Defunct
70-723: The Black Hundreds were reactionary , monarchist , and ultra-nationalist groups in Russia in the early 20th century. They were staunch supporters of the House of Romanov , and opposed any retreat from the autocracy of the reigning monarch. Their name arose from the medieval concept of "black", or common (non-noble) people, organized into militias. The Black Hundreds were noted for extremism and incitement to pogroms , nationalistic Russocentric doctrines, as well as various xenophobic beliefs, including anti-Ukrainian sentiment , anti-Polish sentiment , and anti-Semitism . The ideology of
140-526: A 9th-century election of the legendary founder of the Piast dynasty , Piast the Wheelwright , and a similar election of his son, Siemowit , but sources for that time come from the later centuries and their validity is disputed by scholars. The election privilege was usually limited to the elites, which in the later times took the form of the most powerful nobles ( magnates , princes ) or officials, and
210-410: A computer programmer) in 2008. Arnold Kling used it in 2010 to describe "Moldbug", and the subculture quickly adopted it. Proponents of the "Neo-reactionary" movement (also called the " Dark Enlightenment " movement) include philosopher Nick Land , among others. Persons who have at times been designated reactionaries, by themselves or others, include: Note that Germany did not become united as
280-756: A country until 1871. Metternich was born in the Holy Roman Empire . Veche A veche was a popular assembly during the Middle Ages . The veche is mentioned during the times of Kievan Rus' and it later became a powerful institution in Russian cities such as Novgorod and Pskov , where the veche acquired great prominence and was broadly similar to the Norse thing or the Swiss Landsgemeinde . The last veche meeting
350-516: A job on The Dearborn Independent newspaper. Brasol also helped in the production of anti-Jewish propaganda such as The International Jew . After the fall of the Soviet Union , the nationalist and monarchist movements were reborn in Russian society. In 1992, Alexander Shtilmark (former member of Pamyat ) decided to found a modern Black Hundred movement. The movement maintains contacts with other Russian nationalist organizations (like
420-544: A return to the pre-revolutionary model of social relations, with a strong role for the Church. Their utmost philosopher was Nicolás Gómez Dávila . Political scientist Corey Robin argues in his 2011 book The Reactionary Mind that modern conservatism in the United States is "inherently reactionary". Japan 's right-wing nationalist and populist movements and related organizations, which emerged rapidly from
490-497: Is of the past, and so is ecclesiolatry." They further elaborated in their political doctrine that fascism "is not reactionary [in the old way] but revolutionary." Conversely, they explained that fascism was of the right, not the left. Fascism was certainly not simply a return to tradition, as it carried the centralized state beyond even what had been seen in absolute monarchies . Fascist one-party states were as centralized as most communist states , and fascism's intense nationalism
560-470: Is reaction" and that "fascism, which did not fear to call itself reactionary... has not today any impediment against declaring itself illiberal and anti-liberal." Giovanni Gentile and Mussolini also attacked certain reactionary policies, particularly monarchism, and veiled some aspects of Italian conservative Catholicism . They wrote, "History doesn't travel backwards. The fascist doctrine has not taken Joseph de Maistre as its prophet. Monarchical absolutism
630-594: Is referred to the people. The veche is thought to have originated in the tribal assemblies of Eastern Europe , thus predating the state of Kievan Rus' . The Poliane in Kiev, according to the Primary Chronicle , are said to have consulted among themselves ( s"dumavshe poliane ) before deciding to ultimately pay tribute to the Khazars . The words duma and dumati are used in later instances to refer to
700-465: The kontsy (boroughs or "ends") of Novgorod also had their own veche to elect borough officials. The veche for the city selected the prince, posadnik and archbishop. Historians debate whether the Novgorod veche consisted of entirely free males or was instead dominated by a small group of nobles known as boyars . Traditional scholarship argues that a series of reforms in 1410 transformed
770-532: The re-criminalisation of homosexuality , restrictions on abortion and divorce, and abolition of the Zhenotdel women's department. Reactionary is also used to denote supporters of authoritarian anti-communist régimes such as Vichy France , Spain under Franco , and Portugal under Salazar . One example occurred after Boris Pasternak was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature . On 26 October 1958,
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#1732780602896840-555: The Constitutional Democratic Party , were assassinated by members of the Black Hundreds, their press organ Russkoe Znamya declared openly that "Real Russians assassinated Herzenstein and Iollos with knowledge of officials", and expressed regret that "only two Jews perished in the crusade against revolutionaries." The black hundred were known to have used violence and torture on anyone they believed
910-724: The Coup of 18 Fructidor . During the French Revolution, conservative forces (especially within the Catholic Church ) organized opposition to the progressive sociopolitical and economic changes brought by the Revolution; and so Conservatives fought to restore the temporal authority of the Church and Crown . In 19th Century European politics, the reactionary class included the Catholic Church's hierarchy and
980-628: The French States-General of 1789 fully prepared to press for expanding such practices in all provinces to the legal limit. They were horrified when, for example, the French Revolution permitted common citizens to go hunting, one of the few perquisites they had always enjoyed. Thus with the Bourbons Restoration, the Chambre Introuvable set about reverting every law to return society to conditions prior to
1050-604: The German Realm and informally as the Drittes Reich (Third Realm), a reference to past reactionary German entities: the Holy Roman Empire (First Realm) and the German Empire (Second Realm). Clericalist movements, sometimes labeled as clerical fascist by their critics, can be considered reactionaries in terms of the 19th century since they share some elements of fascism while at the same time promoting
1120-621: The Pskov Land and later Pskov Republic had legislative powers; it could appoint military commanders and hear ambassadors' reports. It also approved expenses such as grants to princes and payments to builders of walls, towers and bridges. The veche gathered at the court of the Trinity Cathedral , which held the archives of the veche and important private papers and state documents. The veche assembly included posadniki (mayors), "middle" and common people. Historians differ on
1190-599: The Russian Imperial Movement and the Union of Orthodox Banner-Bearers ) and also participated in the early stages of the Russo-Ukrainian War on the side of pro-Russian separatists. Reactionary In political science , a reactionary or a reactionist is a person who holds political views that favor a return to the status quo ante —the previous political state of society—which
1260-725: The Scottish journalist Gerald Warner of Craigenmaddie , the Colombian political theologian Nicolás Gómez Dávila , and the American historian John Lukacs . The French Revolution gave the English language three politically descriptive words denoting anti-progressive politics: (i) "reactionary", (ii) "conservative", and (iii) " right ". "Reactionary" derives from the French word réactionnaire (a late 18th-century coinage based on
1330-675: The Weimar Republic parliamentary era under the Weimar Constitution , which had succeeded the monarchy in 1918, despite it also being capitalist and classical. Although claiming to be separate from reactionism, the Nazis' rejection of Weimar was based on ostensibly reactionary principles, as the Nazis claimed that the parliamentary system was simply the first step towards Bolshevism and instead idealized more reactionary parts of Germany's past. They referred to Nazi Germany as
1400-541: The absolute monarchy of Louis XIV , when the power of the Second Estate was at its zenith. This clearly distinguishes a "reactionary" from a "conservative." The use of the word "reactionary" in later days as a political slur is thus often rhetorical since there is nothing directly comparable with the Chambre Introuvable in the history of other countries. In the French Revolution 's aftermath, France
1470-568: The aristocracy , royal families , and royalists who believed that national government was the sole domain of the Church and the State. In France, supporters of traditional rule by direct heirs of the House of Bourbon dynasty were labeled the legitimist reaction. In the Third Republic , the monarchists were the reactionary faction, later renamed Conservative . In the 19th century, reactionary denoted people who idealized feudalism and
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#17327806028961540-783: The ruling class , including usage between conflicting factions of Marxist movements. Non-socialists also used the label reactionary , with British diplomat Sir John Jordan nicknaming the Chinese Royalist Party the "reactionary party" for supporting the Qing dynasty and opposing republicanism during the Xinhai Revolution in 1912. Despite being traditionally related to right-wing governments, elements of reactionary politics were present in left-wing governments as well, such as when Soviet Union leader Joseph Stalin implemented conservative social policies, such as
1610-617: The veche bell , although it is more likely that the common procedure was more complex. The whole population of the city, including boyars, merchants, and common citizens, then gathered in front of the Cathedral of Saint Sophia or at Yaroslav's Court on the Trade Side . Of all other towns of Novgorod Land , the chronicles only mention a veche in Torzhok ; however they possibly existed in all other towns as well. The veche of
1680-571: The veche bell was removed and transported to Moscow. The veche , known in Poland as wiec , were convened even before the beginning of the Polish statehood in the Kingdom of Poland . Issues were first debated by the elders and leaders, and later presented to all the free men for a wider discussion. One of the major types of wiec was the one convened to choose a new ruler. There are legends of
1750-715: The veche into something similar to the public assembly ( Concio ) of the Republic of Venice ; it became the lower chamber of the parliament. An upper chamber knowns as the Council of Lords ( sovet gospod ) was also created which oversaw the veche , with title membership for all former city magistrates ( posadniki and tysyatskiye ). Some sources indicate that veche membership may have become full-time, and parliament deputies were now called vechniki . Some recent scholars call this interpretation into question. The Novgorod veche could be presumably summoned by anyone who rang
1820-544: The veche was summoned in front of the Cathedral of St. Sophia . There are not many references of a veche in towns in the 11th century, but there are significantly more in the 12th century, with such references mostly concerning Novgorod and Pskov. Medieval chronicles, such as the Primary Chronicle , and the Novgorod First Chronicle for Novgorod especially, are the basic source regarding
1890-508: The veche . The next generation of Russian chronicles, including the Suzdal Chronicle , are also important sources. Most of the information about the veche concerns the 13th to 15th centuries. For veche proceedings, the veche had to be convoked first, often by the prince, but the main topic of the meeting usually was about a conflict between the prince and the population. Not much is known about actual proceedings except that
1960-587: The 19th-century popes buttressed the ideas of the clerical philosophers. From 1815 to 1848, Prince Metternich , the foreign minister of the Austrian Empire , stepped in to organize the containment of revolutionary forces through international alliances to prevent revolutionary fervor. At the Congress of Vienna , he was very influential in establishing the new order, the Concert of Europe , after
2030-581: The 6th century: But when the report was carried about and reached the entire nation, practically all the Antae assembled to discuss the situation, and they demanded that the matter be made a public one(...). For these nations, the Sclaveni and the Antae, are not ruled by one man, but they have lived from of old under a democracy, and consequently everything which involves their welfare, whether for good or ill,
2100-507: The Black Hundreds' paramilitary groups, sometimes known as "Yellow Shirts". The Black Hundred movement published newspapers , such as Znamya (The Banner) or Russkoye znamya (Russian Banner), Pochayevsky Listok (The Pochayev Page), Zemshchina , Kolokol (Bell), Groza (Thunderstorm), Veche ( Popular Assembly ) and others. Many rightist newspapers, such as Moskovskiye vedomosti (Moscow News), Grazhdanin (Citizen) and Kievlyanin (Kievan), published their materials as well. Among
2170-515: The Chamber of Deputies. The Franchise was restricted to men over the age of forty, which indicated that for the first fifteen years of their lives, they had lived under the ancien régime . Nevertheless, King Louis XVIII worried he would still suffer an intractable parliament. He was delighted with the ultra-royalists , or Ultras, whom the election returned, declaring that he had found a chambre introuvable , literally, an "unfindable house". It
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2240-417: The Church. His basic philosophy was based on Edmund Burke , who championed the need for old roots and the orderly development of society. He opposed democratic and parliamentary institutions but favored modernizing existing structures through gradual reform . Despite Metternich's efforts, a series of revolutions rocked Europe in 1848 . In the 20th century, proponents of socialism and communism used
2310-706: The Nazis called their 1933 rise to power the Volksgemeinschaft (national revolution) showed that, like the Italian Fascists, they supported some form of revolution; however, the Germans and Italian fascists both idealized tradition, folklore, and the tenets of classical thought and leadership, as exemplified in Nazi-era Germany by the idolization of Frederick the Great . They also rejected
2380-913: The Saint Petersburg Committee of the RSDLP, an armed attack was carried out on the Tver tea house, where the workers of the Nevsky Shipbuilding Plant, who were members of the Union of the Russian People, gathered. First, two bombs were thrown by the Bolshevik militants, and then those who ran out of the teahouse were shot with revolvers. The Bolsheviks killed two and wounded fifteen people. Revolutionary organizations carried out many other terrorist acts, mainly against
2450-646: The activities of the veche . The Primary Chronicle also indicates the recognition of the people as a separate political agent in a 944 treaty with the Byzantine Empire : "And our grand prince Igor and his boyars, and the whole people of Rus have sent us". The earliest mentions of the veche in chronicles refer to examples in Belgorod in 997, Novgorod in 1016, Kiev in 1068, and Pskov in 1123. The assemblies discussed matters of war and peace, adopted laws, and called for and expelled rulers. In Kiev,
2520-554: The autumn of 1509, Grand Prince Vasily III visited Novgorod, where he received complaints from the Pskov veche against the Muscovite governor of the city. At first, Vasily encouraged complaints against the governor, but soon demanded that the city abolish its traditional institutions, including the removal of the veche bell. From that point on, Pskov was to be ruled exclusively by his governors and officials, and on 13 January 1510,
2590-548: The bell ceased to ring as in Vladimir. And Prince Alexander thought he had been rude to the Holy Mother of God, and he ordered it taken back to Vladimir. And when the bell was brought back and installed in its place, its peal once again became acceptable to God. The Novgorod veche was the highest legislative and judicial authority in the city until 1478, after Novgorod was formally annexed by Ivan III . Each of
2660-429: The bishop could function as the chairman, while in other instances, the prince could assume this role. A semi-legendary account of Aleksandr of Suzdal ( r. 1309–1331 ) moving the veche bell from Vladimir to his appanage center Suzdal during his reign as grand prince is found in chronicles: This Prince Alexander from Vladimir took the veche bell from the Church of the Holy Mother of God to Suzdal and
2730-511: The chairmen of local departments of the Union of the Russian People. So, according to the police department, only in March 1908 in one Chernihiv province in the city of Bakhmach, a bomb was thrown at the house of the chairman of the local union of the RNC, in the city of Nizhyn the house of the chairman of the union was set on fire. The whole family died, in the village of Domyany the department's chairman
2800-482: The committee was shorn of its powers. After the execution of some 104 Robespierre supporters, the Thermidorian Reaction stopped using the guillotine against alleged counter-revolutionaries , set a middle course between the monarchists and the radicals, and ushered in a time of relative exuberance and its accompanying corruption. With the Congress of Vienna , inspired by Tsar Alexander I of Russia ,
2870-473: The day following the Nobel Committee 's announcement, Moscow's Literary Gazette ran a polemical article by David Zaslavski entitled, Reactionary Propaganda Uproar over a Literary Weed . The Italian Fascists desired a new social order based on the ancient feudal principle of delegation (though without serfdom ) in their enthusiasm for the corporate state . Benito Mussolini said that "fascism
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2940-679: The defeat of Napoleon . After the Congress, Prince Metternich worked hard to bolster and stabilize the conservative regime of the Restoration period. He worked furiously to prevent Russia's Tsar Alexander I (who aided the liberal forces in Germany, Italy, and France) from gaining influence in Europe. The Church was his principal ally. He promoted it as a conservative principle of order while opposing nationalist and liberal tendencies within
3010-421: The extent to which the veche was dominated by the elites, with some saying that real power was held in the hands of boyars, with others considering the veche to be a democratic institution. Conflicts were common and the confrontation between the veche and the posadniki in 1483–1484 led to the execution of one posadnik and the confiscation of the property of three other posadniki who fled to Moscow. In
3080-439: The government would bribe lower class individuals to act against the social revolutionaries of the time. The term "Black Hundreds" started to appear in newspapers around 1905, along with warnings that the government would mobilize the Black Hundreds in pursuit of mass murder, and would even resort to inciting anti-Jewish pogroms and strife between different religious groups. They alleged that the Black Hundreds were being organized by
3150-486: The late 20th century, are considered "reactionary" because they revised the post-war peace constitution and have an advocating attitude toward the Japanese Empire . "Neo-reactionary" is a term that is sometimes a self-description of an informal group of online political theorists who have been active since the 2000s. The phrase "neo-reactionary" was coined by "Mencius Moldbug" (the pseudonym of Curtis Yarvin ,
3220-538: The main critics of the White movement . They blamed the movement for not only failing to stress monarchism as its key ideological foundation but also supposedly being run under the influence of classical liberals and Freemasons . Boris Brasol (1885–1963), a former member of the Black Hundreds, was among those who later emigrated to the United States . There he befriended industrialist Henry Ford , who gave Brasol
3290-683: The monarchs of Russia , Prussia and Austria formed the Holy Alliance , a form of collective security against revolution and Bonapartism . This instance of reaction was surpassed by a movement that developed in France when, after the second fall of Napoleon , the Bourbon Restoration , or reinstatement of the Bourbon dynasty, ensued. This time it was to be a constitutional monarchy , with an elected lower house of parliament,
3360-420: The movement is based on a slogan formulated by Count Sergey Uvarov : " Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality ". The term was intended to be pejorative in revolutionary newspapers, but adherents used it in their own literature. They traced the term back to the "black lands", where peasants, merchants, and craftsmen paid taxes to the government (lands owned by the nobility and church were called "white lands"), and
3430-448: The new all-Russian Black Hundred organization "Ob’yedinyonniy russkiy narod" (Объединённый русский народ, or Russian People United). After 1907, however, this organization disintegrated, and the whole Black Hundreds movement became weaker as the membership rate steadily declined. After the February Revolution 1917, the remaining Black Hundred organizations were officially abolished. After emigrating abroad, many Black Hundreds were among
3500-402: The person believes possessed positive characteristics that are absent from contemporary society. As a descriptor term, reactionary derives from the ideological context of the left–right political spectrum . As an adjective, the word reactionary describes points of view and policies meant to restore a status quo ante . As an ideology , reactionism is a tradition in right-wing politics ;
3570-464: The police, and called for resistance. The term became more closely associated with pogrom-like violence after thousands of people were killed in attacks on demonstrations, public assemblies, and in the anti-Semitic pogroms that followed the October Manifesto . and others. Members of the Black Hundred organizations came from different social strata —such as landowners, clergymen, the high and petty bourgeoisie , merchants , artisans , workers, and
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#17327806028963640-427: The pre-modern era—before the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution—when economies were mostly agrarian , a landed aristocracy dominated society, a hereditary king ruled, and the Catholic Church was society's moral center. Those labeled "reactionary" favored the aristocracy instead of the middle and working classes . Reactionaries opposed democracy and parliamentarism . The Thermidorian Reaction
3710-424: The prominent leaders of the Black Hundred movement were Alexander Dubrovin , Vladimir Purishkevich , Nikolai Markov , A. I. Trishatny , Pavel Krushevan , Pavel Bulatsel, Ivan Vostorgov, M. K. Shakhovskoy, Saint John of Kronstadt , Hieromonk Iliodor , Bishop Hermogen , and others. When two Duma delegates, Grigori Iollos ( Poltava province) and Mikhail Herzenstein (b. 1859, d. 1906 in Terijoki ), both from
3780-403: The reactionary stance opposes policies for the social transformation of society, whereas conservatives seek to preserve the socio-economic structure and order that exists in the present. In popular usage, reactionary refers to a strong traditionalist conservative political perspective of a person opposed to social, political, and economic change. Reactionary ideologies can be radical in
3850-404: The same time be of tremendous benefit to the revolution. Revolutionary army groups must at once find out who organises the Black Hundreds and where and how they are organised, and then, without confining themselves to propaganda (which is useful but inadequate) they must act with armed force, beat up and kill the members of the Black-Hundred gangs, blow up their headquarters, etc., etc. On behalf of
3920-400: The sense of political extremism in service to re-establishing past conditions. To some writers, the term reactionary carries negative connotations— Peter King observed that it is "an unsought-for label, used as a torment rather than a badge of honor." Despite this, the descriptor "political reactionary" has been adopted by writers such as the Austrian monarchist Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn ,
3990-759: The so-called "declassed elements". The Postoyanny Sovyet Ob'yedinnyonnykh dvoryanskikh obshchshestv Rossii ( United Gentry Council ) guided the activities of the black-hundredists; the Tsarist regime provided moral and financial support to the movement. The Black Hundreds were founded on a devotion to the Tsar , church, and motherland, expressed previously by the motto of Tsar Nicholas I : " Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality " ( Pravoslaviye, Samoderzhaviye i Narodnost ). The Black Hundreds conducted oral propaganda : in churches by holding special services and during meetings, lectures, and demonstrations. Such propaganda provoked anti-Semitic sentiments and monarchic "exaltation" and incited pogroms and terrorist acts , performed by
4060-430: The term reactionary polemically to label their enemies, such as the White Armies , who fought in the Russian Civil War against the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution . In Marxist terminology, reactionary is a pejorative adjective denoting people whose ideas might appear to be socialist but, in their opinion, contain elements of feudalism , capitalism , nationalism , fascism , or other characteristics of
4130-445: The term "hundred" ( sotnya ) was used to refer to a feudal administrative division. In the right wing extremist imagination, it was the loyal people of the Black Hundreds who gathered to fight Poles and traitors when it was needed. Revolutionary newspapers identified the Black Hundreds as a threat, describing them as "hooligan gangs" paid by the government to threaten political opponents. The Menshevik leader Julius Martov feared that
4200-409: The weapons of the Black Hundred terror. Radical socialist parties organized revolutionary terror in retaliation to the Black Hundred activities. Vladimir Lenin , leader of the Bolshevik faction of the RSDLP wrote in 1905: The fight against the Black Hundreds is an excellent type of military action, which will train the soldiers of the revolutionary army, give them their baptism of fire, and at
4270-437: The word réaction , "reaction") and " conservative " from conservateur , identifying monarchist parliamentarians opposed to the revolution. In this French usage, reactionary denotes "a movement towards the reversal of an existing tendency or state" and a "return to a previous condition of affairs". The Oxford English Dictionary cites the first English language usage in 1799 in a translation of Lazare Carnot 's letter on
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#17327806028964340-456: The works of Ukrainian poet Taras Shevchenko , in particular. In Odessa , the Black Hundreds shut down the local branch of the Ukrainian Prosvita society. This organization was dedicated to spreading literacy in the Ukrainian language and Ukrainian cultural awareness. The Black Hundreds organized four all-Russian congresses to unite their forces. In October 1906, they elected the so-called glavnaya uprava (a kind of board of directors ) of
4410-408: Was a movement within the French Revolution against the perceived excesses of the Jacobins . Maximilien Robespierre 's Reign of Terror ended on 27 July 1794 (9 Thermidor year II in the French Republican Calendar ). The overthrow of Robespierre signaled the reassertion of the French National Convention over the Committee of Public Safety . The Jacobins were suppressed, the prisons were emptied, and
4480-419: Was a threat to the Tsar. Members of the Black Hundreds carried out raids (with unofficial government approval) against various revolutionary groups and pogroms, including inciting pogroms against Jews. The historian of the Black Hundred movement Sergei Stepanov, writes that after the 1905 Russian Revolution , fighting squads of the Union of the Russian People and other extremist right-wing organizations became
4550-411: Was also the means used by diminished aristocrats to get themselves a bigger piece of the pie. In the 18th century, those gentry whose fortunes and prestige had diminished to the level of peasants would search diligently for every ancient feudal statute that might give them something. For example, the "ban" meant that all peasants had to grind their grain in their lord's mill. Therefore, these gentry came to
4620-446: Was continually wracked by quarrels between right-wing legitimists and left-wing revolutionaries. Herein arose the clerical philosophers— Joseph de Maistre , Louis de Bonald , François-René de Chateaubriand —whose answer was restoring the House of Bourbon and reinstalling the Catholic Church as the established church . Since then, France's political spectrum has featured similar divisions (see Action Française ). The teachings of
4690-517: Was held in Pskov before the institution was abolished in 1510. The word veche is a transliteration of the Russian "вече" ( pl. веча, vecha ), which is in turn inherited from Proto-Slavic *vě̑ťe ( lit. ' council, counsel ' or ' talk ' ), which is also represented in the word soviet , both ultimately deriving from the Proto-Slavic verbal stem of * větiti ' to talk, speak ' ). Procopius of Caesarea mentioned Slavs gathering in popular assemblies in
4760-572: Was killed, two chairmen of departments were killed in Nizhyn. The Socialist-Revolutionaries also killed prominent Black Hundreds such as Nikolai Bogdanovich and Gavril Luzhenovsky. The Black Hundreds classified Ukrainians as Russians, and attracted the support of many Russophiles who considered themselves Russian and rejected Ukrainian nationalism and a Ukrainian identity. The Black Hundred movement actively campaigned against what it considered to be Ukrainian separatism, as well as against promoting Ukrainian culture and language in general, and against
4830-445: Was not found in the period prior to the French Revolution. Although the German Nazis did not consider themselves fascists or reactionaries and condemned the traditional German forces of reaction (Prussian monarchists , Junker nobility, and Roman Catholic clergy ) as being among their enemies, next to their Red Front enemies in the Nazi Party march Die Fahne hoch , they virulently opposed revolutionary leftism. The fact that
4900-472: Was the Declaration of Saint-Ouen that prepared the way for the Restoration. Before the French Revolution, which radically and bloodily overthrew most aspects of French society's organization, the only way constitutional change could be instituted was by extracting it from old legal documents that could be interpreted as agreeing with the proposal. Everything new had to be expressed as a righteous revival of something old that had lapsed and had been forgotten. This
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