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33-461: A blood brother is a male who swears loyalty to another male. Blood Brother , Blood Brothers , Bloodbrothers , or The Blood Brothers may also refer to: Blood brother The act carries a risk due to blood-borne diseases . The process usually provides a participant with a heightened symbolic sense of attachment with the other participant. The Norsemen entering the pact of foster brotherhood ( Icelandic : Fóstbræðralag ) involved

66-579: A ceremony, which was known as Greek : adelphopoiesis , Slavic languages : pobratimstvo in the Eastern Orthodox Churches and as Latin : ordo ad fratres faciendum in the Catholic Church. The tradition of intertwining arms and drinking wine is also believed to be a representation of becoming blood brothers. Middle Mongol Middle Mongol or Middle Mongolian was a Mongolic koiné language spoken in

99-470: A consequence, blood brotherhood was highly sought after and often preceded by a lengthy period of affiliation and friendship ( Lucian , Toxaris ). The 4th-century BC depictions of two Scythian warriors drinking from a single drinking horn (most notably in a gold appliqué from Kul-Oba ) have been associated with the Scythian oath of blood brotherhood. The Hungarian hajduks had a similar ceremony, but

132-456: A copula. They are listed in the following table. ‑gcid Converbs are used as modifiers of the finite verb and their subject is normally the same as that of the finite verb. The following types occur: (-basu) When combined with the particle -ber , it has concessive function 'even if / although he does X'. The voice morphology can be viewed as part of word formation. The following suffixes may be mentioned: Middle Mongol exhibits

165-625: A cut on the chest and then daubing the blood on the tongue and forehead. The blood oath was used in much the same fashion as has already been described in much of Sub-Saharan Africa . The British colonial administrator Lord Lugard is famous for having become blood brothers with numerous African chiefs as part of his political policy in Africa. A powerful blood brother was the Kikuyu chieftain Waiyaki Wa Hinga . David Livingstone wrote of

198-440: A form in -n . There are a number of forms expressing wishes and commands, as shown in the following table. A polite request can also be expressed by a future passive participle form -qda-qu (see below). There are a number of participles. They may be used attributively or as standalone heads of nominal phrases, and several may also be combined with a copula to form complex verbal forms, or simply be used predicatively without

231-507: A friendship or treaty or to validate an agreement. They were described in the records of the early Spanish and Portuguese explorers to the islands. The most well-known version of the ritual from the Visayan people involves mixing a drop of blood from both parties into a single cup of wine that is then drunk. Other versions also exist, like in Palawan which describes a ritual involving making

264-462: A noun declined for any case. Its shape varies depending on phonological factors and the genitive ending of vowel stems is also changed in front of it: The personal pronouns exhibit an inclusive-exclusive distinction . They mostly take the same case suffixes as the nouns, but display some suppletion and stem allomorphy, as summarised below: Other pronouns and related forms are: (pl. -n ) (pl. -n ) Indefinite pronouns are formed by combining

297-549: A positionally determined allophonic variation [k]~[ q ], [g]~[ ɢ ], with the postvelar allophones occurring in back-vowel contexts. Both have been claimed to occur before /i/ (depending on its origin from Proto-Mongolic */i/ or */ ɯ /), which would make them phonemic. In transliteration , /ø/ and /y/ are commonly indicated as ⟨ö⟩ and ⟨ü⟩ , respectively; /t͡ʃ/, /d͡ʒ/ and /ʃ/ are written ⟨c⟩ (or ⟨č⟩ ), ⟨j⟩ and ⟨sh⟩ (or ⟨š⟩ ); /j/

330-538: A revision of this terminology for the early period of Mongolian has been attempted, the lack of a thorough and linguistically-based periodization of Mongolian up to now has constituted a problem for any such attempts. The related term "Preclassical Mongolian" is applied to Middle Mongol documents in Mongolian script, since these show some distinct linguistic peculiarities. Middle Mongol had the consonant phonemes /p, m, tʰ, t, s, n, l, r, t͡ʃʰ, t͡ʃ, j, kʰ, k, h/ and

363-524: A rite in which they let their blood flow while they ducked underneath an arch formed by a strip of turf propped up by a spear or spears. An example is described in Gísla saga . In Fóstbræðra saga , the bond of Thorgeir Havarsson (Þorgeir Hávarsson) and Thormod Bersason (Þormóð Bersason) is sealed by such ritual as well, the ritual being called a leikr . Örvar-Oddr 's saga contains another notable account of blood brotherhood. Örvar-Oddr , after fighting

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396-682: A similar practice called 'Kasendi'. Blood brothers among larger groups were common in ancient Southeastern Europe , where, for example, whole companies of soldiers would become one family through the ceremony. It was perhaps most prevalent in the Balkans during the Ottoman era , as it helped the oppressed people to fight the enemy more effectively. Blood brotherhoods were common in what is today Albania , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Bulgaria , Croatia , Greece , Montenegro , Serbia and North Macedonia . Christianity also recognized sworn brotherhood in

429-471: Is denoted by ⟨y⟩ ; /ŋ/ is spelt ⟨ng⟩ ; and /ɢ/ may be expressed by ⟨gh⟩ (or ⟨γ⟩ ). The vowels participate in front-back vowel harmony , where /a/, /o/ and /u/ alternate with /e/, /ø/ and /y/; in the rest of this article, morphemes are represented only by their back-vocalic allomorph. The vowel /i/ is neutral with respect to vowel harmony. Certain stems end in an 'unstable /n/' (here marked n ), which

462-481: Is due to language contact. There are nine cases , the nominative being unmarked. The verbal suffixes can be divided into finite suffixes, participles and converbal suffixes. Some of the finite suffixes inflect for subject number and gender. Adjectives precede their modificatum and agree with it in number. The pronouns have a clusivity distinction. The plural suffixes are distributed as follows: The case endings have different allomorphs depending on whether

495-536: Is not definite and specific; in such cases, stems ending in unstable /n/ lose it. The comitative may also be used as an instrumental. The ablative expresses the object of a comparison in a construction expressing the comparative degree: qola-ca qola 'farther than far', lit. 'far from far' . The genitive does the same in the superlative degree construction: irgen-ü sayin haran 'the best of the people', lit. 'people good of people'. A reflexive possessive suffix (meaning 'his own', 'my own' and so on) can be placed after

528-428: Is obligatorily or optionally dropped in front of various suffixes. The consonants /g/ and /k/ are elided in front of vowel-initial suffixes. Middle Mongol is an agglutinating language that makes nearly exclusive use of suffixes . The word order is subject–object–predicate if the subject is a noun and also object–predicate–subject if it is a pronoun . Middle Mongol rather freely allows for predicate–object, which

561-419: Is unlikely that the stele was erected at the place where it was found in the year of the event it describes, suggesting that it is more likely to have been erected about a quarter of a century later, when Yisüngge had gained more substantial political power. If so, the earliest surviving Mongolian monument would be an edict of Töregene Khatun of 1240 and the oldest surviving text arguably The Secret History of

594-581: The Khitan language into the "Para-Mongolic" family, meaning it is related to the Mongolic languages as a sister group , rather than as a direct descendant of Proto-Mongolic. Alexander Vovin has also identified several possible loanwords from Koreanic languages into Khitan. He also identified the extinct Tuyuhun language as another Para-Mongolic language. The temporal delimitation of Middle Mongol causes some problems as shown in definitions ranging from

627-497: The Mongol Empire . Originating from Genghis Khan 's home region of Northeastern Mongolia , it diversified into several Mongolic languages after the collapse of the empire. In comparison to Modern Mongolian , it is known to have had no long vowels , different vowel harmony and verbal systems and a slightly different case system. Middle Mongolian closely resembles Proto-Mongolic , the reconstructed last common ancestor of

660-707: The Mongols and the Manchu . Genghis Khan had an anda called Jamukha . The term also exist in Old Turkic : ant ičmek ("to take an oath"), derived from the "ancient test by poison". The Turkic term, if it's not a loanword in Middle Mongol , is related to Mongol anda . In the Philippines , blood compacts ( sandugo or sanduguan , literally "one blood") were ancient rituals that were intended to seal

693-408: The vowel phonemes /i, e, y, ø, a, u, o/ . The main difference to older approaches is that ⟨γ⟩ is identified with /h/ and /ɡ/ (sometimes as [p] before /u/ and /y/ ), so that *pʰ for Proto-Mongolic cannot be reconstructed from internal evidence that used to be based solely on word-initial /h/ and the then rather incomplete data from Monguor . There appears to have been

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726-423: The 13th until the early 15th or until the late 16th century. This discrepancy arises from the lack of documents written in the Mongolian language from between the early 15th and late 16th centuries. It is not clear whether these two delimitations constitute conscious decisions about the classification of e.g. a small text from 1453 with less than 120 words or whether the vaster definition is just intended to fill up

759-524: The Mongols , a document that must originally have been written in Mongolian script in 1252, but which only survives in an edited version as a textbook for learning Mongolian from the Ming dynasty , thus reflecting the pronunciation of Middle Mongol from the second half of the 14th century. The term "Middle Mongol" is problematic insofar as there is no body of texts that is commonly called "Old Mongol". While

792-420: The interrogatives and the particle -ba(r) . The finite indicative verbal suffixes express different shades of temporal, aspectual and modal meaning, and the ones with a past meaning also agree with the subject in semantic/biological gender . There are two present and two past forms, with a modal distinction between a marked and unmarked form within each pair, and a pluperfect. The usual suffixes are displayed in

825-463: The modern Mongolic languages , which dates it to shortly after the time when Genghis Khan united a number of tribes under his command and formed the Khamag Mongol . The term "Middle Mongol" or "Middle Mongolian" is somewhat misleading, since it is the earliest directly-attested (as opposed to reconstructed) ancestor of Modern Mongolian , and would therefore be termed "Old Mongolian" under

858-416: The renowned Swedish warrior Hjalmar to a draw, entered a foster brotherhood with him by the turf-raising ritual. Afterwards, the strand of turf was put back during oaths and incantations. In the mythology of Northern Europe , Gunther and Högni became the blood brothers of Sigurd when he married their sister Gudrun . In Wagner 's opera Götterdämmerung , the concluding part of his Ring Cycle ,

891-603: The same occurs between Gunther and Wagner's version of Sigurd, Siegfried , which is marked by the "Blood Brotherhood Leitmotiv ". Additionally, it is briefly stated in Lokasenna that Odin and Loki are blood brothers. Among the Scythians , the covenantors would allow their blood to drip into a cup; the blood was subsequently mixed with wine and drunk by both participants. Every man was limited to having three blood brotherhoods at any time lest his loyalties be distrusted. As

924-403: The stem ends in a vowel, the consonant /n/ or another consonant. There is also some chronological variation between earlier and later texts, as marked with the sign > in the table. The dative-locative may denote not only an indirect object, but also local and temporal expressions, both static and dynamic. The accusative ending may be replaced by the unmarked nominative, especially if the noun

957-435: The table below. As above, more innovative variants are introduced with the sign >. (-yi) -Ji'ai In addition, a durative suffix -nam is attested only in late Arabic sources (originally the converbal suffix -n , on which see below, combined with the copula a- in the narrative form). There are also some attestations of the finite use of a form in -d with plural subjects, whose singular may have been, again,

990-570: The three main characters took an oath of blood brother, the Oath of the Peach Garden , by sacrificing a black ox and a white horse and by swearing faith. Other blood oaths involving animal sacrifice were characteristic of rebel groups, such as the uprising led by Deng Maoqi in the 1440s, of criminal organizations, such as the triads or the pirates of Lin Daoqian , and other East Asians such as

1023-628: The time gap for which little proper evidence is available. Middle Mongol survived in a number of scripts, namely notably ʼPhags-pa (decrees during the Yuan dynasty ), Arabic (dictionaries), Chinese , Mongolian script and a few western scripts. Usually , the Stele of Yisüngge is considered to be its first surviving monument. It is a sports report written in Mongolian writing that was already fairly conventionalized then and most often dated between 1224 and 1225. However, Igor de Rachewiltz argues that it

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1056-674: The usual conventions for naming historical forms of languages (compare the distinction between Old Chinese and Middle Chinese ). Although the existence of an earlier ("old") Mongol clan federation in Mongolia during the 12th century is historical, there is no surviving language material from that period. According to Vovin (2019), the Rouran language of the Rouran Khaganate was a Mongolic language and close, but not identical, to Middle Mongolian. Juha Janhunen (2006) classified

1089-531: The wine was often replaced with milk so that the blood would be more visible. In Asian cultures , the act and the ceremony of becoming blood brothers is generally seen as a tribal relationship for bringing about alliance between tribes. It was practiced for that reason most notably by the Mongols , Turkic and early Chinese . In Romance of the Three Kingdoms , the Chinese classical literature,

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