , the exhausted Commonwealth army signed the Treaty of Altmark which ceded much of Livonia to Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus . At the same time, the country's powerful parliament was dominated by nobles ( Pic. 2 ) who were reluctant to get involved in
17113-470: The name Rus' could be linked to the Ros River , a historically significant waterway flowing through present-day Ukraine , which was home to various Slavic communities. In this view, Rus' may have referred to a collective identity tied to a specific geographic region or a union of native tribes, rather than to foreign invaders or rulers. The first reliable mention of the Rus' dates back to the year 839 in
17270-544: The new monarch. The nobles simultaneously elected Stephen Báthory as co-regent, who ruled jure uxoris . Báthory's election proved controversial – Lithuania and Ducal Prussia initially refused to recognise the Transylvanian as their ruler. Piotr Zborowski supported Bathory as he wanted to promote a princely or ducal candidate. He also endorsed the Duke of Ferrara . The wealthy port city of Gdańsk (Danzig) staged
17427-575: The nobility remained apprehensive believing that William would not secure domestic interests. Instead, they turned to Jogaila , the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Jogaila was a lifelong pagan and vowed to adopt Catholicism upon marriage by signing the Union of Krewo on 14 August 1385. The Act imposed Christianity in Lithuania and transformed Poland into a diarchy , a kingdom ruled over by two sovereigns; their descendants and successive monarchs held
17584-712: The notable events in Scythian history was the campaign of Darius the Great in 513 BC. The Achaemenid Persian king led an expedition aimed at subjugating the Scythians. While the Scythians employed their signature scorched-earth and guerrilla tactics to evade outright defeat, the campaign resulted in the Persian domination of several Thracian peoples and regions along the Black Sea ’s northern coast. These territories, encompassing parts of modern-day Bulgaria , Romania , Ukraine , and southern Russia , were incorporated into
17741-512: The ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War . This escalated on 24 February 2022, with Russia’s full-scale invasion , marking a critical phase in Ukraine’s fight for sovereignty and territorial integrity. The discovery of 1.4-million-year-old stone tools in Korolevo , located in western Ukraine, marks one of the earliest securely dated presences of hominins in Europe . These tools offer crucial insights into
17898-479: The principality fractured. The division of lands among Monomakh's sons and other relatives resulted in multiple competing power centers. The process of feudal fragmentation marked a turning point in the history of Rus', culminating in its eventual decline and the rise of smaller, more independent states. These would later evolve into the medieval powers of the Kingdom of Ruthenia , the Principality of Polotsk ,
18055-442: The privilege of minting its own coinage. In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko began issuing the first Polish banknotes. The country played a significant role in the supply of Western Europe by the export of grain (rye), cattle (oxen), furs, timber, linen , cannabis , ash , tar , carminic acid and amber . Cereals, cattle and fur amounted to nearly 90% of the country's exports to European markets by overland and maritime trade in
18212-552: The refurbishment of the Warsaw Royal Castle into a modern palatial residence. Countless landmarks and monuments in the city bear a name referencing the Saxon kings, notably Saxon Garden , Saxon Axis and the former Saxon Palace . The period saw the development of urban planning, street allocation, hospitals, schools ( Collegium Nobilium ), public parks and libraries ( Załuski Library ). First manufactories producing on
18369-739: The region witnessed the rise and interaction of diverse peoples and cultures. Following earlier Bronze Age societies, the Dacians , alongside nomadic groups such as the Cimmerians (associated with the Novocherkassk archaeological culture ), Scythians , and Sarmatians , dominated the landscape. Among these, the Scythians established a powerful kingdom that flourished between 750 and 250 BC, characterized by their mastery of mounted warfare and trade networks spanning vast territories. One of
18526-420: The region. Vladimir's rule also saw administrative, monetary, and military reforms. He appointed governors and entrusted his sons with ruling major cities, also minted his own gold (Zlatnik) and silver (Srebrenik) coins, and granted borderlands to loyal vassals in exchange for military defense. To protect the realm, Vladimir oversaw the construction of an extensive system of defensive fortifications, known as
18683-449: The region. In turn, Poland had remained a staunch ally of its southern neighbour, Hungary . The last Polish monarch from the native Piast dynasty, Casimir the Great , died on 5 November 1370 without fathering a legitimate male heir. Consequently, the crown passed onto his Hungarian nephew, Louis of Anjou , who ruled the Kingdom of Hungary in a personal union with Poland . A fundamental step in developing extensive ties with Lithuania
18840-613: The region. However, even into the 12th century, Byzantine emperors continued to claim dominion over the Crimean region, known as the Cimmerian Bosporus . Following the power vacuum left by the fall of Hunnic and Gothic dominance, the Early Slavs began to expand over much of the territory that is now Ukraine during the 5th century, continuing their migration into the Balkans in the 6th century. The exact origins of
18997-567: The river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber. Grodno become an important site after formation of a customs post at Augustów in 1569, which became a checkpoint for merchants travelling to the Crown lands from the Grand Duchy. Urban population of the Commonwealth was low compared to Western Europe. Exact numbers depend on calculation methods. According to one source,
19154-536: The rule of the Habsburg Monarchy . This division set the stage for the different historical trajectories of Ukrainian lands under Russian and Austrian influence. The 20th century began with a renewed struggle for Ukrainian statehood. Following the collapse of empires during World War I , the Ukrainian People’s Republic (UPR) was proclaimed in 1917 with Kyiv as its capital. Meanwhile, in
19311-465: The same geographic area. It is distinguished by its unique burial practices, where bodies were interred in specially carved niches within grave pits. They further advanced bronze metallurgy, producing a variety of tools, weapons, and ornaments. The Catacomb culture maintained many traditions of the Yamna culture while also interacting with neighboring groups to the west and south. During the Iron Age ,
19468-605: The subdued Slavs, which led to a rebellion by the Drevlians , who killed him in 945. Following Igor's death in 945, his widow, Princess Olga , assumed the role of regent for their young son, Sviatoslav , who was still too young to rule. Olga is best known for her calculated and fierce retaliation against the Drevlians, a campaign that culminated in the annexation of their lands into the expanding Kievan Rus'. Olga also implemented significant reforms, particularly by restructuring
19625-537: The subordination of the Hetmanate to the Tsar . The ambiguity of the treaty's terms and differing interpretations contributed to tensions over the following decades. Over time, the relationship between the Cossack Hetmanate and Muscovy evolved, with Muscovy increasingly asserting dominance. This process intensified in the late 17th and 18th centuries, especially after the Treaty of Andrusovo , which divided Ukraine between
19782-747: The territory among themselves, leading to further internecine conflicts and the eventual decline of centralized power. The feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus' began in the late 11th century, driven by a complex interplay of internal and external factors. One significant factor was the rotational succession system, allowing power to pass among male relatives instead of directly from father to son. This system often sparked conflicts, as competing claims to power emerged. With princes often granted specific territories, autonomous principalities began to emerge clearly. Regional cities such as Chernihiv , Polotsk , and Novgorod gained power and asserted their independence, with local elites increasing their influence. By this time,
19939-779: The throne of Poland and Sweden. Sigismund's long reign marked an end to the Polish Golden Age and the beginning of the Silver Age. A devout Catholic, he hoped to restore absolutism and imposed Roman Catholicism during the height of the Counter-Reformation . His intolerance towards the Protestants in Sweden sparked a war of independence , which ended the Polish–Swedish union . As a consequence, he
20096-573: The throne, Henry signed the contractual agreement known as the Pacta conventa and approbated the Henrician Articles . The Act stated the fundamental principles of governance and constitutional law in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In June 1574, Henry abandoned Poland and headed back to claim the French crown following the death of his brother and predecessor, Charles IX . The throne
20253-490: The time of his election. The monarch's power was limited in favour of a sizable noble class. Each new king had to pledge to uphold the Henrician Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of religious tolerance ). Over time, the Henrician Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point onwards,
20410-535: The time, covering over 800,000 square kilometers and boasting a population of more than 5 million. The socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus' was similar to that of other European states of the period, characterized by a natural economy, communal land ownership, and reliance on slash-and-burn agriculture, and animal husbandry. Vladimir reformed local governance by abolishing the traditional tribal autonomies and installing his own appointed governors, further centralizing his authority. Under his rule, Kiev emerged as one of
20567-421: The time, with populations reaching up to 10,000 inhabitants. They built concentric layouts of houses, often using clay and wood , demonstrating advanced planning. They are renowned for their intricate painted ceramics , featuring geometric and symbolic designs in red, black, and white. Their economy was primarily agrarian, complemented by animal husbandry and small-scale trade. Archaeological findings suggest
20724-493: The title of Grand Prince of Kiev and worked to consolidate power across the vast territory, leading to conflicts with his brothers. Oleg , Sviatoslav's second son, governed the Drevlian lands, and rivalry between him and Yaropolk escalated into open warfare. During one of their clashes around 977, Oleg was killed, further intensifying the conflict. Initially, Vladimir , Sviatoslav's youngest son, fled to avoid being entangled in
20881-468: The titles of king and grand duke respectively. The ultimate clause dictated that Lithuania was to be merged in perpetuity ( perpetuo applicare ) with the Polish Kingdom; however, this did not take effect until 1569. Jogaila was crowned as Władysław II Jagiełło at Wawel Cathedral on 4 March 1386. Several minor agreements were struck before unification, notably the Union of Kraków and Vilnius ,
21038-645: The tribute collection system known as poliudie . This new system made revenue collection more systematic and centralized, reducing the likelihood of rebellion by ensuring a more balanced distribution of power. In a landmark decision, Olga became the first ruler of Kievan Rus' to embrace Christianity around 957 during a diplomatic visit to Constantinople. However, despite her conversion, the state under her rule remained predominantly pagan, with Christianity gaining influence only later under her descendants. When Sviatoslav assumed rule over Kievan Rus', he launched an ambitious military expansion. His most notable achievement
21195-512: The urban population of the Commonwealth was about 20% of the total in the 17th century, compared to approximately 50% in the Netherlands and Italy ( Pic. 7 ). Another source suggests much lower figures: 4–8% urban population in Poland, 34–39% in the Netherlands and 22–23% in Italy. The Commonwealth's preoccupation with agriculture, coupled with the nobles' privileged position when compared to
21352-487: The vast Achaemenid sphere of influence, though direct control remained tenuous. Meanwhile, Greek colonization left a lasting imprint on the region. Beginning in the 7th or 6th century BC during the Archaic period , Greek settlers established colonies along the northern Black Sea coast , including Crimea and parts of modern Ukraine. These colonies, such as Chersonesus and Olbia , served as hubs of trade, cultural exchange, and Hellenic influence. The Bosporan Kingdom ,
21509-426: The very heart of the Byzantine Empire , quickly reaching the city’s outskirts. According to accounts from Greek eyewitnesses, the Rus' not only managed to pillage the suburbs of Constantinople but also instilled widespread fear among its residents. The Byzantine defenses were unprepared, allowing the Rus' to withdraw without significant resistance. The earliest source about the history of the Middle Dnieper region
21666-425: The wars, and the Commonwealth proved unable to improve its transport infrastructure or its agricultural practices. Serfs in the region were increasingly tempted to flee. The Commonwealth's major attempts at countering this problem and improving productivity consisted of increasing serfs' workload and further restricting their freedoms in a process known as export-led serfdom. The owner of a folwark usually signed
21823-415: The wealthiest commercial centers in Europe during the 10th and 11th centuries, benefiting from its strategic location on trade routes and its growing political influence. Initially, Vladimir supported the worship of Slavic deities such as Perun . However, in 988, he made a historic decision to convert Kievan Rus' to Christianity , adopting Eastern Orthodoxy from the Byzantine Empire . He personally led
21980-435: The western territories, the West Ukrainian People’s Republic (WUPR) was established in 1918, centered in Lviv . Both republics sought to unite, forming the Unification Act (Act Zluky) on 22 January 1919. However, their independence was short-lived. The UPR faced constant military conflict with Bolshevik forces, Poland , and White Army factions. By 1921, following the Soviet-Ukrainian War , Ukrainian lands were divided:
22137-428: The years following, Polish settlers, nobles, Catholics and Jews became the victims of retaliation massacres instigated by the Cossacks in their dominions. The other blow to the Commonwealth was a Swedish invasion in 1655, known as the Deluge , which was supported by troops of Transylvanian Duke George II Rákóczi and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg . Under the Treaty of Bromberg in 1657, Catholic Poland
22294-475: Was a succession crisis arising in the 1380s. Louis died on 10 September 1382 and, like his uncle, did not produce a son to succeed him. His two daughters, Mary and Jadwiga (Hedwig), held claims to the vast dual realm. The Polish lords rejected Mary in favour of her younger sister Jadwiga, partly due to Mary's association with Sigismund of Luxembourg . The future queen regnant was betrothed to young William Habsburg, Duke of Austria , but certain factions of
22451-416: Was among the largest and most populated countries of 16th- to 17th-century Europe. At its peak in the early 17th century, the Commonwealth spanned nearly 1,000,000 km (390,000 sq mi) and supported a multi-ethnic population of approximately 12 million as of 1618. The official languages of the Commonwealth were Polish and Latin , with Catholicism as the state religion. The Commonwealth
22608-419: Was childless and ailing. According to historians, it was his active involvement which hastened the process and made the union possible. A parliament ( sejm ) convened on 10 January 1569 in the city of Lublin , attended by envoys from both nations. It was agreed that the merger will take place the same year and both parliaments will be fused into a joint assembly. No independent parliamentary convocation or diet
22765-481: Was crowned as Augustus II in September and Conti's brief military engagement near Gdańsk in November of the same year proved fruitless. The House of Wettin ruled Poland–Lithuania and Saxony simultaneously, dividing power between the two states. In spite of his controversial means of attaining power, Augustus II lavishly spent on the arts and left an extensive cultural and architectural ( Baroque ) legacy in both countries. In Poland, he expanded Wilanów and facilitated
22922-422: Was deposed in Sweden by his uncle Charles IX Vasa . In Poland, the Zebrzydowski rebellion was brutally suppressed. Sigismund III then initiated a policy of expansionism , and invaded Russia in 1609 when that country was plagued by a civil war known as the Time of Troubles . In July 1610, the outnumbered Polish force comprising winged hussars defeated the Russians at the Battle of Klushino , which enabled
23079-531: Was deposed, and the kingdom was directly administered by Rome . Following Nero’s rule, the Bosporan Kingdom was restored as a Roman client state , retaining local governance but under Roman military oversight. This arrangement ensured the region remained within Rome’s economic and strategic sphere during the middle of the 1st century AD. In the 3rd century AD, the Goths , a Germanic people originally from Scandinavia , began migrating toward Eastern Europe . By approximately 250 to 375 AD, they had settled in
23236-451: Was elected by all szlachta (some 15% of the population). The king and his government were bound by a constitutional statute, the Henrician Articles , which tightly circumscribed royal authority. The country also exhibited unusual levels of ethnic diversity and great religious tolerance by European standards, guaranteed by the Warsaw Confederation Act of 1573 , though the practical degree of religious freedom varied. Poland acted as
23393-404: Was especially visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from the Swedish House of Vasa , whose politics brought the Commonwealth into conflict with Sweden, culminating in the war known as the Deluge (1655), one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline. The Zebrzydowski Rebellion (1606–1607) marked
23550-485: Was established as a single entity by the Union of Lublin on 1 July 1569. The two nations had previously been in a personal union since the Krewo Agreement of 1385 and the subsequent marriage of Queen Jadwiga of Poland to Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania , who was crowned jure uxoris King of Poland. Their descendant, Sigismund II Augustus , enforced the merger to strengthen frontiers of his dominion and maintain unity as he remained childless. His death in 1572 marked
23707-411: Was forced to renounce its suzerainty over Protestant Prussia ; in 1701 the once-insignificant duchy was transformed into the Kingdom of Prussia , which became a major European power in the 18th century and proved to be Poland's most enduring foe. In the late 17th century, the king of the weakened Commonwealth, John III Sobieski , allied with Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I to deal crushing defeats to
23864-402: Was henceforth permitted. Subjects of the Polish Crown were no longer restricted in purchasing land on Lithuanian territory and a single currency was established. Whilst the military remained separate, a unified foreign policy meant that Lithuanian troops were obliged to contribute during a conflict not to their advantage. As a result, several Lithuanian magnates deplored the accords and left
24021-421: Was mainly exported to Byzantium, with the proceeds used to purchase weapons , luxury goods , and wine —constituting the core of imports. When trade conditions no longer met the prince's expectations, he led an unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople in 941, which eventually resulted in a new Rus-Byzantine trade treaty in 944. The Tale of Bygone Years recounts Igor's attempt to levy additional tribute from
24178-410: Was only established in the 10th century. Therefore, modern historians view the Chronicle's account of the 9th century as largely speculative and likely a later construction by the Chronicle's author. Scholars associate the state-building processes in the Middle Dnieper region with the emergence of the well-known trade route from Scandinavia to Constantinople, known as the ' Route from the Varangians to
24335-430: Was subsequently declared vacant. The interregnum concluded on 12 December 1575 when primate Jakub Uchański declared Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor , as the next king. The decision was condemned by the anti-Habsburg coalition, which demanded a "native" candidate, known as "Piasts". As a compromise, on 13 December 1575 Anna Jagiellon – sister of Sigismund Augustus and a member of the Jagiellonian dynasty – became
24492-414: Was the decisive defeat of the Khazar Khaganate , a once-dominant regional power that had controlled key trade routes for centuries. The fall of the Khazars opened opportunities for Kievan Rus' to extend its influence into the Caucasus and beyond. In addition to his campaigns in the east, Sviatoslav waged numerous battles against the Byzantine Empire , seeking to establish Kievan Rus' as a formidable power in
24649-487: Was usually employed in international treaties and diplomacy. By concluding the 1569 Union of Lublin the Grand Duchy of Lithuania remained a separate state from the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland with its own name, laws, and territory. The name 'Commonwealth of Two Nations' ( Polish : Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów ) came into force during the reign of Stephen Báthory (since 1582, and was officially used until 1795). On 28 January 1588, Sigismund III Vasa has confirmed
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