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72-542: It is also known as Hiŋháŋ Káǧa ('owl-maker' in Lakota ) and Heȟáka Sápa ('elk black'). The U.S. Board on Geographic Names , which has jurisdiction in federal lands, officially changed the mountain's name from Harney Peak to Black Elk Peak on August 11, 2016, honoring Black Elk , the noted Lakota Sioux medicine man and Catholic Servant of God for whom the Wilderness Area is named. In September 2016,

144-518: A fire lookout tower in 1911, with a wood crate placed at the summit for a seat. In 1920, a 12'x12' wood structure was built, and it was expanded to 16'x16' the following year. The federal Civilian Conservation Corps enlisted local men and completed construction of a stone fire tower in 1938 , one of numerous projects in the state during the Great Depression . The Harney Peak fire tower was last staffed in 1967. A United States post office

216-402: A grizzly bear , forever claiming this to be his greatest achievement as a hunter. Throughout the expedition, civilian experts who accompanied the expedition located traces of gold in the rivers. The first discovery goes uncredited, however an undated diary entry by William McKay, a miner accompanying the expedition, notes that while camping at the newly named Custer Park, "In the evening I took

288-608: A Yankton Dakota ethnologist, linguist, and novelist who worked extensively with the Dakota and Lakota peoples, documenting their languages and cultures. She collaborated with linguists such as Franz Boas and Edward Sapir to create written materials for Lakota, including dictionaries and grammars. Another key figure was Albert White Hat Sr. , who taught at and later became the chair of the Lakota language program at his alma mater, Sinte Gleska University at Mission, South Dakota, one of

360-592: A delay in voicing ([pʰ tʰ kʰ]) , and those with velar friction ([pˣ tˣ kˣ]) , which occur before /a/ , /ã/ , /o/ , /ĩ/ , and /ũ/ (thus, lakhóta , /laˈkʰota/ is phonetically [laˈkˣota] ). For some speakers, there is a phonemic distinction between the two, and both occur before /e/ . No such variation occurs for the affricate /tʃʰ/. Some orthographies mark this distinction; others do not. The uvular fricatives /χ/ and /ʁ/ are commonly spelled ⟨ȟ⟩ and ⟨ǧ⟩ . All monomorphemic words have one vowel which carries primary stress and has

432-500: A fluent speaker to use. In 2013 Lakota teachers at Red Cloud Indian School on Pine Ridge Indian Reservation discussed their use of orthography for their K–12 students as well as adult learners. The orthography used at Red Cloud "is meant to be more phonetic than other orthographies... That means there are usually more 'H's than other versions. While many orthographies use tipi ... Red Cloud spells it thípi." He continues, "the orthography also makes heavy use of diacritical marks... that

504-516: A grammatical sentence that contains only a verb. (interjection) (conjunction) (adverb(s)) (nominal) (nominal) (nominal) (adverb(s)) verb (enclitic(s)) (conjunction) When interjections are used, they begin the sentence or end it. A small number of interjections are used only by one gender, for instance the interjection expressing disbelief is ečéš for women but hóȟ for men; for calling attention women say máŋ while men use wáŋ . Most interjections, however, are used by both genders. It

576-481: A higher tone than all other vowels in the word. This is generally the vowel of the second syllable of the word, but often the first syllable can be stressed, and occasionally other syllables as well. Stress is generally indicated with an acute accent: ⟨á⟩ , etc. Compound words will have stressed vowels in each component; proper spelling will write compounds with a hyphen. Thus máza-ská , literally "metal-white", i.e. "silver; money" has two stressed vowels,

648-810: A mass gold rush which in turn antagonised the Sioux Indians who had been promised protection of their sacred land through Treaties made by the US government , and who were later to kill Custer at the Battle of the Little Big Horn in the Great Sioux War of 1876–1877 between themselves and the United States. The entire expedition was photographed by William H. Illingworth , an English photographer who accompanied Custer after selection by

720-545: A number of Native American scouts led by Bloody Knife and Lean Bear. At the time, the Black Hills were relatively unknown, with few white expeditions ever returning from them The commander of Custer's engineering corps, Captain Hardy, assured him that he had heard of them and had them marked on his maps, but had never entered them during his earlier expeditions. En route to the Black Hills, Custer's party managed to locate

792-477: A pan, pick and shovel, and went out prospecting. The first panful was taken from the gravel and sand obtained in the bed of the creek; and on washing was found to contain from one and a half to two cents, which was the first gold found in the Black Hills." A significant discovery was made on August 1 when tests of the soil by the French Creek determined that a miner could earn as much as $ 150 per day mining in

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864-428: A property. (In English, such descriptions are usually made with adjectives .) Verbs are inflected for first-, second- or third person , and for singular, dual or plural grammatical number . There are two paradigms for verb inflection . One set of morphemes indicates the person and number of the subject of active verbs. The other set of morphemes agrees with the object of transitive action verbs or

936-449: A team of professional surveyors obtained precise GNSS data over the course of two days and found the highest natural rock to be at 7,231.32 feet (2,204.11 m) NAVD88 and a nearby secondary peak located approximately 300 feet south of the lookout tower and unofficially named "McGillicuddy's Peak", to be slightly lower at 7,229.41 feet (2,203.52 m) NAVD88. This is believed to be the only precise survey that has been made to determine

1008-492: Is automatically inserted between certain consonants, e.g. into the pairs ⟨gl⟩ , ⟨bl⟩ and ⟨gm⟩ . So the clan name written phonemically as ⟨Oglala⟩ has become the place name Ogallala . The voiced uvular fricative /ʁ/ becomes a uvular trill ( [ʀ] ) before /i/ and in fast speech it is often realized as a voiced velar fricative [ɣ] . The voiceless aspirated plosives have two allophonic variants each: those with

1080-400: Is postpositional , with adpositions occurring after the head nouns: mas'óphiye él , "at the store" (literally 'store at'); thípi=kiŋ ókšaŋ , "around the house" (literally 'house=the around') (Rood and Taylor 1996). Rood and Taylor (1996) suggest the following template for basic word order. Items in parentheses are optional; only the verb is required. It is therefore possible to produce

1152-524: Is common for a sentence to begin with a conjunction. Both čhaŋké and yuŋkȟáŋ can be translated as and ; k’éyaš is similar to English but . Each of these conjunctions joins clauses. In addition, the conjunction na joins nouns or phrases. Lakota uses postpositions , which are similar to English prepositions, but follow their noun complement. Adverbs or postpositional phrases can describe manner, location, or reason. There are also interrogative adverbs, which are used to form questions. To

1224-478: Is marked with an acute accent : ⟨á, é, í, ó, ú, áŋ, íŋ, úŋ⟩ on stressed vowels (which receive a higher tone than non-stressed ones) The following consonants approximate their IPA values: ⟨b, g, h, k, l, m, n, ŋ, p, s, t, w, z⟩ . ⟨Y⟩ has its English value of /j/ . An apostrophe, ⟨'⟩ , is used for the glottal stop . A caron is used for sounds, other than /ŋ/ , which are not written with Latin letters in

1296-398: Is more appropriate. They are both used in matters of time and space. As mentioned above, nominals are optional in Lakota, but when nouns appear the basic word order is subject–object–verb. Pronouns are not common, but may be used contrastively or emphatically. Lakota has four articles : waŋ is indefinite, similar to English a or an , and kiŋ is definite, similar to English

1368-440: Is not popular among some educators and academics". Delphine Red Shirt, an Oglala Lakota tribal member and a lecturer on languages at Stanford University , disagrees and prefers a Lakota orthography without diacritical marks. "I'm very against any orthography that requires a special keyboard to communicate," she said. First language speaker and veteran language teacher at Red Cloud, the late Philomine Lakota, had similar concerns with

1440-484: Is often written without diacritics . Besides failing to mark stress, this also results in the confusion of numerous consonants: /s/ and /ʃ/ are both written ⟨s⟩ , /h/ and /χ/ are both written ⟨h⟩ , and the aspirate stops are written like the unaspirates, as ⟨p, t, c, k⟩ . All digraphs (i.e. characters created by two letters, such as kh, kȟ, k') are treated as groups of individual letters in alphabetization. Thus for example

1512-811: Is spent teaching and speaking the language. On May 3, 2022, the Tribal Council of the Standing Rock Sioux , in a near-unanimous vote, banished the Lakota Language Consortium (and specifically, LLC linguist Jan Ullrich and co-founder Wilhelm Meya) from ever again setting foot on the reservation. The council's decision was based on the LLC's history with not only the Standing Rock community, but also with at least three other communities that also voiced concerns about Meya and

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1584-605: The Anpao Kin ("Daybreak") circulated from 1878 by the Protestant Episcopal Church in Niobrara Mission , Nebraska until its move to Mission, South Dakota in 1908 continuing until its closure in 1937. The print alongside its Dakota counterpart Iapi Oaye ("The Word Carrier") played an important role in documenting the enlistment and affairs including obituaries of Native Sioux soldiers into

1656-729: The Battle of Blue Water Creek in Garden County, Nebraska . Harney later commanded the United States military in the Black Hills area in the late 1870s. The Lakota had tried to get the name of the peak changed for 50 years, as Harney had massacred their people. In 2014 the Sioux renewed their effort to get the name changed, in an effort led by Basil Brave Heart of the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation . A Korean War veteran, he felt that Harney had not honored

1728-639: The Dakota language , especially Western Dakota , and is one of the three major varieties of the Sioux language . Speakers of the Lakota language make up one of the largest Native American language speech communities in the United States , with approximately 2,000 speakers, who live mostly in the northern plains states of North Dakota and South Dakota . Many communities have immersion programs for both children and adults. Like many indigenous languages,

1800-425: The medicine man 's wisdom in his book Black Elk Speaks (1932). Neihardt recorded Black Elk's words about his vision as follows: "I was standing on the highest mountain of them all, and round about beneath me was the whole hoop of the world," he is quoted as saying. "And while I stood there I saw more than I can tell and I understood more than I saw; for I was seeing in a sacred manner the shapes of all things in

1872-574: The trailhead at Sylvan Lake in Custer State Park , to the summit and back is about 7 miles (11 km). This is the shortest, least strenuous, and most popular route. No permit is required for use of the trail. However, A South Dakota State Parks pass is required to access the Sylvan Lake trailhead. An old stone tower, once used as a fire lookout tower , is located at the summit. The ashes of Valentine McGillycuddy were interred near

1944-550: The "SLO" or even "Suggested Lakota Orthography." Tasha Hauff writes, Choosing a writing system, or orthography, is often a serious point of contention in Indigenous communities engaging in revitalization work (Hinton, 2014). While writing a traditionally oral language can itself be considered a colonial act, standardizing a writing system is fraught with political as well as pedagogical complications. Because teachers at Standing Rock were in need of language-teaching materials, and

2016-426: The . In addition, waŋží is an indefinite article used with hypothetical or irrealis objects, and k’uŋ is a definite article used with nouns that have been mentioned previously. There are also nine demonstratives , which can function either as pronouns or as determiners . Verbs are the only word class that are obligatory in a Lakota sentence. Verbs can be active, naming an action, or stative , describing

2088-667: The Black Hills were located within the Great Sioux Reservation established by the United States government in the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868; it covered most of the territory west of the Missouri River in South Dakota (the area now called West River ). American settlement was concentrated east of the river, where there was more water for farming. The first American settlers believed to have reached

2160-558: The Black Hills. Custer wrote in a letter of August 15, 1874 to the Assistant Adjutant General of the Department of Dakota that "there is no doubt as to the existence of various metals throughout the hills. ... [And] examinations at numerous points confirm and strengthen the fact of the existence of gold in the Black Hills." His messages were carried by scout Charley Reynolds to Fort Laramie , and from there it

2232-640: The Czech linguist advocates resembles the Czech orthography – making it easier for Czech people to read. The Europeans predominantly use the internet to give the impression that this "Czech orthography" is a Lakota product and the standard for writing Lakota." "The Rosebud Sioux Tribe was the first of the Lakota tribes to take legal action against the self-authorizing practices the LLC committed by utilizing names of Lakota language experts without their consent to obtain funding for their projects." Rosebud Resolution No. 2008–295 goes further and compares these actions to what

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2304-485: The IPA: ⟨č⟩ /tʃ/ , ⟨ǧ⟩ /ʁ/ , ⟨ȟ⟩ /χ/ , ⟨š⟩ /ʃ/ , ⟨ž⟩ /ʒ/ . Aspirates are written with ⟨h⟩ : ⟨čh, kh, ph, th,⟩ and velar frication with ⟨ȟ⟩ : ⟨kȟ, pȟ, tȟ.⟩ Ejectives are written with an apostrophe: ⟨č', ȟ', k', p', s', š', t'⟩ . The spelling used in modern popular texts

2376-572: The LLC materials but do not write in the orthography. These are usually Elders who remain in the habit of writing the way they learned. A few people at Standing Rock, however, have been offended by the notion of a standard way of writing Lakota/Dakota, especially one that seems unlike any of the systems used by Elders. Community members have been particularly wary of the SLO ["Standard Lakota Orthography"], which appears to be developed by outsiders who are not fluent speakers and would require considerable study for

2448-422: The LLC was one of the few organizations developing such resources, Standing Rock adopted the new orthography, but not without resistance from members of the community. ... The new writing system at Standing Rock was often criticized or even rejected within the community. Some fluent speakers at Standing Rock have not accepted the new writing system. There are some who continue to work in language education and who use

2520-469: The LLC's promotion of their New Lakota Dictionary , websites and other Internet projects aimed at revising and standardizing their new spelling of the Lakota language. "Lakota first language speakers and Lakota language teachers criticize the "Czech orthography" for being overloaded with markings and – foremost – for the way it is being brought into Lakota schools"; it has been criticized as " neocolonial domination." Sonja John writes that "The new orthography

2592-510: The LLC, "saying he broke agreements over how to use recordings, language materials and historical records, or used them without permission." The "Standard Lakota Orthography" as the LLC calls it, is in principle phonemic, which means that each character ( grapheme ) represents one distinctive sound ( phoneme ), except for the distinction between glottal and velar aspiration, which is treated phonetically. Lakota vowels are ⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩ nasal vowels are aŋ, iŋ, uŋ. Pitch accent

2664-407: The Lakota Language Consortium and its " Czech orthography " from the reservation and its educational system. This ban was a response to a series of protests by community members and grassroots language preservation workers, at Rosebud and other Lakota communities, against the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC). Despite its name, the LLC is an organization formed by two Europeans. Concerns arose due to

2736-457: The Lakota language did not have a written form traditionally. However, efforts to develop a written form of Lakota began, primarily through the work of Christian missionaries and linguists, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The orthography has since evolved to reflect contemporary needs and usage. One significant figure in the development of a written form of Lakota was Ella Cara Deloria , also called Aŋpétu Wašté Wiŋ (Beautiful Day Woman),

2808-542: The USDA Forest Service for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places . The Forest Service cited the site's cultural, recreational, and architectural significance to South Dakota. On March 10, 1983, the site was officially added to the register. The summit can be reached from Sylvan Lake , Camp Remington, Highway 244, Palmer Creek Rd., Mount Rushmore , or Horse Thief Lake . From

2880-639: The approach... then the question is whose version will be adopted? This will cause dissent and politics to become a factor in the process." Also in 2002, Sinte Gleska University rejected a partnership with the European-owned Lakota Language Consortium. Sinte Gleska uses the orthography developed by Albert White Hat , which on December 13, 2012, was formally adopted by the Rosebud Sioux Tribe per Tribal Resolution No. 2012–343. This resolution also banned

2952-630: The army as America became involved in World War I . Lakota has five oral vowels, /i e a o u/ , and three nasal vowels, /ĩ ã ũ/ (phonetically [ɪ̃ ə̃ ʊ̃] ). Lakota /e/ and /o/ are said to be more open than the corresponding cardinal vowels, perhaps closer to [ɛ] and [ɔ] . Orthographically, the nasal vowels are written with a following ⟨ƞ⟩ , ⟨ŋ⟩ , or ⟨n⟩ ; historically, these were written with ogoneks underneath, ⟨į ą ų⟩ . No syllables end with consonantal /n/ . A neutral vowel ( schwa )

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3024-404: The base of the tower and a plaque reads, "Valentine McGillycuddy, Wasicu Wakan." Wasicu Wakan is Lakota for "Holy White Man." Lakota language Lakota ( Lakȟótiyapi [laˈkˣɔtɪjapɪ] ), also referred to as Lakhota , Teton or Teton Sioux , is a Siouan language spoken by the Lakota people of the Sioux tribes. Lakota is mutually intelligible with the two dialects of

3096-517: The discovery of gold. Subsequent examinations at numerous points confirm and strengthen the fact of the existence of gold in the Black Hills." – Custer, a letter to the Assistant Adjutant General of Dakota, August 15, 1874, Eyewitnesses to the Indian Wars, 1865-1890 , Peter Cozzens, page 166. The force remained there at Agnes Park until August 15 whereupon it turned around to return to Fort Lincoln. The expedition returned on August 30, with

3168-536: The early 20th century. The area attracted many European immigrants as well as settlers from the East. Black Elk Peak is the site where Black Elk ( Lakota Sioux ) received his "Great Vision" when nine years old. He later became a medicine man known for his wisdom. Late in life, he returned to the peak accompanied by writer John Neihardt . Black Elk was sharing much of his life and philosophy with Neihardt through long talks translated by his son. Neihardt tried to express

3240-399: The first a in each component. If it were written without the hyphen, as mazaska , it would imply a single main stress. A common phonological process which occurs in rapid speech is vowel contraction , which generally results from the loss of an intervocalic glide. Vowel contraction results in phonetic long vowels ( phonemically a sequence of two identical vowels), with falling pitch if

3312-533: The first tribal-based universities in the US. His work focused on the Sicangu dialect using an orthography developed by Lakota in 1982 and which today is slowly supplanting older systems provided by linguists and missionaries. The Lakota people 's creation stories say that language originated from the creation of the tribe. Other creation stories say language was invented by Iktomi . A wholly Lakota newspaper named

3384-415: The first underlying vowel is stressed, and rising pitch if the second underlying vowel is stressed: kê: (falling tone), "he said that", from kéye ; hǎ:pi (rising tone), "clothing", from hayápi . If one of the vowels is nasalized, the resulting long vowel is also nasalized: čhaŋ̌:pi , "sugar", from čhaŋháŋpi . When two vowels of unequal height contract, or when feature contrasts exist between

3456-483: The meantime, the rest of the expedition made camp at the mountain's base at the newly named Custer Park. While the majority of the force remained there, Custer took a small unit with him to locate a suitable site for a new fort. By August 2, 1874, this force had reached a point eight and a half miles south-east of the mountain, to a location they named Agnes Park, having had a number of peaceful encounters with Native American settlements. On August 7 Custer shot and killed

3528-543: The military with his action. Some Lakota requested state officials in 2015 to reinstate their original name for the peak. The Lakota Council of the Pine Ridge Reservation and descendants of Black Elk , a noted medicine man, supported naming it for him, as the national wilderness area around the peak is named for the shaman. He became known beyond the Lakota in part through the book Black Elk Speaks (1932), written by John G. Neihardt from long talks with

3600-539: The non-Lakota speaker, the postpositions él and ektá sound like they can be interchangeable, but although they are full synonyms of each other, they are used in different occasions. Semantically (word meaning), they are used as locational and directional tools. In the English language they can be compared to prepositions like "at", "in", and "on" (when used as locatives) on the one hand, and "at", "in", and "on" (when used as directionals), "to", "into", and "onto", on

3672-435: The orthography, and argues against changing the spelling forms she learned from her father. However, she did consider that, a shared curriculum could "create consistency across the region and encourage the long-term viability of the language. However, Philomine is also cognizant that it will take more than a school curriculum to preserve the language." She added, "In order for a language to survive, it can't simply be taught from

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3744-424: The other. (Pustet 2013) A pointer for when to use él and when to use ektá can be determined by the concepts of location (motionless) or motion; and space vs. time. These features can produce four different combinations, also called semantic domains, which can be arranged as follows (Pustet 2013): Summed up, when a context describes no motion, él is the appropriate postposition; when in motion, ektá

3816-433: The possibility of gold mining. Custer and his unit, the 7th Cavalry , arrived in the Black Hills on July 22, 1874, with orders to return by August 30. The expedition set up a camp at the site of the future town of Custer ; while Custer and the military units searched for a suitable location for a fort, civilians searched for gold, and it is disputed whether or not any substantial amount was found. Nonetheless, this prompted

3888-403: The preceding vowel is nasalized, then the resulting vowel is also nasalized): hi=pi=kte , "they will arrive here", [hiukte]; yatkáŋ=pi=na , "they drank it and...", [jatkə̃õna] . Lakota also exhibits some traces of sound symbolism among fricatives, where the point of articulation changes to reflect intensity: zí , "it's yellow", ží , "it's tawny", ǧí , "it's brown". (Compare with

3960-433: The shaman. South Dakota Governor Dennis Daugaard opposed the name change, as did other state officials, and no action was taken in 2015. The U.S. Board on Geographic Names officially changed the mountain's name from "Harney Peak" to "Black Elk Peak" on August 11, 2016, by a unanimous vote of 12–0, with one abstention. On August 18, 2016, Gov. Daugaard announced that the state would accept the new name. Black Elk Peak and

4032-462: The similar examples in Mandan .) Several orthographies as well as ad hoc spelling are used to write the Lakota language, with varying perspectives on whether standardization should be implemented. In 2002, Rosebud Cultural Studies teacher Randy Emery argued that standardization of the language could cause problems "because the language is utilized diversely. If standardization is determined to be

4104-617: The spirit, and the shape of all shapes as they must live together like one being." New York mining promoter James Wilson organized the Harney Peak Tin Company around 1884 or 1885. The Harney Peak Tin Company did not actually mine any tin and was liquidated by court order in the 1890s, losing investors almost $ 3 million (equivalent to approximately $ 110 million in 2023) in the largest fraud scandal in Black Hills mining history. American settlers used Black Elk Peak as

4176-646: The subject and object need to be marked, two affixes occur on the verb. Below is a table illustrating this. Subject affixes are marked in italics and object affixes are marked in underline . Some affixes encompass both subject and object (such as čhi - ...). The symbol ∅ indicates a lack of marking for a particular subject/object (as in the case of 3rd Person Singular forms). Cells with three forms indicate Class I, Class II, and Class III verb forms in this order. Example: uŋk á ni pȟepi "We are waiting for you" from apȟé "to wait for somebody". Custer%27s 1874 Black Hills Expedition The Black Hills Expedition

4248-507: The subject of stative verbs. Most of the morphemes in each paradigm are prefixes, but plural subjects are marked with a suffix and third-person plural objects with an infix . First person arguments may be singular, dual , or plural; second or third person arguments may be singular or plural. Examples: máni "He walks." mánipi "They walk." Example: waŋwíčhayaŋke "He looked at them" from waŋyáŋkA "to look at something/somebody". Subject and object pronouns in one verb If both

4320-769: The summit were a party led by General George Armstrong Custer in 1874, during the Black Hills expedition . The federal government took back the Black Hills and another strip of land in a new treaty in 1877. More than a decade later, it broke up the Great Sioux Reservation in 1889 into five smaller reservations, the same year that North Dakota and South Dakota were admitted as states to the Union. The government made some nine million acres of former Lakota land available for purchase for ranching and homesteading. Most American settlement in West River did not start until

4392-546: The territory at the time of European colonization . They considered it a sacred site within the Black Hills, which they call Pahá Sápa and Ȟé Sápa . The mountain was named Harney Peak in 1855 by American Lieutenant Gouverneur K. Warren in honor of US General William S. Harney , his commander in a regional military expedition. In punitive retaliation for other Sioux raids, in September 1855 Harney's forces killed Sicangu warriors, women and children in what Americans called

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4464-529: The then-Captain William Ludlow . Ludlow, the engineer for the expedition, financed Illingworth's photography and paid him $ 30 per month to provide photographic plates for the US Army, of which he made 70 in all. Custer embarked on his expedition with 1000-1200 men, in 110 wagons with numerous horses and cattle of the 7th Cavalry, along with artillery and two months food supply. The expedition also took

4536-519: The top. A language is a living thing and students need to breathe life into it daily; talking with friends, family and elders in Lakota". In 2018, at the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation , Lakota speaker Manny Iron Hawk and his wife Renee Iron Hawk discussed opening an immersion school and the difficulties around choosing an orthography to write Lakota; Mr. Iron Hawk voiced support for the LLC (SLO) Orthography, saying it

4608-428: The track of Hardy's group when they spotted two lines of sunflowers that had grown along the ruts of his passing wagons. Custer and his force entered the Black Hills from the north, travelling south at a slow pace of no more than four or five miles a day on some occasions. On July 31, 1874, the wagon train reached Harney Peak (now Black Elk Peak ), and Custer together with Ludlow took three or four men to climb it. In

4680-479: The true elevation of this peak. The peak's fire lookout tower and the staircase leading to it, as well as a nearby dam and pumphouse, were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. This peak was called Hiŋháŋ Káǧa , or, "Owl maker," after rock formations that look like owls (and the association of owls with impending death by the Lakota Sioux ). They dominated this region and inhabited

4752-425: The vowels and the glide, two new phonetic vowels, [æː] and [ɔː] , result: iyæ̂: , "he left for there", from iyáye ; mitȟa: , "it's mine", from mitȟáwa . The plural enclitic =pi is frequently changed in rapid speech when preceding the enclitics =kte , =kiŋ , =kštó , or =na . If the vowel preceding =pi is high/open, =pi becomes [u]; if the vowel is non-high (mid or closed), =pi becomes [o] (if

4824-429: The word čhíŋ precedes čónala in a dictionary. In 1982, Lakota educator Leroy Curley (1935–2012) devised a 41-letter circular alphabet. The basic word order of Lakota is subject–object–verb , although the order can be changed for expressive purposes (placing the object before the subject to bring the object into focus or placing the subject after the verb to emphasize its status as established information). It

4896-412: Was telegraphed to the press eastwards. "There is no doubt as to the existence of various metals throughout the hills. As this subject has received the special attention of experts who accompanied the expedition, and will be reported upon in detail, I will only mention the fact that iron and plumbago have been found and beds of gypsum of apparently inexhaustible extent. I referred in a former dispatch to

4968-423: Was a United States Army expedition in 1874 led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer that set out on July 2, 1874, from Fort Abraham Lincoln , Dakota Territory , which is south of modern day Mandan, North Dakota , with orders to travel to the previously uncharted Black Hills of South Dakota . Its mission was to look for suitable locations for a fort, find a route to the southwest, and to investigate

5040-503: Was accessible to second language learners, but know not all agreed with him. Others in the community voiced a preference for the tribe creating their own orthography. While Mr. Iron Hawk supports this approach, Renee Iron Hawk also expressed a sense of urgency, saying "We should just use what we have, and then fix and replace it, but we need to start speaking it now". The Iron Hawks both agreed that too much time has been spent arguing over which orthography to use or not use, and not enough time

5112-415: Was done to children taken from their families by the residential schools . In 2006 some of the Lakota language teachers at Standing Rock chose to collaborate with Sitting Bull College , and the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC), with the aim of expanding their language curriculum. Teachers at Standing Rock use several different orthographies. Language activists at Standing Rock also refer to it as simply

5184-454: Was operated at Black Elk Peak from 1936 until 1942, and again from 1945 until 1946. The Harney Peak post office was reportedly one of the "most elevated post offices in the United States". A manmade dam was also created on the peak in 1935. This concrete reservoir holds 5,000 US gallons (19,000 L; 4,200 imp gal) of water; a pumphouse was added in 1938. In 1982, the lookout tower and its stairway, dam, and pumphouse were nominated by

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