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125-529: [REDACTED] Look up black woman in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Black Woman may refer to: Black women Black Woman (album) , by Sonny Sharrock Black Woman , an album by Judy Mowatt " Femme noire ", a poem by Léopold Sédar Senghor See also [ edit ] All pages with titles containing Black Woman Black Man (disambiguation) Black people Topics referred to by

250-717: A terror regime on the colonized people, including mass killings and forced labour, that Belgium, under pressure from the Congo Reform Association , ended Leopold II's rule and annexed it on 20 August 1908 as a colony of Belgium, known as the Belgian Congo . The brutality of King Leopold II in his former colony of the Congo Free State was well documented; up to 8 million of the estimated 16 million native inhabitants died between 1885 and 1908. According to Roger Casement , an Irish diplomat of

375-453: A war with Austria in 1859 , Sardinia, under the leadership of Victor Emmanuel II and Giuseppe Garibaldi , was able to unify most of the peninsula by 1861, establishing the Kingdom of Italy . Following unification, Italy sought to expand its territory and become a great power, taking possession of parts of Eritrea in 1870 and 1882. In 1889–90, it occupied territory on the south side of

500-797: A UN recognized state, all of which have been in Africa or the Caribbean. The first Black woman to be appointed head of state was Elisabeth Domitien , who served as the Prime Minister of the Central African Republic from January 1975 to April 1976. The longest-serving Black woman head of government was Eugenia Charles , who served as the head of government for Dominica for nearly 15 years, from July 1980 to June 1995. President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf served as President of Liberia for 12 years. In 2021, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala became

625-920: A base for the subjugation of neighbouring African states and the Dutch Afrikaner settlers who had left the Cape to avoid the British and then founded their republics. Theophilus Shepstone annexed the South African Republic in 1877 for the British Empire, after it had been independent for twenty years. In 1879, after the Anglo-Zulu War , Britain consolidated its control of most of the territories of South Africa. The Boers protested, and in December 1880 they revolted, leading to

750-575: A black man. Black women are more likely to get murdered than white women. Black women have shorter life expectancies. Black women make up 28% of the Brazilian population and still suffer discrimination in Brazil. The legacy of slavery and the mistreatment of Black women during the Portuguese colonial era is still dealt with. Interracial marriage between Black women and white Portuguese men

875-662: A colony in Mashonaland . Tippu Tip , a Zanzibari Arab based in the Sultanate of Zanzibar , also played a major role as a "protector of European explorers", ivory trader and slave trader. Having established a trading empire within Zanzibar and neighbouring areas in East Africa, Tippu Tip would shift his alignment towards the rising colonial powers in the region and at the proposal of Henry Morton Stanley, Tippu Tip became

1000-637: A full protectorate over Morocco on 30 March 1912, ending what remained of the country's formal independence. Furthermore, British backing for France during the two Moroccan crises reinforced the Entente between the two countries and added to Anglo-German estrangement, deepening the divisions that would culminate in the First World War. Following the Berlin Conference, the British, Italians, and Ethiopians sought to claim lands inhabited by

1125-535: A good way for women to better their chances of getting out of poverty because they are given the opportunity to take part in credit services, acquire insurance on their personal items, and build their savings. According to Wrigley-Asante in her journal article, “market women are considered the backbone of food distribution, ensuring food security for the urban economy.” Ghanaian women are very important contributors to Ghana's economy despite not having access to steady wages. Ghana's government has made strides to address

1250-650: A governor of the " Stanley Falls District " ( Boyoma Falls ) in Leopold's Congo Free State, before being involved in the Congo–Arab War against Leopold II's colonial state. To the west, in the land where their expansions would meet, was Katanga , the site of the Yeke Kingdom of Msiri . Msiri was the most militarily powerful ruler in the area and traded large quantities of copper, ivory and slaves—and rumours of gold reached European ears. The scramble for Katanga

1375-621: A higher risk of contracting certain diseases than White women. According to the American Cancer Society , the death rate for all cancers for Black women is 14% higher than that of White women. While the probability of being diagnosed with cancer in Black women is one in three, the chance of dying from cancer is one in five. Cancer is not the only disease that disproportionately affects African-American women. Black women are three times more likely to develop uterine fibroids . Lupus

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1500-414: A methodology for interpreting the ways in which overlapping social identities relate to systems of oppression. More recently, the term misogynoir has been created to describe the specific effect of intersectionality on Black women. Misogynoir is the term that is used to describe the overlapping cases of misogyny and racism . Examples of misogynoir experienced by Black women include the stereotype of

1625-744: A naval base on the Atlantic. The German move was aimed at reinforcing claims for compensation for acceptance of effective French control of the North African kingdom, where France's pre-eminence had been upheld by the 1906 Algeciras Conference. In November 1911, a compromise was reached under which Germany accepted France's position in Morocco in return for a slice of territory in the French Equatorial African colony of Middle Congo . France and Spain subsequently established

1750-496: A need for Black women's hair to be treated with moisturizers and oils for it to remain healthy. Because of greater education in Black women's hair, the United States Army lifted a ban on dreadlocks, which were previously banned. The Navy, Air Force, and Army now allow two-strand twists as well as braids at an increased size. The latter change came after a fight against hair discrimination. Black women are often at

1875-522: A proletarian nation. The Second Italo-Abyssinian War (1935–1936), ordered by the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini , was the last colonial war (that is, intended to colonise a country, as opposed to wars of national liberation ), occupying Ethiopia —which had remained the last independent African territory, apart from Liberia. Italian Ethiopia was occupied by fascist Italian forces in World War II as part of Italian East Africa though much of

2000-404: A result of less educational opportunities, elevated unemployment rates, and gender inequality. Historically, Ghanaian culture has created the role of women to be in the home cooking, cleaning, and taking care of children. Ghanaian women, on average, complete only primary school as a result of these societal expectations. Men are primarily regarded as breadwinners and have more economic mobility as

2125-432: A result of their ability to carry on the family name and amass ownership of land, one of the highest forms of capital. Within theoretical approaches identifying as “Black” or “Afrocentric”, or employing anticolonialist concepts like the “internalization” of “colonial mentality”, scholars forcefully claim and highlight that the patriarchal societal conditions originated particularly from European colonization of Ghana from

2250-456: A role in the susceptibility of women being in poverty is the rise in female-headed households as a result of divorce, women becoming widows, or women being separated from their partners. This has exacerbated the issue of poverty among women because they're unable to have access to the benefits of the socio-economic status men hold in Ghana. Economically, the majority of Ghanaian women work within

2375-442: A source of military power; Britain and France used large numbers of British Indian and North African soldiers, respectively, in many of their colonial wars (and would do so again in the coming World Wars). In the age of nationalism there was pressure for a nation to acquire an empire as a status symbol; the idea of "greatness" became linked with the " White Man's Burden ", or sense of duty, underlying many nations' strategies. In

2500-618: A sprawling African empire. Britain had sought to extend its East African empire contiguously from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope , while France had sought to extend its holdings from Dakar to the Sudan, which would enable its empire to span the entire continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea . If one draws a line from Cape Town to Cairo (Rhodes's dream), and one from Dakar to

2625-432: A survey by Glamour and L'Oreal Paris, along with Dr. Jean Twenge, Ph.D., a researcher on the effects of race and self-confidence. Racism and discrimination have not created a downturn in how Black women view themselves. Black women also have a more positive outlook on their physical appearances versus white women. This self-esteem and confidence is celebrated in what is known as "Black Girl Magic". Black women's hair, which

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2750-463: A trade surplus: a market that bought more from the colonial power than it sold overall. Surplus capital was often more profitably invested overseas, where cheap materials, limited competition, and abundant raw materials made a greater premium possible. Another inducement for imperialism arose from the demand for raw materials, especially ivory , rubber , palm oil , cocoa , diamonds , tea , and tin . Additionally, Britain wanted control of areas of

2875-413: A well-paying job, and be politically active. Some other examples mentioned include only teaching women how to be suitable for men, and promoting skin bleaching among women to become closer to whiteness. After Ghana gained their independence in 1957 from Britain, women were not compensated for their inability to own land and gain foundational skills under colonial frameworks, seen as instrumental in creating

3000-713: Is 40.0 deaths for every 100,000 births. In a 2007 US study of five medical complications that are common causes of maternal death and injury, Black women were two to three times more likely to die than White women who had the same condition. The World Health Organization in 2014 estimated that Black expectant and new mothers in the United States die at about the same rate as women in countries such as Mexico and Uzbekistan. A 2018 study found that "The sexual and reproductive health of African-American women has been compromised because f multiple experiences of racism, including discriminatory healthcare practices from slavery through

3125-480: Is associated with status and beauty. Light-skinned black women are more represented in the media than dark-skinned black women. Studies of human attractiveness have consistently shown that black women are rated as less attractive than white, Asian and Latina women in the United States. In studies of heterosexual men's preferences in the United States, black women are the least desired group of women, followed by white women and Latina women, while Asian women are

3250-415: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Black women Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw developed the theory of intersectionality, which highlighted the overlapping discrimination faced by Black women (on the basis of both race and gender) in the United States. The theory has been influential in the fields of feminism and critical race theory as

3375-416: Is not so clearly linked to capitalism and the free markets... historically there has been a closer link between colonialism/imperialism and state-led approaches to development." While tropical Africa was not a large zone of investment, other overseas regions were. The vast interior between Egypt and the gold and diamond-rich Southern Africa had strategic value in securing the flow of overseas trade. Britain

3500-515: Is of various textures, has deep cultural meanings, ranging from political statements to pride, beauty, and fashion. Despite there being a lack of education in Black American hair and why Black women choose particular hairstyles and products, cosmetologists and educators have paved the way for greater education in this area, for example, bringing awareness to the fact that Black hair does not create its own oil like white hair does which creates

3625-415: Is two-three times more common in women of color, but more specifically, one in every 537 Black women will have lupus. Black women are also at a higher chance of being overweight thus making them open to more obesity-related diseases. There is also a racial disparity when it comes to pregnancy-related deaths. While there are 12.4 deaths for every 100,000 births for White women, the statistics for Black women

3750-777: The 1900 World's Fair presented the famous diorama "living" in Madagascar, while the Colonial Exhibitions in Marseilles (1906 and 1922) and in Paris (1907 and 1931)displayed human beings in cages, often nudes or quasi-nudes. Nomadic "Senegalese villages" were also created, thus displaying the power of the colonial empire to all the population. In the U.S., Madison Grant , head of the New York Zoological Society, exposed Pygmy Ota Benga in

3875-512: The Arab world —including Tunisia—has been labelled as racist, failing to take into consideration the issues of women who are not Arab; this has led to parallels between Arab feminism and White feminism . In 2020, four Black Tunisian women created the Facebook group Voices of Tunisian Black Women in an attempt to bring to light these issues affecting them, which they felt were not being discussed in

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4000-459: The Bronx Zoo alongside the apes and others in 1906. At the behest of Grant, a scientific racist and eugenicist , zoo director William Temple Hornaday placed Ota Benga in a cage with an orangutan and labeled him "The Missing Link " in an attempt to illustrate Darwinism , and in particular that Africans like Ota Benga are closer to apes than were Europeans. Other colonial exhibitions included

4125-672: The Cape Colony contributed to a preoccupation over securing the source of the Nile River. Egypt was taken over by the British in 1882, leaving the Ottoman Empire in a nominal role until 1914, when London made it a protectorate. Egypt was never an actual British colony. Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, and Uganda were subjugated in the 1890s and early 20th century; and in the south, the Cape Colony (first acquired in 1795) provided

4250-631: The Dervish State , and the Ovambo kingdoms , most of which were later conquered. The 1884 Berlin Conference regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa, and is seen as emblematic of the "scramble". In the last quarter of the 19th century, there were considerable political rivalries between the European empires , which provided the impetus for the colonisation. The later years of

4375-856: The First Boer War . British Prime Minister William Gladstone signed a peace treaty on 23 March 1881, giving self-government to the Boers in the Transvaal . The Jameson Raid of 1895 was a failed attempt by the British South Africa Company and the Johannesburg Reform Committee to overthrow the Boer government in the Transvaal. The Second Boer War , fought between 1899 and 1902, was about control of

4500-575: The First Italo-Ethiopian War broke out in 1895; Italian troops were defeated as the Ethiopians had numerical superiority, better organization, and support from Russia and France. In 1911, Italy engaged in a war with the Ottoman Empire , in which it acquired Tripolitania and Cyrenaica , that together formed what became known as Italian Libya . In 1919 Enrico Corradini developed the concept of Proletarian Nationalism , which

4625-614: The Horn of Africa (the French ambition), these two lines intersect somewhere in eastern Sudan near Fashoda , explaining its strategic importance. A French force under Jean-Baptiste Marchand arrived first at the strategically located fort at Fashoda, soon followed by a British force under Lord Kitchener , commander in chief of the British Army since 1892. The French withdrew after a standoff and continued to press claims to other posts in

4750-514: The Jardin d'Acclimatation , decided in 1877 to organise two "ethnological spectacles", presenting Nubians and Inuit . Ticket sales at the Jardin d'Acclimatation doubled, with a million paying entrances that year, a huge success for these times. Between 1877 and 1912, approximately thirty "ethnological exhibitions" were presented at the zoo. "Negro villages" were presented in Paris' 1878 World's Fair ;

4875-436: The Kingdom of Prussia , and through a series of wars with both Austria in 1866 and France in 1870 was able to unify all of Germany under Prussian rule. The German Empire was formally proclaimed on 18 January 1871. At first, Bismarck disliked colonies but gave in to popular and elite pressure in the 1880s. He sponsored the 1884–85 Berlin Conference , which set the rules of effective control of African territories and reduced

5000-514: The Me Too movement . Khawla Ksiksi, one of the group's founders, has stated that comments made by President Kais Saied in 2023 regarding Sub-Saharan migrants has worsened living conditions for Black Tunisians, with many Black Tunisian women participating in the "Carrying My Papers Just In Case" trend. Jennifer Palmer argues that in the plantation world of the colonial Caribbean, women of color were typically treated as property owned by White men. In

5125-790: The Niger River to the Nile, thus controlling all trade to and from the Sahel region by their existing control over the caravan routes through the Sahara. The British, on the other hand, wanted to link their possessions in Southern Africa with their territories in East Africa and these two areas with the Nile basin. The Sudan (which included most of present-day Uganda) was the key to the fulfilment of these ambitions, especially since Egypt

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5250-527: The United States . Technological advances facilitated European expansion overseas. Industrialization brought about rapid advancements in transportation and communication, especially in the forms of steamships, railways and telegraphs. Medical advances also played an important role, especially medicines for tropical diseases, which helped control their adverse effects. The development of quinine , an effective treatment for malaria, made vast expanses of

5375-410: The angry Black woman or Jezebel (stereotype that black women are more sexually promiscuous) and vulnerability to sex trafficking among others. These more specific terms were created as Black women have been historically left out of movements for both racial justice and feminist equality . Womanism is a social theory based on the history and experiences of black women. Coined by Alice Walker ,

5500-627: The 'Jezebel' stereotype) which can make men less interested long term relationships with black women. Transgendered black women are more likely to get killed because of discrimination and transphobia. Minstrel shows often portrayed African American women as loud, masculine, aggressive, naive, subserviently-caring, and obnoxious. Black women were also stereotyped and portrayed as promiscuous Jezebels. Black women are also often stereotyped to be poor, uneducated, young, overweight, and single mothers who are gold diggers and welfare queens. European colonization of Africa The Scramble for Africa

5625-408: The 15th century up until the 20th century, but pay much less attention to the intricate effects one would assume also having been played by forces such as the endogenous, distinct and particular, interacting and co-dependent, adaptive and/or mediating cultural and societal features pre- and co-existing in Ghana alongside colonization and its ills. It is possible that this reflects the rigidity as well as

5750-637: The 1870s, European initiatives against the slave trade caused an economic crisis in northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of Mahdist forces. In 1881, the Mahdist revolt erupted in Sudan under Muhammad Ahmad , severing Tewfik's authority in Sudan. The same year, Tewfik suffered an even more perilous rebellion by his Egyptian army in the form of the Urabi revolt . In 1882, Tewfik appealed for direct British military assistance, commencing Britain's administration of Egypt. A joint British-Egyptian military force entered

5875-721: The 19th century saw a transition from " informal imperialism " – military influence and economic dominance – to direct rule. With the decline of the European colonial empires in the wake of the two world wars, most African colonies gained independence during the Cold War , and decided to keep their colonial borders in the Organisation of African Unity conference of 1964 due to fears of civil wars and regional instability, placing emphasis on pan-Africanism . By 1841, businessmen from Europe had established small trading posts along

6000-563: The African continent, with all their territories located near the coasts. The most important holdings were Angola and Mozambique , held by Portugal ; the Cape Colony , held by the United Kingdom ; and Algeria , held by France . By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained outside European control, with the former eventually being occupied by Italy in 1936 while the latter having strong connections with its historical colonizer,

6125-753: The Atlantic. By 1890 the Congo Free State had consolidated control of its territory between Leopoldville and Stanleyville and was looking to push south down the Lualaba River from Stanleyville. At the same time, the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes was expanding north from the Limpopo River , sending the Pioneer Column (guided by Frederick Selous ) through Matabeleland , and starting

6250-590: The British Empire recognized France's claim to Madagascar as well as their sphere of influence in North Africa stretching down to the border region of Sokoto. However, finely demarcating this border was difficult to do without a large map. Although the Berlin Conference had set the rules for the Scramble for Africa, it had not weakened the rival imperialists. As a result of the Entente Cordiale ,

6375-566: The Cameroons and South West Africa to be under its protection; and France occupied Guinea. French West Africa was founded in 1895 and French Equatorial Africa in 1910. In French Somaliland , a short-lived Russian colony in the Egyptian fort of Sagallo was briefly proclaimed by Terek Cossacks in 1889. Germany, divided into small states , was not initially a colonial power. In 1862, Otto von Bismarck became Minister-President of

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6500-700: The Cameroons, and Tanganyika. Germany tried to isolate France in 1905 with the First Moroccan Crisis . This led to the 1905 Algeciras Conference , in which France's influence on Morocco was compensated by the exchange of other territories, and then to the Agadir Crisis in 1911. After fighting alongside France during the Crimean War (1853–1856), the Kingdom of Sardinia sought to unify the Italian peninsula, with French support. Following

6625-411: The Civil Rights movements over the course of time, Ida B. Wells led an anti-lynching movement in the United States of America and founded the Alpha Suffrage Club. Betsy Stockton paved the way for non-royals in Hawaii to gain access to an education by founding the first non-Royal school in Maui and all of Hawaii in 1823. One survey found that 23% of black women aged 18 to 34 identify as bisexual in

6750-541: The European powers as they divided the continent among themselves. More importantly, the diplomats in Berlin laid down the rules of competition by which the great powers were to be guided in seeking colonies. They also agreed that the area along the Congo River was to be administered by Leopold II as a neutral area in which trade and navigation were to be free. No nation was to stake claims in Africa without notifying other powers of its intentions. No territory could be formally claimed before being effectively occupied. However,

6875-416: The French colonial project in the late 19th century and early 20th century was the civilizing mission ( mission civilisatrice ), the principle that it was Europe's duty to bring civilisation to benighted peoples. As such, colonial officials undertook a policy of Franco-Europeanisation in French colonies, most notably French West Africa and Madagascar . During the 19th century, French citizenship along with

7000-462: The French conquest of Timbuktu (visited by René Caillié , disguised as a Muslim, in 1828, thereby winning the prize offered by the French Société de Géographie ); Malagasy after the occupation of Madagascar; Amazons of Abomey after Behanzin 's mediatic defeat against the French in 1894. Not used to the climatic conditions, some of the indigenous died from exposure, such as some Galibis in Paris in 1892. Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, director of

7125-417: The French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé , took a defiant line. The crisis peaked in mid-June 1905 when Delcassé was forced out of the ministry by the more conciliation-minded premier Maurice Rouvier . But by July 1905 Germany was becoming isolated, and the French agreed to a conference to solve the crisis. The 1906 Algeciras Conference was called to settle the dispute. Of the thirteen nations present,

7250-712: The French islands, race and gender shape popular assumptions about who could own property. However, there were legal loopholes that sometimes opened up windows of opportunity for women of color to be landowners. According to the American Community Survey from the US Census Bureau, the Black female population in the United States was 21.7 million in 2018. Black slaves , many of whom were women, often faced severe abuse from their owners and other non-black people. Black female slaves were sexually abused by their white male owners and were bred with them in order to bear mulatto children in an attempt to maintain White supremacy , have more slaves to pick cotton and produce superior slaves in

7375-418: The German Kaiser decided to test the solidity of such influence, using the contested territory of Morocco as a battlefield. Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Tangier on 31 March 1905 and made a speech in favour of Moroccan independence, challenging French influence in Morocco. France's presence had been reaffirmed by Britain and Spain in 1904. The Kaiser's speech bolstered French nationalism, and with British support,

7500-422: The German representatives found their only supporter was Austria-Hungary , which had no interest in Africa. France had firm support from Britain, the U.S., Russia, Italy, and Spain. The Germans eventually accepted an agreement, signed on 31 May 1906, whereby France yielded certain domestic changes in Morocco but retained control of key areas. However, five years later the Second Moroccan Crisis (or Agadir Crisis )

7625-401: The Horn of Africa, forming what would become Italian Somaliland . In the disorder that followed the 1889 death of Emperor Yohannes IV , General  Oreste Baratieri occupied the Ethiopian Highlands along the Eritrean coast, and Italy proclaimed the establishment of a new colony of Eritrea, with its capital moved from Massawa to Asmara . When relations between Italy and Ethiopia deteriorated,

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7750-426: The Mahdist War. Additionally the Egyptian province of Equatoria (located in South Sudan) led by Emin Pasha was also subject to an ostensible relief expedition of Emin Pasha against Mahdist forces. The British-Egyptian force ultimately defeated the Mahdist forces in Sudan in 1898. Thereafter, Britain seized effective control of Sudan, which was nominally called Anglo-Egyptian Sudan . The occupation of Egypt and

7875-419: The Nobel Peace Prize with Tawakkol Karman in 2011. In the United States, Toni Morrison was the first Black woman Nobel laureate. Shirley Chisholm was an important Democratic candidate for U.S. President in the 1970s. In the 2020 United States presidential election , Kamala Harris was named Joe Biden 's running mate, making her the first Black and South Asian woman to be on a major party ticket. Biden won

8000-469: The Somali nation, and the Germans promised to officially recognise any territories the Dervishes were to acquire. After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's use of aircraft. Between 1904 and 1908, Germany's colonies in German South West Africa and German East Africa were rocked by separate, contemporaneous native revolts against their rule. In both territories

8125-404: The Somalis. The Dervish movement , led by Sayid Muhammed Abdullah Hassan , existed for 21 years, from 1899 until 1920. The Dervish movement successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region. Because of these successful expeditions, the Dervish movement was recognized as an ally by the Ottoman and German empires. The Turks named Hassan Emir of

8250-575: The South . Black female slaves received the same treatment in Brazil , Central America , Mexico , Peru and the Caribbean . An example of this is former president and slave owner Thomas Jefferson who fathered mixed-race children with Sally Hemings , a slave that he owned. Black slave women and their bodies were also fetishized by their white male slave owners. Enslaved black women had no legal means to protect and prevent themselves from sexual assault by white men and their white slave owners. In 1855 in Missouri, an enslaved Black woman named Celia

8375-499: The Suez Canal. The shares were snapped up by Britain, under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli , who sought to give his country practical control in the management of this strategic waterway. When Isma'il repudiated Egypt's foreign debt in 1879, Britain and France seized joint financial control over the country, forcing the Egyptian ruler to abdicate and installing his eldest son Tewfik Pasha in his place. The Egyptian and Sudanese ruling classes did not relish foreign intervention. During

8500-408: The United States. Black women are increasingly identifying as bisexual. Lesbian marriage is also increasing among black women. Black trans women often face high levels of discrimination. Black women often experience both racism and sexism. Dark-skinned black women often face more discrimination than light-skinned black women because of colorism. When black women were enslaved in America,

8625-560: The acquisition of military and naval bases, for strategic purposes and the exercise of power. The growing navies, and new ships driven by steam power, required coaling stations and ports for maintenance. Defence bases were also needed for the protection of sea routes and communication lines, particularly of expensive and vital international waterways such as the Suez Canal. Colonies were seen as assets in balance of power negotiations, useful as items of exchange at times of international bargaining. Colonies with large native populations were also

8750-422: The acquisition of the Congo were the first major moves in what came to be a precipitous scramble for African territory. In 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference to discuss the African problem. While diplomatic discussions were held regarding ending the remaining slave trade as well as the reach of missionary activities, the primary concern of those in attendance was preventing war between

8875-441: The bush of civilians in German South West Africa resulted in a genocide of the population. In total, as many as 65,000 Herero (80% of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Namaqua (50% of the total Namaqua population) either starved, died of thirst, or were worked to death in camps such as Shark Island concentration camp between 1904 and 1908. Between 24,000 and 100,000 Hereros, 10,000 Nama , and an unknown number of San died in

9000-447: The coasts of Africa, but they seldom moved inland, preferring to stay near the sea. They primarily traded with locals. Large parts of the continent were essentially uninhabitable for Europeans because of their high mortality rates from tropical diseases such as malaria . In the middle of the 19th century, European explorers mapped much of East Africa and Central Africa . As late as the 1870s, Europeans controlled approximately 10% of

9125-637: The colonial administration when left to itself; as described in Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness (1899)—published around the same time as Kipling 's The White Man's Burden —or in Louis-Ferdinand Céline 's Journey to the End of the Night (1932). Colonial lobbies emerged to legitimise the Scramble for Africa and other expensive overseas adventures. In Germany, France, and Britain,

9250-522: The colonial empires had become very popular almost everywhere in Europe: public opinion had been convinced of the needs of a colonial empire, although most of the metropolitans would never see a piece of it. Colonial exhibitions were instrumental in this change of popular mentalities brought about by the colonial propaganda, supported by the colonial lobby and by various scientists. Thus, conquests of territories were inevitably followed by public displays of

9375-481: The colonial lobby in his cabinet and thus did not execute his electoral promise to disengage from Egypt. Although Gladstone was personally opposed to imperialism, the social tensions caused by the Long Depression pushed him to favour jingoism : the imperialists had become the "parasites of patriotism." In France , Radical politician Georges Clemenceau was adamantly opposed to it: he thought colonization

9500-588: The competitors ignored the rules when convenient, and on several occasions war was only narrowly avoided (see Fashoda Incident ). The Swahili coast territories of the Sultanate of Zanzibar were partitioned between Germany and Britain, initially leaving the archipelago of Zanzibar independent until 1890, when that remnant of the Sultanate was made into a British protectorate with the Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty . Britain's administration of Egypt and

9625-583: The concept now encompasses a spectrum of various fields, such as Africana womanism and womanist theology . The 2003 Maputo Protocol on women's rights in Africa set the continental standard for progressive expansion of women's rights. It guarantees comprehensive rights to women, including the right to participate in the political process, social and political equality with men, autonomy in their reproductive health decisions, and an end to female genital mutilation (FGM). Women in Ghana have been experiencing poverty at higher rates than their male counterparts as

9750-432: The cycle of poverty. The patriarchality of Ghana's society, regardless of the extent to which it is ultimately the result of colonialism, has been impacting women not only economically but relationally as well. Abuse is a prevalent component of polygamous and monogamous relationships in Ghana. This normalization of domestic violence lends itself to the topic of sex trafficking in Ghana and how women are objectified through

9875-577: The dogmatic and activist commitments inherent to the largely anticolonialist origins of the theory underlying such research. According to the analyses in the vein of said kind of scholarship, the structural colonialist frameworks set up during those five centuries are particularly seen to have favored Eurocentric beauty standards, work ethic, and culture, fracturing the Ghanaian identity and customs, and seen as explaining such harmful practices as providing space for only men to further their education, secure

10000-589: The early 1880s, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza was exploring the region along the Congo River for France, at the same time Henry Morton Stanley explored it on behalf of the Committee for Studies of the Upper Congo , backed by Leopold II of Belgium , who would have it as his personal Congo Free State . Leopold had earlier hoped to recruit Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza, but turned to Henry Morton Stanley when

10125-540: The election, making Harris the first Black/South Asian person and Black/South Asian woman to be Vice President of the United States. With Justice Stephen Breyer 's announcement of his intention to retire at the end of the 2021–22 term, President Joe Biden nominated Ketanji Brown Jackson to succeed him as Supreme Court justice. She was confirmed by the United States Senate in a 53–47 vote on April 7, 2022, and took her seat on June 30, 2022. As leaders in

10250-546: The fastest growing entrepreneur group in the United States, creating many innovative businesses across the nation. Despite their entrepreneurial achievements, Black women continue to face racism and discriminatory barriers in business buildings. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, Black women are among the most educated in the United States of America. Black women have higher self-confidence and self-esteem than any group of women, according to

10375-848: The first African nation to introduce a quota in 1959, reserving 10 seats for women in Parliament. Ghana has recently been laggard, however, with a representation of 11% women after the election in 2012 and 13% after the election in 2016. In Tunisia , Black women are victims of double discrimination, facing prejudice both because of their gender and race. Testimonial evidences complied by the Tunis -branch of Rosa Luxemburg Foundation presented cases of Black women being "stigmatised, hyper-sexualised, and objectified" It has been noted that this sexualization of Black Tunisian women leads to them being viewed as objects by Arab men to "achieve sexual satisfaction" and face sexual harassment. The feminist movement in

10500-615: The first Black woman to lead a major multilateral organization when she was appointed Director-General of the World Trade Organization . Four Black women have been awarded Nobel Prizes . Toni Morrison was the first Black woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize when, in 1993, she was awarded the prize for literature. Wangari Maathai was the first Black woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize which she received in 2004. Ellen Johnson Sirleaf and Leymah Gbowee shared

10625-508: The first census did not take place until 1924, it is difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. The Casement Report set it at three million. William Rubinstein writes: "More basically, it appears almost certain that the population figures given by Hochschild are inaccurate. There is, of course, no way of ascertaining the population of the Congo before the twentieth century, and estimates like 20 million are purely guesses. Most of

10750-681: The genocide. Characteristic of this genocide was death from starvation, thirst, and possibly the poisoning of the population's wells, whilst they were trapped in the Namib Desert . In its earlier stages, imperialism was generally the act of individual explorers as well as some adventurous merchantmen. The colonial powers were a long way from approving without any dissent the expensive adventures carried out abroad. Various important political leaders, such as William Gladstone , opposed colonization in its first years. However, during his second premiership between 1880 and 1885, he could not resist

10875-682: The gold and diamond industries; the independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic were this time defeated and absorbed into the British Empire. The French thrust into the African interior was mainly from the coasts of West Africa (present-day Senegal) eastward, through the Sahel along the southern border of the Sahara . Their ultimate aim was to have an uninterrupted colonial empire from

11000-701: The highest risk for genital herpes . Black women also have higher rates of chlamydia than white women. Trichomoniasis is more common among African American women. Black women are more likely to die from cervical cancer . Black women are also prone to anemia . Black women are more likely to die from cardiovascular disease . Discrimination, racism, and sexism put black women at risk for low-income jobs, multiple role strain, and health problems that are associated with mental illnesses. Black women with depression are more likely to experience sleep disturbances, self-criticism, and irritability. Of black women, 60% o have been molested or sexually abused before age 18 by

11125-705: The indigenous people for scientific and leisure purposes. Carl Hagenbeck , a German merchant in wild animals and a future entrepreneur of most Europeans zoos, decided in 1874 to exhibit Samoa and Sami people as "purely natural" populations. In 1876, he sent one of his collaborators to the newly conquered Egyptian Sudan to bring back some wild beasts and Nubians . Presented in Paris, London, and Berlin these Nubians were very successful. Such " human zoos " could be found in Hamburg, Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Milan, New York City, Paris, etc., with 200,000 to 300,000 visitors attending each exhibition. Tuaregs were exhibited after

11250-656: The inequalities present within the culture by creating the WID (Women in Development) initiative in the 1970's to cater to women's welfare, SAPs (structural adjustment programs) in the 1980's to help women enhance their productivity, and PAMSCAD (Program of Action to Mitigate the Social Costs of Adjustment) in the late 1980's and early 1990's to help boost the socioeconomic status of Ghanaian women. These initiatives and programs ultimately failed because they were not addressing

11375-409: The informal sector of Ghana's economy , meaning they are mostly self-employed. Self-employment does not always guarantee a stable source of income, making it hard for women to make enough money to support themselves and their families. Some of the prominent entrepreneurial jobs women take up in Ghana are hairdressing, dressmaking, market trading, and agriculture. Market trading, especially, has been

11500-450: The interior of the Congo was literally unexplored if not inaccessible." A similar situation occurred in the neighbouring French Congo , where most of the resource extraction was run by concession companies, whose brutal methods, along with the introduction of disease, resulted in the loss of up to 50% of the indigenous population according to Hochschild. The French government appointed a commission headed by de Brazza in 1905 to investigate

11625-687: The latter was recruited by the French government. France occupied Tunisia in May 1881, which may have convinced Italy to join the German-Austrian Dual Alliance in 1882, thus forming the Triple Alliance . The same year, Britain occupied Egypt (hitherto an autonomous state owing nominal fealty to the Ottoman Empire ), which ruled over Sudan and parts of Chad, Eritrea, and Somalia. In 1884, Germany declared Togoland ,

11750-446: The middle class often sought strong overseas policies to ensure the market's growth. Even in lesser powers, voices like Enrico Corradini claimed a "place in the sun" for so-called "proletarian nations", bolstering nationalism and militarism in an early prototype of fascism. A plethora of colonialist propaganda pamphlets, ideas, and imagery played on the colonial powers' psychology of popular jingoism and proud nationalism. A hallmark of

11875-501: The most desired women. However, black men showed a strong preference for black women in dating and preferred them over white women. Nevertheless they still preferred Asian women over black women, and Asian, Latino and White men preferred any race over black women. It has been proposed that discrimination against black women in dating is linked to anti-black stereotypes in the media. Black women have also long been viewed as more 'sexual' than other races of women (a phenomenon known as

12000-528: The mountainous countryside had remained out of Italian control due to resistance from the Arbegnoch . The occupation is an example of the expansionist policy that characterized the Axis powers as opposed to the Scramble for Africa. David Livingstone 's explorations, carried on by Henry Morton Stanley , excited imaginations with Stanley's grandiose ideas for colonisation; but these found little support owing to

12125-425: The post-Civil Rights era." Another 2018 study found that darker skin tones were underrepresented in medical textbook imagery and that these omissions "may provide one route through which bias enters medical treatment". Black women are more likely to die from breast cancer . Black women are also more likely to die from diabetes . Black women have higher rates of HIV than white and Hispanic women. Black women have

12250-539: The problems and scale of action required, except from Leopold II of Belgium, who in 1876 had organised the International African Association . From 1869 to 1874, Stanley was secretly sent by Leopold II to the Congo region, where he made treaties with several African chiefs along the Congo River and by 1882 had sufficient territory to form the basis of the Congo Free State . While Stanley

12375-528: The problems of low prices and overproduction caused by shrinking continental markets. John A. Hobson argued in Imperialism that this shrinking of continental markets was a key factor of the global "New Imperialism" period. William Easterly , however, disagrees with the link made between capitalism and imperialism , arguing that colonialism is used mostly to promote state-led development rather than corporate development. He has said that "imperialism

12500-583: The region. The Fashoda Incident ultimately led to the signature of the Entente Cordiale of 1904, which guaranteed peace between the two. In 1890, both the United Kingdom and France were able to reach a diplomatic solution over a colonial dispute that would guarantee freedom of trade for the British Empire while allowing France to expand their influence in North Africa. In exchange for France recognizing Britain's protectorate over Zanzibar,

12625-598: The right to elect a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies was granted to the four old colonies of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyane and Réunion as well as to the residents of the " Four Communes " in Senegal. In most cases, the elected deputies were white Frenchmen, although there were some black deputies, such as the Senegalese Blaise Diagne , who was elected in 1914. By the end of World War I

12750-640: The risk of conflict between colonial powers. Bismarck used private companies to set up small colonial operations in Africa and the Pacific. Pan-Germanism became linked to the young nation's new imperialist drives. In the beginning of the 1880s, the Deutscher Kolonialverein was created, and published the Kolonialzeitung . This colonial lobby was also relayed by the nationalist Alldeutscher Verband . Weltpolitik (world policy)

12875-588: The root cause of poverty among women, and colonialism's lasting impacts have arguably rendered the Ghanaian government ill-prepared to give the necessary resources to such complex programs. Women play a modest role in Ghana's two major political parties, the National Democratic Congress (NDC) and New Patriotic Party (NP), as well as in the Convention People's Party (CPP). The first president, Kwame Nkrumah (CPP), made Ghana

13000-569: The rumoured abuses in the colony. However, de Brazza died on the return trip, and his "searingly critical" report was neither acted upon nor released to the public. In the 1920s, about 20,000 forced labourers died building a railroad through the French territory. To construct the Suez Canal , French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps had obtained many concessions from Isma'il Pasha , the Khedive of Egypt and Sudan in 1854–56. Some sources estimate

13125-419: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Black Woman . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Woman&oldid=1241260863 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

13250-404: The sexual assault of Black women produced light-skinned children, who were afforded more privileges than their darker skinned mothers although they were seldom acknowledged as legitimate children. Light-skinned black women have more privileges and advantages than dark-skinned black women. Lighter skinned black women are also more likely to be married than dark-skinned black women because light skin

13375-558: The so-called “male gaze” — a concept with origins and a specific meaning within varieties of feminist theory — and ultimately abused. Sex trafficking in Ghana is very common as a result of poverty and lack of education and employment skills. It can be hard for women to get out of being a sex worker because it might be viewed as the only way to provide for their families or themselves. The criminalization of sex work in Ghana also makes it difficult for women to escape abuse from their pimps and customers and seek help. Another factor that plays

13500-604: The southern and eastern coasts of Africa for stopover ports on the route to Asia and its empire in India . But, excluding the area that became the Union of South Africa in 1910, European nations invested relatively limited amounts of capital in Africa. Pro-imperialist colonial lobbyists such as the Alldeutscher Verband , Francesco Crispi and Jules Ferry , argued that sheltered overseas markets in Africa would solve

13625-712: The threat to German rule was quickly defeated once large-scale reinforcements from Germany arrived, with the Herero rebels in German South West Africa being defeated at the Battle of Waterberg and the Maji-Maji rebels in German East Africa being steadily crushed by German forces slowly advancing through the countryside, with the natives resorting to guerrilla warfare . German efforts to clear

13750-428: The time, this depopulation had four main causes: "indiscriminate war", starvation, reduction of births and diseases. Sleeping sickness ravaged the country and must also be taken into account for the dramatic decrease in population; it has been estimated that sleeping sickness and smallpox killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River. Estimates of the death toll vary considerably. As

13875-538: The tropics more accessible for Europeans. Sub-Saharan Africa , one of the last regions of the world largely untouched by "informal imperialism", was attractive to business entrepreneurs. During a time when Britain's balance of trade showed a growing deficit, with shrinking and increasingly protectionist continental markets during the Long Depression (1873–1896), Africa offered Britain, Germany, France, and other countries an open market that would garner them

14000-404: The unity of the nation state which provided citizenship to its population. Thus, a tension between the universalist will respect human rights of the colonized people, as they may be considered as "citizens" of the nation-state, and the imperialist drive to cynically exploit populations deemed inferior began to surface. Some, in colonizing countries, opposed what they saw as unnecessary evils of

14125-399: The workforce at 30,000, but others estimate that 120,000 workers died over the ten years of construction from malnutrition, fatigue, and disease, especially cholera . Shortly before its completion in 1869, Khedive Isma'il borrowed enormous sums from British and French bankers at high rates of interest. By 1875, he was facing financial difficulties and was forced to sell his block of shares in

14250-695: Was a diversion from the "blue line of the Vosges " mountains, that is revanchism and the patriotic urge to reclaim the Alsace-Lorraine region which had been annexed by the German Empire with the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt . Clemenceau made Jules Ferry 's cabinet fall after the 1885 Tonkin disaster . According to Hannah Arendt in The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), this expansion of national sovereignty on overseas territories contradicted

14375-498: Was a prime example of the period. Rhodes sent two expeditions to Msiri in 1890 led by Alfred Sharpe , who was rebuffed, and Joseph Thomson , who failed to reach Katanga. Leopold sent four expeditions. First, the Le Marinel expedition could only extract a vaguely worded letter. The Delcommune expedition was rebuffed. The well-armed Stairs expedition was given orders to take Katanga with or without Msiri's consent. Msiri refused,

14500-594: Was already under British control. This "red line" through Africa is made most famous by Cecil Rhodes. Along with Lord Milner , the British colonial minister in South Africa, Rhodes advocated such a "Cape to Cairo" empire, linking the Suez Canal to the mineral-rich South Africa by rail. Though hampered by the German occupation of Tanganyika until the end of World War I, Rhodes successfully lobbied on behalf of such

14625-595: Was common in Brazil. Black women were often raped by white men in Brazil in an effort to whiten the Brazilian population . Aboriginal Australian women face discrimination in Australia. They were often raped by white men and preyed on by white males during the colonial era. Some of the most important artistic and political leaders in history have been Black women. For instance, Queen Qalhata and Candace of Meroe are important early African queens. Thus far, 21 Black women have been elected or appointed as head of

14750-498: Was convicted of murder and executed by hanging for killing a white man who had raped and enslaved her. The court had rejected her self-defense claim, stating that enslaved Black women had no right to resist their white enslavers' sexual advances. Black women were also killed and lynched by white people. In May 1870, 15 white men raped a Black woman while other members of the white mob lynched and killed her husband. According to State of Women Owned Business report of 2020, Black women are

14875-560: Was exploring the Congo on behalf of Leopold II of Belgium, the Franco-Italian marine officer Pierre de Brazza travelled into the western Congo Basin and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in 1881, thus occupying today's Republic of the Congo . Portugal, which also claimed the area because of old treaties with the Kingdom of Kongo, made a treaty with Britain on 26 February 1884 to block off Leopold's access to

15000-515: Was shot, and his head was cut off and stuck on a pole as a "barbaric lesson" to the people. The Bia River expedition finished the job of establishing an administration of sorts and a "police presence" in Katanga. Thus, the half million square kilometres of Katanga came into Leopold's possession and brought his African realm up to 2,300,000 square kilometres (890,000 sq mi), about 75 times larger than Belgium. The Congo Free State imposed such

15125-566: Was sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat Panther to the port of Agadir in July 1911. Germany had started to attempt to match Britain's naval supremacy —the British navy had a policy of remaining larger than the next two rival fleets in the world combined. When the British heard of the Panther ' s arrival in Morocco, they wrongly believed that the Germans meant to turn Agadir into

15250-430: Was supposed to legitimise Italy's imperialism by a mixture of socialism with nationalism: We must start by recognizing the fact that there are proletarian nations as well as proletarian classes; that is to say, there are nations whose living conditions are subject...to the way of life of other nations, just as classes are. Once this is realised, nationalism must insist firmly on this truth: Italy is, materially and morally,

15375-574: Was the conquest and colonisation of most of Africa by seven Western European powers driven by the Second Industrial Revolution during the era of " New Imperialism " (1833–1914): Belgium , France , Germany , United Kingdom , Italy , Portugal and Spain . In 1870, 10% of the continent was formally under European control. By 1914, this figure had risen to almost 90%; the only states retaining sovereignty were Liberia , Ethiopia , Egba , Aussa , Senusiyya , Mbunda ,

15500-419: Was the foreign policy adopted by Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890, intending to transform Germany into a global power through aggressive diplomacy, and the development of a large navy. Germany became the third-largest colonial power in Africa, the location of most of its 2.6 million square kilometres of colonial territory and 14 million colonial subjects in 1914. The African possessions were Southwest Africa, Togoland,

15625-590: Was under political pressure to build up lucrative markets in India, Malaya , Australia and New Zealand. Thus, it wanted to secure the key waterway between East and West – the Suez Canal , completed in 1869. However, a theory that Britain sought to annex East Africa during 1880 onwards, out of geo-strategic concerns connected to Egypt (especially the Suez Canal), has been challenged by historians such as John Darwin (1997) and Jonas F. Gjersø (2015). The scramble for African territory also reflected concern for

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