Bruntál ( Czech pronunciation: [ˈbruntaːl] ; German : Freudenthal ) is a town in the Moravian-Silesian Region of the Czech Republic . It has about 15,000 inhabitants. The historic town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument zone .
107-487: The area of the former village of Karlovec is an administrative part of Bruntál. It forms an exclave of the municipal territory. The original German name Freudenthal means "valley of joy" and refers to the town's location in a valley. The Czech name was later created by transcribing the German name. Bruntál is located about 45 kilometres (28 mi) north of Olomouc and 55 km (34 mi) northwest of Ostrava , in
214-503: A complete turning from an old to a totally new life. While it entailed the acceptance of new religious beliefs and membership in a new religious community, most converts retained a deep attachment to the cultures and communities from which they came. Muslim scholars like Abu Hanifa and Abu Yusuf stated that the jizya tax should be paid by Non-Muslims ( Kuffar ) regardless of their religion, some later and also earlier Muslim jurists did not permit Non-Muslims who are not People of
321-547: A convert. Crypto-Jews , Crypto-Christians , Crypto-Muslims and Crypto-Pagans are historical examples of the latter. The religions of the world are divided into two groups: those that actively seek new followers (missionary religions) and those that do not (non-missionary religions). This classification dates back to a lecture given by Max Müller in 1873, and is based on whether or not a religion seeks to gain new converts. The three main religions classified as missionary religions are Christianity , Islam , and Buddhism , while
428-416: A discontinuity on land, such as in the case of Point Roberts. Along rivers that change course, pene-enclaves can be observed as complexes comprising many small pene-enclaves. A pene-enclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render a territory, although geographically attached, inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. A commonly cited example
535-587: A handful of them were allowed to leave and the rest of them were forced to convert. Muslims were expelled from Portugal in 1497, and they were gradually forced to convert in the constituent kingdoms of Spain. The forced conversion of Muslims was implemented in the Crown of Castile from 1500 to 1502 and it was implemented in the Crown of Aragon in the 1520s. After the conversions, the so-called " New Christians " were those inhabitants ( Sephardic Jews or Mudéjar Muslims) who were baptized under coercion as well as in
642-421: A key). Originally, it was a term of property law that denoted the situation of a land or parcel of land surrounded by land owned by a different owner, and that could not be reached for its exploitation in a practical and sufficient manner without crossing the surrounding land. In law, this created a servitude of passage for the benefit of the owner of the surrounded land. The first diplomatic document to contain
749-424: A mining town and the mining of precious metals and later iron ore in its vicinity was the main source of its prosperity until the 17th century. This fact was also reflected in the coat of arms, which already contains the figure of a miner in its oldest known image on a document from 1287. In addition to mining the town's economic growth was aided by its location on a trade route and the development of crafts. Bruntál
856-614: A new post office was established in 1748. During the 19th century, industrialisation took place. In 1823–1826, the town fortifications were demolished, new public buildings were built, and many textile factories were established. Bruntál became the centre of textile industry of Czech Silesia . The railway was opened in 1872. According to the Austrian census of 1910 the town had 8,066 inhabitants, out of which 7,939 (99.7%) were German-speaking. Jews were not allowed to declare Yiddish as their native language, thus most of them professed
963-412: A new replacement site. The same possible curtailments and alterations never apply to proper exclaves. Forced conversion Forced conversion is the adoption of a religion or irreligion under duress . Someone who has been forced to convert to a different religion or irreligion may continue, covertly, to adhere to the beliefs and practices which were originally held, while outwardly behaving as
1070-685: A part of a sovereign state (like the Kaliningrad Oblast ). A pene-exclave is a part of the territory of one country that can be conveniently approached – in particular, by wheeled traffic – only through the territory of another country. Pene-exclaves are also called functional exclaves or practical exclaves. Many pene-exclaves partially border their own territorial waters (i.e., they are not surrounded by other nations' territorial waters), such as Point Roberts, Washington , and Minnesota's Northwest Angle . A pene-exclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render
1177-478: A persecuted religion into a religion which was capable of persecuting and sometimes eager to persecute. On 27 February 380, together with Gratian and Valentinian II , Theodosius I issued the decree Cunctos populos , the so-called Edict of Thessalonica , recorded in the Codex Theodosianus xvi.1.2 . This declared Trinitarian Nicene Christianity to be the only legitimate imperial religion and
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#17327768201921284-455: A place where they had no liberty, and were liable to imprisonment, torture and death if they worshiped after their own fashion the gods of their fathers", wrote Filippo Sassetti , who was in India from 1578 to 1588. In 1858, Edgardo Mortara was taken from his Jewish parents and raised as a Catholic, because he had been baptized by a maid without his parents' consent or knowledge. This incident
1391-527: A quantitative principle applies: the land boundary must be longer than the coastline. Thus a state is classified as a sovereign semi-enclave if it borders on just one state, and its land boundary is longer than its sea coastline. (Since Vinokurov's writing in 2007, Canada and the Kingdom of Denmark have each gained a second bordering state — each other — with the 2022 division of Hans Island .) Vinokurov affirms that "no similar quantitative criterion
1498-557: A significant proportion of income to the Islamic states while conversely reducing many Christians to poverty, and these financial and social hardships forced many Christians to convert to Islam. Christians unable to pay these taxes were forced to surrender their children to the Muslim rulers as payment who would sell them as slaves to Muslim households where they were forced to convert to Islam . Many Christian martyrs were executed under
1605-511: A surface area of 5 ha (12 acres) lies in the northern part of the municipal territory. The Karlovec exclave is located on the banks of the Slezská Harta Reservoir , about 5 km (3 mi) southeast of the town centre. The most remarkable geological site in the municipal territory of the town is Uhlířský vrch. Uhlířský vrch is a stratovolcano ( compositive volcano ) formed by both explosive and effusive eruptions, and
1712-529: A territory comprises both land territory and territorial waters. In the case of enclaves in territorial waters, they are called maritime (those surrounded by territorial sea) or lacustrine (if in a lake) enclaves. Most of the true national-level enclaves now existing are in Asia and Europe. While subnational enclaves are numerous the world over, there are only a few national-level true enclaves in Africa, Australia and
1819-472: A territory inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. A commonly cited example is the Kleinwalsertal , a valley part of Vorarlberg , Austria, that is accessible only from Germany to the north. The word enclave is French and first appeared in the mid-15th century as a derivative of the verb enclaver (1283), from the colloquial Latin inclavare (to close with
1926-494: Is a logically extended back-formation of enclave . Enclaves exist for a variety of historical , political and geographical reasons. For example, in the feudal system in Europe, the ownership of feudal domains was often transferred or partitioned, either through purchase and sale or through inheritance, and often such domains were or came to be surrounded by other domains. In particular, this state of affairs persisted into
2033-870: Is a portion of a state or district geographically separated from the main part, by some surrounding alien territory. Many exclaves are also enclaves, but an exclave surrounded by the territory of more than one state is not an enclave. The Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan is an example of an exclave that is not an enclave, as it borders Armenia , Turkey and Iran . Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border (a coastline contiguous with international waters ), would otherwise be enclaves or exclaves. Semi-enclaves and enclaves are mutually exclusive. Likewise, semi-exclaves and exclaves are mutually exclusive. Enclaves and semi-enclaves can exist as independent states ( Monaco , The Gambia and Brunei are semi-enclaves), while exclaves and semi-exclaves proper always constitute just
2140-457: Is aimed at alleviating current suffering, to brutal change, which is aimed at achieving long-term goals, for the benefit of groups which have ranged from small cliques to all of humanity. The relationship is far from simple. But religion has frequently been used in a coercive manner, and it has also used coercion. People may express their faith through the act of taking refuge , and conversions usually require people to recite their acceptance of
2247-407: Is both an exclave of A and an enclave from the viewpoint of B. The singular territory D, although an enclave, is not an exclave. An enclave is a part of the territory of a state that is enclosed within the territory of another state. To distinguish the parts of a state entirely enclosed in a single other state, they are called true enclaves . A true enclave cannot be reached without passing through
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#17327768201922354-534: Is located on the railway line Ostrava – Olomouc . There are five kindergartens, six primary schools (including one special primary school for children with intellectual disability ), and three high schools. Art education is provided by the elementary art school. Another educational facility is the Leisure Time Centre. This facility is aimed at providing various leisure activities for children of all ages and adults. The sorts of activities offered by
2461-483: Is needed to define the scope of non-sovereign semi-enclaves/exclaves." Sometimes, administrative divisions of a country, for historical or practical reasons, caused some areas to belong to one division while being attached to another. The term pene -exclave was defined in Robinson (1959) as "parts of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently – in particular by wheeled traffic – only through
2568-611: Is not the homeland of Muslims and Christians. Hindu extremist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha , have gone so far as to call for massacres and forced sterilisations , of religious minorities, particularly the Muslims, that have not done ghar wapsi ("returned home") to Hinduism. After the Arab conquests, a number of Christian Arab tribes suffered enslavement and forced conversion. The Teaching of Jacob (written soon after
2675-401: Is often used as a synonym for enclave (such as "the pockets of Puducherry district"). In British administrative history, subnational enclaves were usually called detachments or detached parts , and national enclaves as detached districts or detached dominions . In British ecclesiastic history, subnational enclaves were known as peculiars (see also royal peculiar ). The word exclave
2782-480: Is the Kleinwalsertal , a valley part of Vorarlberg , Austria, that is only accessible from Germany to the north, being separated from the rest of Austria by high mountains traversed by no roads. Another example is the Spanish village of Os de Civís , accessible from Andorra. Hence, such areas are enclaves or exclaves for practical purposes , without meeting the strict definition. Many pene-exclaves partially border
2889-559: Is thus composed of pyroclastic rocks , of which 40–80% consist of lapilli , 10–50% consist of volcanic bombs and the rest, volcanic ash . It is one of the youngest extinct volcanoes in the Czech Republic. The first written mention of Bruntál is in the Uničov Charter issued by King Ottokar I in 1223. According to the charter, Bruntál was founded probably by Vladislaus Henry around 1213 and granted Magdeburg rights . Being
2996-614: The Baltic Sea forced conversions were a widely used tactic, which received papal sanction. These tactics were first adopted during the Wendish Crusade and became more widespread during the Livonian Crusade and Prussian Crusade , in which tactics included killing hostages, massacre, and devastation of the lands of tribes that had not yet submitted. Most of the populations of these regions were converted only after
3103-522: The Massacre of Verden in 782, when Charlemagne reportedly had 4,500 captive Saxons massacred for rebelling, and the Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae , a law imposed on conquered Saxons in 785, after another rebellion and destruction of churches and killing of missionary priests and monks, that prescribed death to those who refused to convert to Christianity. Forced conversion that occurred after
3210-715: The Potsdam Agreement and resettled by Czechs. In the 1950s, the textile industry ended and was replaced by new industrial enterprises. The largest employer with the headquarters in the town is the Czech branch of the Osram company, a manufacturer of electric lights. Bruntál lies at the crossroads of two main roads: the I/11 (the section from Opava to Šumperk ) and the I/45 (connecting Krnov with Olomouc District ). Bruntál
3317-651: The Triple Gems of Buddhism . However, they may always practice Buddhism without fully abandoning their own religion. According to Chin Human Rights Organisation (CHRO), Christians from the Chin ethnic minority group in Myanmar are facing coercion to convert to Buddhism by state actors and programme. Christianity was a minority religion during much of the middle Roman Classical Period , and
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3424-674: The Vandals attempted to force all Spanish Catholics to become Arian Christians during their rule in Spain. Gregory also recounted episodes of forced conversion of Jews by Chilperic I and Avitus of Clermont . During the Saxon Wars , Charlemagne , King of the Franks , forcibly converted the Saxons from their native Germanic paganism by way of warfare, and law upon conquest. Examples are
3531-466: The dhimmi category. Wael Hallaq states that in theory, Islamic religious tolerance only applied to those religious groups that Islamic jurisprudence considered to be monotheistic "People of the Book", i.e. Christians, Jews, and Sabians if they paid the jizya tax, while to those excluded from the "People of the Book" were only offered two choices: convert to Islam or fight to the death. In practice,
3638-420: The state generally have different aims, both are concerned about power and order; both use reason and emotion to motivate behavior. Throughout history, leaders of religious and political institutions have cooperated, opposed one another, and/or attempted to co-opt each other, for purposes which are both noble and base, and they have implemented programs with a wide range of driving values, from compassion , which
3745-606: The "Old Christians". The Spanish Inquisition generated much wealth and income for the church and individual inquisitors by confiscating the property of the persecuted. The end of Al-Andalus and the expulsion of the Sephardic Jews from the Iberian Peninsula went hand in hand with the increasing amount of Spanish and Portuguese influence in the world, influence which was exemplified by the Christian conquest of
3852-488: The "People of the Book" designation and dhimmi status were even extended to the non-monotheistic religions of the conquered peoples, such as Hindus , Jains , Buddhists , and other non-monotheists. The Druze have frequently experienced persecution by different Muslim regimes such as the Shia Ismaili Fatimid State , Mamluk , Sunni Ottoman Empire , and Egypt Eyalet . The persecution of
3959-782: The 10th century, Vladimir the Great , the ruler of Kievan Rus' , ordered Kiev's citizens to undergo a mass baptism in the Dnieper river. In the 13th century the pagan populations of the Baltics faced campaigns of forcible conversion by crusading knight corps such as the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Teutonic Order , which often meant simply dispossessing these populations of their lands and property. After Ivan
4066-628: The 16th century, the character of the town changed as it was rebuilt in the Renaissance style and better fortified by building new bastions. In 1621, the estate was confiscated from Jan IV of Vrbno and Bruntál for his participation in the Bohemian Revolt and given to the Teutonic Order . Forced re-Catholicization took place in the following years. During the Thirty Years' War , the town was repeatedly looted and severely damaged, and
4173-599: The 19th century in the Holy Roman Empire , and these domains (principalities, etc.) exhibited many of the characteristics of sovereign states. Prior to 1866 Prussia alone consisted of more than 270 discontiguous pieces of territory. Residing in an enclave within another country has often involved difficulties in such areas as passage rights, importing goods, currency, provision of utilities and health services, and host nation cooperation. Thus, over time, enclaves have tended to be eliminated. For example, two-thirds of
4280-644: The Almohad persecution, the medieval Jewish philosopher and rabbi Moses Maimonides (1135–1204), one of the leading exponents of the Golden Age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula , wrote his Epistle on Apostasy , in which he permitted Jews to feign apostasy under duress, though strongly recommending leaving the country instead. There is dispute amongst scholars as to whether Maimonides himself converted to Islam in order to freely escape from Almohad territory, and then reconverted back to Judaism in either
4387-748: The Americas (each such enclave being surrounded by the territorial waters of another country). A historical example is West Berlin before the reunification of Germany . Since 1945, all of Berlin had been ruled de jure by the four Allied powers. However, the East German government and the Soviet Union treated East Berlin as an integral part of East Germany, so West Berlin was a de facto enclave within East Germany . Also, 12 small West Berlin enclaves, such as Steinstücken , were separated from
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4494-432: The Book , Christians under Muslim rule were subjected to dhimmi status (along with Jews , Samaritans , Gnostics , Mandeans , and Zoroastrians ), which was inferior to the status of Muslims. Christians and other religious minorities thus faced religious discrimination and religious persecution in that they were banned from proselytising (for Christians, it was forbidden to evangelize or spread Christianity ) in
4601-564: The Book or Ahle-Kitab (Jews, Christians, Sabians) pay the jizya . Instead, they only allowed them (non- Ahle-Kitab ) to avoid death by choosing to convert to Islam. Of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence , the Hanafi and Maliki schools allow polytheists to be granted dhimmi status, except Arab polytheists . However, the Shafi'i , Hanbali and Zahiri schools only consider Christians , Jews , and Sabians to be eligible to belong to
4708-535: The Bruntál estate. The Lords of Vrbno and Bruntál were steadily stripping the town of its privileges and forced local inhabitants into corvée labour and religious conversion to Lutheranism . These encroachments upon town privileges and the liberties of its citizens resulted in an unsuccessful rebellion against Jan the Elder of Vrbno and Bruntál in 1556. Despite political decline Bruntál's economy flourished under
4815-877: The Crusaders in Lorraine, on the Lower Rhine, in Bavaria and Bohemia, in Mainz and in Worms (see Rhineland massacres , Worms massacre (1096) ). Though he strongly condemned and prohibited forced conversion and baptism by decree, Pope Innocent III suggested in a private letter to a bishop in 1201 that those who agreed to be baptized to avoid torture and intimidation might be compelled to outwardly observe Christianity: [T]hose who are immersed even though reluctant, do belong to ecclesiastical jurisdiction at least by reason of
4922-775: The Druze included massacres , demolishing Druze prayer houses and holy places and forced conversion to Islam. Those were no ordinary killings and massacres in the Druze's narrative, they were meant to eradicate the whole community according to the Druze narrative. The wars of the Ridda (lit. apostasy ) undertaken by Abu Bakr , the first caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate , against Arab tribes who had accepted Islam but refused to pay Zakat and Jizya Tax, have been described by some historians as an instance of forced conversion or "reconversion". The rebellion of these Arab tribes
5029-468: The Gambia and Brunei . Vinokurov (2007) declares, "Technically, Portugal , Denmark , and Canada also border only one foreign state, but they are not enclosed in the geographical, political, or economic sense. They have vast access to international waters. At the same time, there are states that, although in possession of sea access, are still enclosed by the territories of a foreign state." Therefore,
5136-677: The German language. The most populous religious group was the Roman Catholics with 7,725 (95.8%), followed by the Protestants with 229 (2.8%), and the Jews with 97 (1.2%). Until 1918, Bruntál was part of Austria-Hungary , in a district by the same name, one of the eight Bezirkshauptmannschaften in Austrian Silesia . After World War I , Bruntál became part of the newly established Czechoslovakia , which led to riots by
5243-633: The German majority. Czech families began to come to the town and a large minority was gradually formed. German nationalism gained many sympathizers among German inhabitants of Bruntál, which was reflected in an attempted uprising in September 1938. After signing the Munich Agreement on 29 September 1938, Bruntál was occupied by Nazi Germany . From 1938 to 1945, it was part of the Reichsgau Sudetenland . During World War II ,
5350-696: The Germans operated a Gestapo prison in the town, the E339 and E352 forced labour subcamps of the Stalag VIII-B/344 prisoner-of-war camp , a forced labour camp for Jews , and a subcamp of the Auschwitz concentration camp for women. The town was liberated by the Soviet Red Army on 7 May 1945, and then restored to Czechoslovakia. The German population was expelled in accordance to
5457-485: The Islamic death penalty for defending their Christian faith through dramatic acts of resistance such as refusing to convert to Islam, repudiation of the Islamic religion and subsequent reconversion to Christianity , and blasphemy towards Muslim beliefs . After the Arab conquests a number of Christian Arab tribes suffered enslavement and forced conversion. During the rise of the Islamic Caliphates, it
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#17327768201925564-781: The Jewish dhimmi s living under the Caliphate, while allowed fewer rights than Muslims, were still better off than in Christian Europe . Many Jews migrated to al-Andalus , where they were not just tolerated but allowed to practice their faith openly. Christians had also practiced their religion openly in Córdoba, and both Jews and Christians lived openly in Morocco as well. The first Almohad ruler, Abd al-Mumin, allowed an initial seven-month grace period . Then he forced most of
5671-458: The Leisure Time Centre vary from sports (belly dancing, volleyball, gymnastics, etc.) to pottery or playing musical instruments. The most important monument is Bruntál Castle. The original Gothic fortress from the end of the 15th century was rebuilt into a Renaissance residence in the second half of the 16th century, and then baroque rebuilt in 1766–1769. It has an atypical floor plan with a triangular courtyard with arcades. The valuable equipment of
5778-473: The Orthodox Church. The pilgrimage Church of Our Lady of Help is located on Uhlířský vrch. It is a large Baroque church built in 1755–1758, which replaced an old wooden chapel from 1654. A wide linden alley planted in 1770 leads to it, which is today a protected cultural monument. Bruntál is twinned with: Enclave and exclave An enclave is a territory that is entirely surrounded by
5885-590: The Portuguese army after the majority of the native villagers there had also converted to Christianity. "The fathers of the Church forbade the Hindus under terrible penalties the use of their own sacred books, and prevented them from all exercise of their religion. They destroyed their temples, and so harassed and interfered with the people that they abandoned the city in large numbers, refusing to remain any longer in
5992-596: The Terrible 's conquest of the Khanate of Kazan , the Muslim population faced slaughter, expulsion, forced resettlement and conversion to Christianity. In the 18th century, Elizabeth of Russia launched a campaign of forced conversion of Russia's non-Orthodox subjects, including Muslims and Jews. The Portuguese carried out the Christianisation of Goa in India in the 16th and 17th centuries. The majority of
6099-419: The aboriginal Indian populations of the Americas. The Ottoman Empire and Morocco absorbed most of the Jewish and Muslim refugees, but a large majority of them remained in Spain and Portugal by choosing to be Conversos. During the European colonization of the Americas , forced conversion of the continents' indigenous, non-Christian population was common, especially in South America and Mesoamerica , where
6206-403: The choice between conversion, exile, and being executed. The treatment and persecution of Jews under Almohad rule was a drastic change. Prior to Almohad rule during the Caliphate of Córdoba , Jewish culture experienced a Golden Age . María Rosa Menocal , a specialist in Iberian literature at Yale University , has argued that "tolerance was an inherent aspect of Andalusian society", and that
6313-476: The city, some by only a few meters. True exclave is an extension of the concept of true enclave . In order to access a true exclave from the mainland, a traveller must go through the territory of at least one other state. Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border, would otherwise be enclaves or exclaves. Semi-enclaves can exist as independent states that border only one other state, such as Monaco ,
6420-468: The compilation was published by a constitution of 15 February 438. It went into force in the eastern and western parts of the empire on 1 January 439. It is Our will that all the peoples who are ruled by the administration of Our Clemency shall practice that religion which the divine Peter the Apostle transmitted to the Romans.... The rest, whom We adjudge demented and insane, shall sustain the infamy of heretical dogmas, their meeting places shall not receive
6527-472: The conquest of large indigenous polities like the Inca and Aztec Empires placed colonizers in control of large non-Christian populations. According to some South American leaders and indigenous groups, there were cases among native populations of conversion under the threat of violence, often because they were compelled to after being conquered, and that the Catholic Church cooperated with civil authority to achieve this end. Upon converting to Christianity in
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#17327768201926634-401: The conversions were superficial. Maimonides urged Jews to choose the superficial conversion over martyrdom and argued, "Muslims know very well that we do not mean what we say, and that what we say is only to escape the ruler's punishment and to satisfy him with this simple confession." Abraham Ibn Ezra (1089–1164), who himself fled the persecutions of the Almohads, composed an elegy mourning
6741-449: The death of Muhammad), is one of the earliest records on Islam and "implies that Muslims tried, on threat of death to make Christians abjure Christianity and accept Islam.” Non-Muslims were required to pay the jizya while pagans were either required to accept Islam, pay the jizya, be exiled, or be killed, depending on which of the four main schools of Islamic law their conqueror followed. Some historians believe that forced conversion
6848-400: The destruction of many Jewish communities throughout Spain and the Maghreb under the Almohads. Many Jews fled from territories ruled by the Almohads to Christian lands, and others, like the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands. However, a few Jewish traders still working in North Africa are recorded. The treatment and persecution of Christians under Almohad rule
6955-438: The early Christians were persecuted during that time . When Constantine I converted to Christianity , it had already grown to be the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. Already under the reign of Constantine I, Christian heretics were being persecuted; beginning in the late 4th century, the ancient pagan religions were also actively suppressed . In the view of many historians, the Constantinian shift turned Christianity from
7062-476: The enclave and exclave system in Baarle . As both Netherlands and Belgium are members of the European Union and Schengen Area , people, goods and services flow freely with little or no restrictions. For illustration, in the figure (above), A1 is a semi-enclave (attached to C and also bounded by water that only touches C's territorial water). Although A2 is an exclave of A, it cannot be classed as an enclave because it shares borders with B and C. The territory A3
7169-402: The enforced reduction of scope of a foreign embassy has always been a possibility, even to the point of expelling the foreign embassy entirely, usually on a breakdown of relations, in reaction to extreme actions such as espionage , or as another form of sanction. The same seems to be possible in profit-driven moving or drilling under any of the sites below, providing safeguards as the structure or
7276-653: The face of execution, becoming forced converts from Islam ( Moriscos , Conversos and "secret Moors") or converts from Judaism ( Conversos , Crypto-Jews and Marranos ). After the forced conversions, when all former Muslims and Jews had ostensibly become Catholic, the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions primarily targeted forced converts from Judaism and Islam, who came under suspicion, because they were either accused of continuing to adhere to their old religion, or they were accused of falling back into it. Jewish conversos who still resided in Spain and frequently practiced Judaism in secret were suspected of being Crypto-Jews by
7383-413: The first settlement in Czech lands to be granted Magdeburg rights, Bruntál was an appellate court for all cities endowed with Magdeburg rights in Northern Moravia (including Olomouc and Opava ) until 1352. The reasons behind the founding of the city probably included utilising mineral ore deposits in the region, as well as thwarting colonization by the Bishops of Wrocław . Bruntál was founded as
7490-460: The hands of the rebel leader ibn Firāsa, against whom they were defended by Abbasid caliphal troops. Historians recognize that during the Early Middle Ages , the Christian populations living in the lands invaded by the Arab Muslim armies between the 7th and 10th centuries suffered religious discrimination , religious persecution , religious violence , and martyrdom multiple times at the hands of Arab Muslim officials and rulers. As People of
7597-408: The historical region of Czech Silesia . It lies in the Nízký Jeseník range. The town lies in a valley surrounded by several hills. The highest point is the hill Uhlířský vrch at 672 m (2,205 ft) above sea level. The Černý Creek with its tributaries, the Bukový, Kobylí and Vodárenský creeks, flows through Bruntál. The Kobylí Pond is located in the middle of the town. Bukový fish pond with
7704-557: The incidents in Chhattisgarh, there are other reports of forced conversions of Christians and Muslims in India to Hinduism . Some of them were converted under duress or against their will, specifically through the ghar wapsi scheme by Hindu extremists , such as Shiv Sena , the VHP & also by the political party of the BJP . The Shiv Sena has said that India or Hindustan
7811-510: The lands invaded by the Arab Muslims on pain of death, they were banned from bearing arms, undertaking certain professions, and were obligated to dress differently in order to distinguish themselves from Arabs. Under sharia , Non-Muslims were obligated to pay jizya and kharaj taxes, together with periodic heavy ransom levied upon Christian communities by Muslim rulers in order to fund military campaigns, all of which contributed
7918-529: The lifetime of Muhammad. Their exclusion therefore had little practical significance after his death in 632. Arab historian Al-Baladhuri says that Caliph Umar deported Christians who refused to apostatize and convert to Islam, and that he obeyed the order of the prophet who advised: “there shall not remain two religions in the land of Arabia.” In the 9th century, the Samaritan population of Palestine faced persecution and attempts at forced conversion at
8025-573: The name of churches, and they shall be smitten first by divine vengeance and secondly by the retribution of Our own initiative (Codex Theodosianus XVI 1.2.). Forced conversions of Jews were carried out with the support of rulers during Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages in Gaul , the Iberian peninsula and in the Byzantine Empire . In Gregory of Tours ' writing, he claimed that
8132-503: The native villagers to Christianity allowed the Portuguese to destroy temples in Bardez , with 300 Hindu temples destroyed. Prohibitions were then declared from December 4, 1567, on public performances of Hindu marriages, sacred thread wearing and cremation. All persons above 15 years of age were compelled to listen to Christian preaching, failing which they were punished. In 1583, Hindu temples at Assolna and Cuncolim were also destroyed by
8239-455: The natives of Goa had converted to Christianity by the end of the 16th century. The Portuguese rulers had implemented state policies encouraging and even rewarding conversions among Hindu subjects. The rapid rise of converts in Goa was mostly the result of Portuguese economic and political control over the Hindus, who were vassals of the Portuguese crown. In 1567, the conversion of the majority of
8346-410: The non-missionary religions include Judaism , Hinduism , and Zoroastrianism . Other religions, such as Primal Religions, Confucianism , and Taoism , may also be considered non-missionary religions. In general, anthropologists have shown that the relationship between religion and politics is complex, especially when it is viewed over the expanse of human history . While religious leaders and
8453-567: The only one entitled to call itself Catholic . Other Christians he described as "foolish madmen". He also ended official state support for the traditional polytheist religions and customs. The Codex Theodosianus (Eng. Theodosian Code) was a compilation of the laws of the Roman Empire under the Christian emperors since 312. A commission was established by Theodosius II and his co-emperor Valentinian III on 26 March 429 and
8560-475: The order was carried out: Walid's servants "cut off a slice from Shamala's thigh and roasted it in the fire, and they thrust it into his mouth" and he was blinded during this as well. This event is confirmed by the Muslim historian Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani In the early eighth century under the Umayyads, 63 out of a group of 70 Christian pilgrims from Iconium were captured, tortured, and executed under
8667-588: The orders of the Arab Governor of Ceaserea for refusing to convert to Islam (seven were forcibly converted to Islam under torture). Soon afterwards, sixty more Christian pilgrims from Amorium were crucified in Jerusalem. There were forced conversions in the 12th century under the Almohad dynasty of North Africa and al-Andalus , who suppressed the dhimmi status of Jews and Christians and gave them
8774-430: The original interiors with a picture collection, armory and library has been preserved. Today the castle houses the regional museum and its premises are also used for cultural and social events. The castle includes a castle park from the 16th century, on an area of more than 2.5 hectares (6.2 acres). In the park there are the remains of the town fortifications, a salla terrena from 1894, and eleven sandstone sculptures from
8881-455: The point of the sword, and that conquered peoples were given the choice of conversion or death. It is now apparent that conversion by force, while not unknown in Muslim countries, was, in fact, rare. Muslim conquerors ordinarily wished to dominate rather than convert, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. (...) In most cases, worldly and spiritual motives for conversion blended together. Moreover, conversion to Islam did not necessarily imply
8988-400: The premises. Most non-embassy lands in such ownership are also not enclaves as they fall legally short of extraterritoriality , they are subject to alike court jurisdiction as before their grant/sale in most matters. Nonetheless, for a person's offence against the property itself, equally valid jurisdiction in criminal matters is more likely than elsewhere, assuming the perpetrator is found in
9095-568: The prosecuting authority's homeland. Devoid of permanent residents, formally defined new sovereignty is not warranted or asserted in the examples below. Nonetheless, minor laws, especially on flag flying , are sometimes relaxed to accommodate the needs of the accommodated nation's monument. Embassies enjoy many different legal statuses approaching quasi-sovereignty, depending on the agreements reached and in practice upheld from time-to-time by host nations. Subject to hosts adhering to basic due process of international law , including giving warnings,
9202-477: The reigns of the Lords of Vrbno and Bruntál. Thank to the privileges granted by Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria in 1535 and 1558, and by Rudolf II in 1577, the town hosted several markets each year and new guilds emerged. The expanded mining industry, backed by the Lords of Vrbno, led to the founding of several neighbouring towns, including Andělská Hora around 1550, and Vrbno pod Pradědem in 1611. During
9309-547: The repeated rebellion of native populations that did not want to accept Christianity even after initial forced conversion; in Old Prussia, the tactics employed in the initial conquest and subsequent conversion of the territory resulted in the death of most of the native population, whose language consequently became extinct. After the end of Islamic control of Spain , Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492. In Portugal , following an order for their expulsion in 1496, only
9416-474: The sacrament of Baptism in order to avoid loss, he (like one who comes to Baptism in dissimulation) does receive the impress of Christianity, and may be forced to observe the Christian Faith as one who expressed a conditional willingness though, absolutely speaking, he was unwilling ... During the 12th–13th century Northern Crusades against the pagan Finnic , Baltic , and West Slavic peoples around
9523-474: The sacrament, and might therefore be reasonably compelled to observe the rules of the Christian Faith. It is, to be sure, contrary to the Christian Faith that anyone who is unwilling and wholly opposed to it should be compelled to adopt and observe Christianity. For this reason a valid distinction is made by some between kinds of unwilling ones and kinds of compelled ones. Thus one who is drawn to Christianity by violence, through fear and through torture, and receives
9630-458: The sea or another body of water, which comprises their own territorial waters (i.e., they are not surrounded by other nations' territorial waters). They border their own territorial waters in addition to a land border with another country, and hence they are not true exclaves. Still, one cannot travel to them on land without going through another country. Attribution of a pene-enclave status to a territory can sometimes be disputed, depending on whether
9737-480: The seventh century generally took place during riots and massacres carried out by mobs and clergy without support of the rulers. In contrast, royal persecutions of Jews from the late eleventh century onward generally took the form of expulsions, with some exceptions, such as conversions of Jews in southern Italy of the 13th century, which were carried out by Dominican Inquisitors but instigated by King Charles II of Naples . Jews were forced to convert to Christianity by
9844-477: The territory is considered to be practically inaccessible from the mainland or not. One or more parcels/holdings of land in most countries is owned by other countries. Most instances are exempt from taxes. In the special case of embassies/consulates these enjoy special privileges driven by international consensus particularly the mutual wish to ensure free diplomatic missions , such as being exempt from major hindrances and host-country arrests in ordinary times on
9951-405: The territory of a single other state that surrounds it. In 2007, Evgeny Vinokurov called this the restrictive definition of "enclave" given by international law, which thus "comprises only so-called 'true enclaves'". Two examples are Büsingen am Hochrhein , a true enclave of Germany, and Campione d'Italia , a true enclave of Italy, both of which are surrounded by Switzerland. The definition of
10058-660: The territory of another country." Thus, a pene-exclave , although having land borders, is not completely surrounded by the other's land or territorial waters. Catudal (1974) and Vinokurov (2007) further elaborate upon examples, including Point Roberts . "Although physical connections by water with Point Roberts are entirely within the sovereignty of the United States, land access is only possible through Canada." Pene-enclaves are also called functional enclaves or practical enclaves. They can exhibit continuity of state territory across territorial waters but, nevertheless,
10165-515: The territory of only one other state or entity . An enclave can be an independent territory or part of a larger one. Enclaves may also exist within territorial waters . Enclave is sometimes used improperly to denote a territory that is only partly surrounded by another state. Enclaves that are not part of a larger territory are not exclaves, for example Vatican City and San Marino (both enclaved by Italy ) and Lesotho (enclaved by South Africa ) are enclaved sovereign states . An exclave
10272-644: The then-existing national-level enclaves were extinguished on 1 August 2015, when the governments of India and Bangladesh implemented a Land Boundary Agreement that exchanged 162 first-order enclaves (111 Indian and 51 Bangladeshi). This exchange thus effectively removed another two dozen second-order enclaves and one third-order enclave, eliminating 197 of the India–Bangladesh enclaves in all. The residents in these enclaves had complained of being effectively stateless. Only Bangladesh's Dahagram–Angarpota enclave remained. Netherlands and Belgium decided to keep
10379-455: The town as a pledge to his supporter, Jan of Vrbno. Despite being only a possessor of the town, Jan of Vrbno started to style himself of Vrbno and Bruntál from 1476 onwards. Sons of Jan of Vrbno and Bruntál (Bernard, Hynek, and Mikuláš) managed to secure an allodial title (ownership) to the town together with neighbouring villages and mines from the Dukes of Krnov in 1506 and established
10486-519: The turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. The parish Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary dates from the second half of the 13th century. In 1729–1731, two chapels were added. The church was baroque reconstructed after the fires in 1749 and 1764, and the tower was raised. The former Piarist monastery with the Church of Our Lady of Consolation was built in 1731–1752. Today it is used by
10593-573: The urban dhimmi population in Morocco, both Jewish and Christian, to convert to Islam. In 1198, the Almohad emir Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur decreed that Jews must wear a dark blue garb, with very large sleeves and a grotesquely oversized hat; his son altered the colour to yellow , a change that may have influenced Catholic ordinances some time later. Those who converted had to wear clothing that identified them as Jews since they were not regarded as sincere Muslims. Cases of mass martyrdom of Jews who refused to convert to Islam are recorded. Many of
10700-456: The word enclave was the Treaty of Madrid , signed in 1526. Later, the term enclave began to be used also to refer to parcels of countries, counties, fiefs, communes, towns, parishes, etc. that were surrounded by alien territory. This French word eventually entered English and other languages to denote the same concept, although local terms have continued to be used. In India, the word "pocket"
10807-662: Was owned by various branches of the Přemyslid dynasty almost continuously until 1474. It was owned by the Margraves of Moravia in 1213–1318, by the Dukes of Opava in 1318–1377, and by the Dukes of Krnov in 1377–1474 except for the years 1384–1390, when it was owned by Vladislaus II of Opole . In 1474, during the Bohemian–Hungarian War (1468–1478) , Bruntál was occupied by the armed forces of Matthias Corvinus who gave
10914-691: Was a drastic change as well. Many Christians were killed, forced to convert, or forced to flee. Some Christians fled to the Christian kingdoms in the north and west and helped fuel the Reconquista . Christians under the Almohad rule generally chose to relocate to the Christian principalities (most notably the Kingdom of Asturias ) in the north of the Iberian Peninsula , whereas Jews decided to stay in order to keep their properties, and many of them feigned conversion to Islam, while continuing to believe and practice Judaism in secrecy . During
11021-428: Was also hit by a fire in 1643 and by plague epidemics in 1633 and 1647. Bruntál recovered economically from the war damage during the rule of Johann Caspar von Ampringen , but lost its former importance and wealth. During the 18th century several disasters befell the town, such as the plagues of 1714 and 1739, and the great fires of 1748 and 1764. Nevertheless, many new baroque buildings were built during this period and
11128-801: Was called the Mortara case . During World War II in Yugoslavia , Orthodox Serbs were forcibly converted to Catholicism by the Ustashe . Indian Christians have alleged that Hindu groups in southern Chhattisgarh have forced Christian converts from Hinduism to revert to Hinduism. In the aftermath of the violence, American Christian evangelical groups have claimed that Hindu groups are forcibly reverting Christian converts from Hinduism back to Hinduism. It has also been alleged that these same Hindu groups have used allurements to convert poor Muslims and Christians to Hinduism against their will. Apart from
11235-820: Was increasingly expected for all Arabs to be Muslims and pressure was put on many to convert. The Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I said to Shamala, the Christian Arab leader of the Banu Taghlib : "As you are a chief of the Arabs you shame them all by worshipping the cross; obey my wish and turn Muslim." He replied, 'How so? I am chief of Taghlib, and I fear lest I become a cause of destruction to them all if I and they cease to believe in christ" Enraged Al-Walid had him dragged away on his face and tortured; afterward he commanded him again to convert to Islam or else prepare to "eat his own flesh." The Christian Arab again refused, and
11342-646: Was less a relapse to the pre-Islamic Arabian religion than termination of a political contract they had made with Muhammad . Some of these tribal leaders claimed prophethood, bringing themselves in direct conflict with the Muslim Caliphate. Two out of the four schools of Islamic law, i.e. Hanafi and Maliki schools, accepted non-Arab polytheists to be eligible for the dhimmi status. Under this doctrine, Arab polytheists were forced to choose between conversion and death. However, according to perception of most Muslim jurists, all Arabs had embraced Islam during
11449-496: Was rare in Islamic history, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. Muslim rulers were often more interested in conquest than conversion. Ira Lapidus points towards "interwoven terms of political and economic benefits and of a sophisticated culture and religion" as appealing to the masses. He writes that: The question of why people convert to Islam has always generated the intense feeling. Earlier generations of European scholars believed that conversions to Islam were made at
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