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147-460: The town of Brzeg was first mentioned as a trading and fishing settlement within fragmented Piast -ruled Poland in 1234. In 1248, Silesian Duke Henry III the White granted the settlement Magdeburg town rights and by the late 13th century the city became fortified. Sometimes referred to as "the garden town", the town's size greatly expanded after the construction of dwelling houses which were located on

294-629: A brzeżan , brzeżanin (male), brzeżanka (female), brzeżanie and brzeżaninie (plural). The locality in and around present-day Brzeg has been settled by people since the Mesolithic era, with the earliest signs of settlement between 8000 and 4200 BC, as concluded from archaeological findings in Myślibórz , Kościerzyce , Lubsza and Lipki . The early human populace left behind traces of lithic flakes , flint flakes and other flint related tools. The earliest signs of agriculture come around during

441-405: A priestly role . He could not marry a woman from a senatorial family, nor achieve legitimate senatorial rank himself, but during the early Empire, freedmen held key positions in the government bureaucracy, so much so that Hadrian limited their participation by law. The rise of successful freedmen—through political influence or wealth—is a characteristic of early Imperial society. The prosperity of

588-425: A fifth of the population and played a major role in the economy. Slavery was a complex institution that supported traditional Roman social structures as well as contributing economic utility. In urban settings, slaves might be professionals such as teachers, physicians, chefs, and accountants; the majority of slaves provided trained or unskilled labour. Agriculture and industry, such as milling and mining, relied on

735-640: A fine for a crime for which an humilior might receive a scourging . Execution, which was an infrequent legal penalty for free men under the Republic, could be quick and relatively painless for honestiores , while humiliores might suffer the kinds of torturous death previously reserved for slaves, such as crucifixion and condemnation to the beasts . In the early Empire, those who converted to Christianity could lose their standing as honestiores , especially if they declined to fulfil religious responsibilities, and thus became subject to punishments that created

882-768: A fortified wooden settlement in Rybna and an open-pit crematory in Pisarzowice (with 30 discovered burial sites). To follow the Lusatian culture , which witnessed its decline around 500 BC, were the Celts , around 400–300 BC in Silesia , as identified with archaeological findings in Lubsza and Pawłów (located in the eastern vicinity of Brzeg). Around 100 BC, the peoples of Silesia (Celtic and Germanic tribes) began trading with

1029-425: A freedman were born free, with full rights of citizenship. After manumission, a slave who had belonged to a Roman citizen enjoyed active political freedom ( libertas ), including the right to vote. His former master became his patron ( patronus ): the two continued to have customary and legal obligations to each other. A freedman was not entitled to hold public office or the highest state priesthoods, but could play

1176-629: A high-achieving group of freedmen is attested by inscriptions throughout the Empire . The Latin word ordo (plural ordines ) is translated variously and inexactly into English as "class, order, rank". One purpose of the Roman census was to determine the ordo to which an individual belonged. Two of the highest ordines in Rome were the senatorial and equestrian. Outside Rome, cities or colonies were led by decurions , also known as curiales . "Senator"

1323-571: A higher social class. Most of the emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a "rule" that first started during the Punic Wars . Different emperors up until Justinian would attempt to require the use of Latin in various sections of the administration but there is no evidence that a linguistic imperialism existed during the early Empire. After all freeborn inhabitants were universally enfranchised in 212 , many Roman citizens would have lacked

1470-401: A household or workplace, a hierarchy of slaves might exist, with one slave acting as the master of others. Talented slaves might accumulate a large enough peculium to justify their freedom, or be manumitted for services rendered. Manumission had become frequent enough that in 2 BC a law ( Lex Fufia Caninia ) limited the number of slaves an owner was allowed to free in his will. Following

1617-472: A knowledge of Latin. The wide use of Koine Greek was what enabled the spread of Christianity and reflects its role as the lingua franca of the Mediterranean during the time of the Empire. Following Diocletian's reforms in the 3rd century CE, there was a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the west. Spoken Latin later fragmented into the incipient romance languages in the 7th century CE following

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1764-522: A lasting influence on the development of language , religion , art , architecture , literature , philosophy , law , and forms of government across its territories. Latin evolved into the Romance languages while Medieval Greek became the language of the East. The Empire's adoption of Christianity resulted in the formation of medieval Christendom . Roman and Greek art had a profound impact on

1911-552: A major market, allowing the settlement to develop through the exchange of produce and barter . Prior to Brzeg receiving its town charter , the Duke of Wrocław , Henry III the White , received the settlement of Małkowice, (present-day Kępa Młyńska), in exchange of his feudal rights over Zębice (south-west from Oława ). The fishermen living in Małkowice (present-day ul. Rybacka ), in accordance to ancient Polish law were charged with

2058-459: A man as an equestrian. The census of 28 BC uncovered large numbers of men who qualified, and in 14 AD, a thousand equestrians were registered at Cádiz and Padua alone. Equestrians rose through a military career track ( tres militiae ) to become highly placed prefects and procurators within the Imperial administration. The rise of provincial men to the senatorial and equestrian orders

2205-560: A married woman could have sex only with her husband, but a married man did not commit adultery if he had sex with a prostitute or person of marginalized status. Childbearing was encouraged: a woman who had given birth to three children was granted symbolic honours and greater legal freedom (the ius trium liberorum ). At the time of Augustus, as many as 35% of the people in Roman Italy were slaves, making Rome one of five historical "slave societies" in which slaves constituted at least

2352-427: A sense of "Romanness". Roman society had multiple, overlapping social hierarchies . The civil war preceding Augustus caused upheaval, but did not effect an immediate redistribution of wealth and social power. From the perspective of the lower classes, a peak was merely added to the social pyramid. Personal relationships— patronage , friendship ( amicitia ), family , marriage —continued to influence politics. By

2499-513: A slave's rapist had to be prosecuted by the owner for property damage under the Aquilian Law . Slaves had no right to the form of legal marriage called conubium , but their unions were sometimes recognized. Technically, a slave could not own property, but a slave who conducted business might be given access to an individual fund ( peculium ) that he could use, depending on the degree of trust and co-operation between owner and slave. Within

2646-527: A total area of 68.8 ha. The parkland was established after donations from the owners of Skarbimierz and the landed-elite family von Lobbecke donated the area to the town's authorities, to make way for a landscape park in the area. The smallest of the five public parks in Brzeg is the Park Ptasi , located in the south of the town, west of the osiedle of Westerplatte. The park has a total area of 1 ha. Since

2793-806: A total of 7,826 citizens in the potential education age group (3-24 year of age). The number of city dwellers in Brzeg that have completed higher education is at 14.4% of the population, which is similar to the statistical average of the number of people obtaining higher education in the Opole Voivodeship , being at 15.1%. Data from 2015 indicates that 2.5% of the population of Brzeg have completed post- lyceum ( policealne ) education, with Brzeg having two post- lyceum schools ( szkoły policealne ): Medyczne Studium Zawodowe by Ofiar Katynia Street (medical practice institution); Policealne Studium Zawodowe – Zespół Szkół Ekonomicznych by Jan Paweł II Street (higher school of economics). The population of Brzeg that

2940-545: Is an aspect of social mobility in the early Empire. Roman aristocracy was based on competition, and unlike later European nobility , a Roman family could not maintain its position merely through hereditary succession or having title to lands. Admission to the higher ordines brought distinction and privileges, but also responsibilities. In antiquity, a city depended on its leading citizens to fund public works, events, and services ( munera ). Maintaining one's rank required massive personal expenditures. Decurions were so vital for

3087-399: Is believed to be characteristic of other Silesian towns, commonly selling agricultural produce, namely bread, meat and shoes. Prior to the locality receiving its town charter in 1248 or 1250, the settlement had characteristics of a town and not of an ordinary fishing village, being referred to as "civitas" in an early Latin document, as exemplified by the existence of the curia , church and

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3234-642: Is in the age of potential further education (aged 19–24) is 26.8%, out of which 27.1% are women and 26.6% are men. Some 22.4% of the population of the town of Brzeg (as of 2015) has some sort of work-related further education (i.e. scholarship or college course). In 2015, 5.3% of the town's population participated in secondary education , while some 19.6% have attended primary education in that same year. The city council of Brzeg spends 33.3% of its annual budget on education, amounting to 35.2 million zlotys annually. Post-secondary education institutions : Public gymnasium (secondary school) institutions : Brzeg

3381-409: Is located 14 km south of Brzeg. Brzeg has well developed railway and bus transportation services. The PKP Brzeg railway station is operated by PKP Intercity and Przewozy Regionalne . The town has direct connections to Opole , Wrocław , Kraków , Warsaw , Katowice , Poznań , Szczecin , Zielona Góra , Lublin , Kielce , Przemyśl , Zamość , Nysa , and other cities. The Brzeg bus service

3528-545: Is located at the crossroads of the National Road [REDACTED] (northbound to Namysłów and Kępno ; southbound to Wiązów and Strzelin ) and the National Road [REDACTED] (westbound to Oława , Wrocław , Bolesławiec and Zgorzelec ; eastbound to Opole , Strzelce Opolskie , Bytom , Kraków , Tarnów , Jarosław and Korczowa . The interchange to the [REDACTED] Motorway ( Węzeł Przylesie )

3675-843: Is located south of the Silesian Piasts' Castle . The third and largest by area parkland surrounding the Old Town is located by the Oder river, the Odranian Park ( Park Nadodrzański ), with a total area of 10.9 ha. The castle, together with the town's fortification remnants, the Odrzańska Gate is located in the park. The largest parkland in Brzeg, located in the south-west of the town is the Park of Juliusz Peppel (Park im. Juliusza Peppela) and formerly Liberty Park ( Park Wolności ) having

3822-591: Is met with a lack of forested areas, apart from the Stobrawa Landscape Park , located 7.2 km to the north of Brzeg and the Oder river. The Stobrawa woodland, agriculture and the Oder (as a form of transport) provided Brzeg the necessary diversity to remain the regional trade capital in Silesia . Brzeg's geographical position between two trade routes, running from west to east ( Legnica – Opole ) and north to south ( Gniezno – Nysa ) and further on into

3969-416: Is operated by PKS Brzeg, with ten bus lines around the town and Gmina Brzeg. The important routes are to Wrocław , Opole , Grodków , Namysłów , Nysa , Karpacz , Strzelin , Wiązów , and others. On Sunday, there is a special route to Szklarska Poręba . In 2013, a hospital helipad was opened by Mossora Street ( ul. Mossora ). Brzeg is twinned with: Piast dynasty The House of Piast

4116-619: Is traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"). The cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced. Uprisings in the provinces were infrequent and put down "mercilessly and swiftly". The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs. The Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors— Tiberius , Caligula , Claudius , and Nero —before it yielded in 69 AD to

4263-604: The Battle of Actium in 31 BC. In 27 BC the Senate gave him the title Augustus ("venerated") and made him princeps ("foremost") with proconsular imperium , thus beginning the Principate , the first epoch of Roman imperial history. Although the republic stood in name, Augustus had all meaningful authority. During his 40-year rule, a new constitutional order emerged so that, upon his death, Tiberius would succeed him as

4410-544: The Brzeg County . The town's industries include the production of agricultural machinery , electric engines, margarine and sugar production. The largest concentration of industry in Brzeg is located in the town's eastern quarter, south of the Oder , with numerous manufacturers, including: the German Bartling GmbH ( plastic packaging company); "BESEL" ( Polish electric engine company, founded in

4557-475: The Dominate . The emperor was the ultimate authority in policy- and decision-making, but in the early Principate, he was expected to be accessible and deal personally with official business and petitions. A bureaucracy formed around him only gradually. The Julio-Claudian emperors relied on an informal body of advisors that included not only senators and equestrians, but trusted slaves and freedmen. After Nero,

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4704-547: The Early Middle Ages , the territory was inhabited by Polish tribes . Later on, it experienced both German colonisation and Germanisation policies towards the indigenous Poles . According to the Prussian census of 1905, the city of Brieg had a population of 27,486, of which 93% spoke German , 6% spoke Polish , and 1% were bilingual. After World War II, the town of Brzeg was part of the population transfers of

4851-588: The German Empire when it was proclaimed in 1871 on the unification of Germany . Despite Austrian, Prussian and German rule, the town was an important Polish printing center in the region. During World War II , the Germans operated two Nazi prisons with three forced labour subcamps in the town and a fourth subcamp in Bielawa . In early 1945, some prisoners were sent on a death march to Kłodzko . During

4998-606: The Holy Roman Empire . The Jagiellonian kings ruling after the death of Casimir IV of Poland were also descended in the female line from Casimir III's daughter. The early dukes and kings of Poland are said to have regarded themselves as descendants of the semi-legendary Piast the Wheelwright ( Piast Kołodziej ), first mentioned in the Cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum (Chronicles and deeds of

5145-694: The Huns of Attila , led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire . With the fall of Ravenna to the Germanic Herulians and the deposition of Romulus Augustus in 476 by Odoacer , the Western Empire finally collapsed. The Eastern Roman Empire survived for another millennium with Constantinople as its sole capital, until the city's fall in 1453. Due to the Empire's extent and endurance, its institutions and culture had

5292-556: The Hussites in 1428 and soon afterwards rebuilt. At the beginning of the 16th century there were two schools in Brzeg, a collegiate and a municipal school, both influenced by the scientific, cultural and literary currents of the University of Kraków . In 1529 Duke Frederick II of Legnica , in attempt to establish the town as a significant learning center, merged the two schools, but the town council, wanting to maintain control over

5439-552: The Italian Renaissance . Rome's architectural tradition served as the basis for Romanesque , Renaissance and Neoclassical architecture , influencing Islamic architecture . The rediscovery of classical science and technology (which formed the basis for Islamic science ) in medieval Europe contributed to the Scientific Renaissance and Scientific Revolution . Many modern legal systems, such as

5586-753: The Kievan Rus' , later also the State of the Teutonic Order and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were mighty neighbours. The Piast position was decisively enfeebled by an era of fragmentation following the 1138 Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth . For nearly 150 years, the Polish state shattered into several duchies, with the Piast duke against the formally valid principle of agnatic seniority fighting for

5733-605: The Kingdom of Bohemia , additionally stimulated the town's demographic and economic expansion. Brzeg is in modern times located between the European route E67 and E40 . Brzeg has five public parks , three of which encircle the Old Town ( Stare Miasto ), after the area was transformed into parkland with the deconstruction of the garrison town's fortifications during the Napoleonic Wars in 1807. The parkland, surrounding

5880-640: The Mediterranean and beyond. However, it was severely destabilised by civil wars and political conflicts , which culminated in the victory of Octavian over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the subsequent conquest of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt. In 27 BC, the Roman Senate granted Octavian overarching military power ( imperium ) and

6027-718: The Napoleonic Code , descend from Roman law. Rome's republican institutions have influenced the Italian city-state republics of the medieval period, the early United States , and modern democratic republics . Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the Roman Republic in the 6th century BC, though not outside the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC. Thus, it was an "empire" (a great power) long before it had an emperor. The Republic

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6174-613: The Neolithic Era (4200–1700 BC). The Neolithic culture developed agriculture and domesticated farm animals ; this lifestyle led Nomadic cultures to settle in the locality. The era saw the development of weaving , pottery and mining in the Brzeg Plain, with archaeological finds in Brzeg, Buszyce , Prędocin , Lewin Brzeski , Małujowice , Lipki, Myśliborze, Mąkoszyce and Obórki . The time period of 1300–700 BC bears

6321-472: The Nile Valley in Egypt. The empire completely circled the Mediterranean  ... referred to by its conquerors as mare nostrum —'our sea'. Trajan's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire. Borders ( fines ) were marked, and the frontiers ( limites ) patrolled. The most heavily fortified borders were the most unstable. Hadrian's Wall , which separated

6468-501: The Pax Romana ( lit.   ' Roman Peace ' ). Rome reached its greatest territorial extent under Trajan ( r.  98–117 AD ), but a period of increasing trouble and decline began under Commodus ( r.  180–192 ). In the 3rd century, the Empire underwent a 49-year crisis that threatened its existence due to civil war, plagues and barbarian invasions . The Gallic and Palmyrene empires broke away from

6615-524: The Roman Empire , as evidenced through the findings of Roman currency in the locality. In the 7th century Slavic peoples started settling in the region. At the same time Iron tools and blacksmith -based hamlets found in Kantorowice and Pępice are evidenced for the first time in this region. The period of AD 500–1000 saw the establishment of the early feudal system in Silesia . The era

6762-596: The Servile Wars of the Republic, legislation under Augustus and his successors shows a driving concern for controlling the threat of rebellions through limiting the size of work groups, and for hunting down fugitive slaves. Over time slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. A bill of sale might contain a clause stipulating that the slave could not be employed for prostitution, as prostitutes in ancient Rome were often slaves. The burgeoning trade in eunuchs in

6909-662: The Soviet and Polish People's Republic 's campaign to resettle Poles from Kresy (annexed by the USSR ) to the newly regained territories by Poland from the defeated Germany , as part of the Potsdam Agreement . Per the agreement, the German population of Brzeg was expelled to either West or East Germany . The newly arrived population in Brzeg predominantly came from the countryside, being former peasants. The integration of

7056-756: The Thirty Years' War it suffered greatly; in the War of the Austrian Succession it was heavily bombarded by the Prussian forces ; and in 1807 it was captured by Napoleon 's army. When Bohemia fell to the Habsburg monarchy of Austria in 1526, the town fell under the overlordship of the Habsburgs in their roles of Kings of Bohemia, although it was still ruled locally by the Silesian Piasts . Upon

7203-587: The Wawrzyszów Hills to its south. The western boundary of the Brzeg Plain is marked by the Oława Valley, along the Oder's mid-course . The Brzeg Plain was formed by the Riss glaciation period (347,000 to 128,000 years ago), leaving behind remnants of a ground moraine from the last glacial period . The ground moraines have left two equally small hills, bearing characteristics of kames . The kames form

7350-552: The curia was the former location, on what was later to be called Mary's Hill ( Góra Marii ), of the Romanesque St. Mary's Church ( Kościół Najświętszej Marii Panny ). During the Reformation , the church was deconstructed, and its brickwork used for the construction of the town's fortifications. A sixteenth-century chronicle states it was "the first church", however, no more is known about the holy site. Historians believe

7497-545: The Łosiów Range ( Wał Łosiowski ), between the confluence of the River Nysa Kłodzka and the Oława Valley. Small streams, having their sources around the range, are fed directly into the Oder in the region of Nysa Kłodzka and Oława .}} The settlement of Brzeg, historically located in the regional unit of Lower Silesia as opposed to Upper Silesia , is due to the formation of a "przesieka" ("clearing"). The "clearing"

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7644-472: The 14th century were vassals of the Bohemian Crown . After the Polish royal line and Piast junior branch had died out in 1370, the Polish crown fell to the Anjou king Louis I of Hungary , son of late King Casimir's sister Elizabeth Piast . The Masovian branch of the Piasts became extinct with the death of Duke Janusz III in 1526. The last ruling duke of the Silesian Piasts was George William of Legnica who died in 1675. His uncle Count August of Legnica ,

7791-449: The 600-member body by appointment. A senator's son belonged to the ordo senatorius , but he had to qualify on his own merits for admission to the Senate. A senator could be removed for violating moral standards. In the time of Nero, senators were still primarily from Italy , with some from the Iberian peninsula and southern France; men from the Greek-speaking provinces of the East began to be added under Vespasian. The first senator from

7938-400: The 6th and 7th centuries with the disintegration of the complex Imperial economy. Laws pertaining to slavery were "extremely intricate". Slaves were considered property and had no legal personhood . They could be subjected to forms of corporal punishment not normally exercised on citizens, sexual exploitation , torture, and summary execution . A slave could not as a matter of law be raped;

8085-401: The Augustan programme to restore traditional morality and social order, moral legislation attempted to regulate conduct as a means of promoting " family values ". Adultery was criminalized, and defined broadly as an illicit sex act ( stuprum ) between a male citizen and a married woman, or between a married woman and any man other than her husband. That is, a double standard was in place:

8232-450: The Brzeg Jews bought a letter of protection from the duke, whereby they were guaranteed the peaceful possession of their privileges. But in 1401 they were driven from the city, except Jacob and Seman von Reichenbach , who had received a patent of protection from the duke's council for six years from May 1, 1399. In 1423, duke Ludwig II granted the Jews rights of residence on payment of an annual tax of 20 gulden , but they were expelled from

8379-409: The Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century , a period of invasions , civil strife , economic disorder , and plague . In defining historical epochs , this crisis sometimes marks the transition from Classical to Late Antiquity . Aurelian ( r.  270–275 ) stabilised the empire militarily and Diocletian reorganised and restored much of it in 285. Diocletian's reign brought

8526-400: The German Reichswehr arrived in Brieg from Breslau-Carlowitz, other cavalry squadrons from Militsch and Oels followed shortly after. This resulted in the garrison's Tiede-Barracks (named after Generalleutnant Paul Tiede ) located in Moltke-, Sedan-, Roon- und Bismarck straße requiring some alterations to accommodate the new arrival of horse-cavalry residents. It was from Brieg garrison,

8673-476: The German Cavalry Captain ( Rittmeister ) Konrad Freiherr von Wangenheim became famous for securing a Gold medal win at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin for the German equestrian team whilst suffering from a broken collarbone . In 1933 an airfield located in nearby Hermsdorf was also built and thereby a much larger military aerodrome was established. The new aerodrome was occupied by Flight Reconnaissance Group 113 ( Fliegeraufklärungsgruppe 113 ). Towards

8820-408: The Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Romans conquered most of this during the Republic , and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian 's assumption of effective sole rule in 27 BC. The western empire collapsed in 476 AD, but the eastern empire lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. By 100 BC, Rome had expanded its rule to most of

8967-499: The Middle East. The Latin phrase imperium sine fine ("empire without end" ) expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the Empire. In Virgil 's Aeneid , limitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by Jupiter . This claim of universal dominion was renewed when the Empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century. In addition to annexing large regions, the Romans directly altered their geography, for example cutting down entire forests . Roman expansion

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9114-402: The Old Town to its south, became known as the Planty . The Planty constitute of the Central Park of J. Czajkowski ( Park Centralny im. J. Czajkowskiego ), with a total area of 6.1 ha . The Central Park contains an artificial lake and a stream, connecting its waters to the western portion of the Planty , the Park nad Fosą . The Park by the Moat ( Park nad Fosą ), with a total area of 3.7 ha,

9261-444: The Piast coat of arms or as the Piast Eagle . The Silesian Piasts in the 14th century used an eagle modified by a crescent, which became the coat of arms of the Duchy of Silesia . Piast kings and rulers of Poland appear in list form in the following table. For a list of all rulers, see List of Polish monarchs . Roman Empire The Roman Empire was the era of Roman civilisation lasting from 27 BC to 476 AD. Rome ruled

9408-402: The Rhine and Danube. Roman jurists also show a concern for local languages such as Punic , Gaulish , and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding of laws and oaths. In Africa , Libyco-Berber and Punic were used in inscriptions into the 2nd century. In Syria , Palmyrene soldiers used their dialect of Aramaic for inscriptions, an exception to the rule that Latin was the language of

9555-501: The Roman Republic ) while greatly extending its power beyond Italy. In 44 BC Julius Caesar was briefly perpetual dictator before being assassinated by a faction that opposed his concentration of power. This faction was driven from Rome and defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC by Mark Antony and Caesar's adopted son Octavian . Antony and Octavian divided the Roman world between them, but this did not last long. Octavian's forces defeated those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at

9702-430: The Roman legal concept of imperium , meaning "command" (typically in a military sense). Occasionally, successful consuls or generals were given the honorary title imperator (commander); this is the origin of the word emperor , since this title was always bestowed to the early emperors. Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts, conspiracies, and civil wars from the late second century BC (see Crisis of

9849-448: The Roman world from what was perceived as an ever-present barbarian threat, is the primary surviving monument of this effort. Latin and Greek were the main languages of the Empire, but the Empire was deliberately multilingual. Andrew Wallace-Hadrill says "The main desire of the Roman government was to make itself understood". At the start of the Empire, knowledge of Greek was useful to pass as educated nobility and knowledge of Latin

9996-449: The account of his achievements ( Res Gestae ) prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of the Empire. Geography alongside meticulous written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration . The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan ( r.  98–117 ), encompassing 5 million km . The traditional population estimate of 55–60 million inhabitants accounted for between one-sixth and one-fourth of

10143-443: The city outskirts. From the early 14th to late 17th centuries, the town was ruled by the Piast dynasty as fiefs of the Bohemian Crown within the Holy Roman Empire . Later, as the result of the Silesian Wars , the town passed to Prussia , and from 1871 to 1945 it was also part of Germany, before it became again part of Poland after World War II . In older documents, Brzeg was referred to as Civitas Altae Ripae , meaning 'city on

10290-418: The collapse of the Empire's west. The dominance of Latin and Greek among the literate elite obscure the continuity of other spoken languages within the Empire. Latin, referred to in its spoken form as Vulgar Latin , gradually replaced Celtic and Italic languages . References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages, particularly in Egypt with Coptic , and in military settings along

10437-482: The conditions of martyrdom . The three major elements of the Imperial state were the central government, the military, and the provincial government. The military established control of a territory through war, but after a city or people was brought under treaty, the mission turned to policing: protecting Roman citizens, agricultural fields, and religious sites. The Romans lacked sufficient manpower or resources to rule through force alone. Cooperation with local elites

10584-481: The deceased emperor's deification. The dominance of the emperor was based on the consolidation of powers from several republican offices. The emperor made himself the central religious authority as pontifex maximus , and centralized the right to declare war, ratify treaties, and negotiate with foreign leaders. While these functions were clearly defined during the Principate , the emperor's powers over time became less constitutional and more monarchical, culminating in

10731-501: The descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron", a comment which has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon , to take Commodus' reign as the beginning of the Empire's decline . In 212, during the reign of Caracalla , Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire. The Severan dynasty was tumultuous; an emperor's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution and, following its collapse,

10878-572: The duchies of Brieg and Liegnitz in 1453 as a result of the inflammatory preachings of the Franciscan John Capistrano . Solomo, a capitalist, lent large sums of money to royal houses in the 15th century. In the 16th century, one of the local Jews served as a physician to the duke of Brieg. With the decline of Wrocław as a trade center, the Jews of Brieg became little more than an isolated community; and in modern times they shared

11025-411: The duke of Brzeg, Ludwig I, who granted the Jews freedom of movement in the duchy in that year. In the 14th century the Jews of Brieg were persecuted on account of their usurious practices; one outbreak of such violence occurred in 1362. In 1392 it was claimed that all debts of the duke had been discharged by the payments to a Jew of Brzeg (Jacob, the son of Moses), of a certificate of indebtedness. In 1398

11172-470: The dukes or princes of the Poles), written c. 1113 by Gallus Anonymus . However, the term "Piast Dynasty" was not applied until the 17th century. In a historical work, the expression Piast dynasty was introduced by the Polish historian Adam Naruszewicz ; it is not documented in contemporary sources. The first "Piasts", probably of Polan descent, appeared around 940 in the territory of Greater Poland at

11319-565: The eastern Oława County . The Ryczyn gords became the main line of defence for the Silesians , namely to protect the river trade routes along the Oder river and the land trade route between Ryczyn (the locality's administrative centre, home to a castellan ) and Brzeg (being some 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) in length). The importance of the Ryczyn gords is demonstrated by Henry V of the Holy Roman Empire 's army halting their advancement before

11466-525: The easternmost province, Cappadocia , was admitted under Marcus Aurelius. By the Severan dynasty (193–235), Italians made up less than half the Senate. During the 3rd century, domicile at Rome became impractical, and inscriptions attest to senators who were active in politics and munificence in their homeland ( patria ). Senators were the traditional governing class who rose through the cursus honorum ,

11613-468: The emblem of Heinrich of Reichenbach the town also got its coat of arms. While in power, Henry III, granted the town (by a singular payment) the forest around the locality of Lubsza . His successor, Henryk IV the Righteous regulated the town's church affairs, as well as renouncing his patronage over St. Mary's Church ( Kościół Św. Marii Panny ), located west of the town's western boundary. The church

11760-514: The empire's most concerted effort against the perceived threat of Christianity , the " Great Persecution ". Diocletian divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by a separate tetrarch . Confident that he fixed the disorder plaguing Rome, he abdicated along with his co-emperor, but the Tetrarchy collapsed shortly after . Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great , who became

11907-506: The empire. This legal egalitarianism required a far-reaching revision of existing laws that distinguished between citizens and non-citizens. Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens, but did not vote, hold political office, or serve in the military. A mother's citizen status determined that of her children, as indicated by the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos ("children born of two Roman citizens"). A Roman woman kept her own family name ( nomen ) for life. Children most often took

12054-575: The end of World War II , on 6 February 1945, the Soviet army captured Brzeg, which resulted in moderate destruction of the town's buildings and infrastructure. After Germany's defeat in the war, Brzeg became part of Poland. Since 1950 the reconstructed town has been a part of the Opole Voivodeship . As the town was situated on the commercial route to Wrocław , in which a colony of Jews had long resided, Jews settled there about 1324. The Jewish community of Brzeg had its separate place of worship from early times. In 1358 Jews lent money to local noblemen and

12201-501: The end of World War I the garrison barracks at Brieg remained for some years after without a stationed military regiment. The Imperial German Army Air Arm ( Luftstreitkräfte ) military aerodrome ( Fliegerhorst ) found in nearby Grüningen was furthermore dismantled and destroyed as part of the Treaty of Versailles . It was not until 4 August 1930 that the 5th Squadron of Cavalry Regiment No. 8 ( 5. Schwadron Reiterregiments Nr. 8 ) of

12348-631: The end of the Western Roman Empire in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer . Odoacer ended the Western Empire by declaring Zeno sole emperor and placing himself as Zeno's nominal subordinate. In reality, Italy was ruled by Odoacer alone. The Eastern Roman Empire, called the Byzantine Empire by later historians, continued until the reign of Constantine XI Palaiologos ,

12495-551: The existence of the Lusatian culture of the late Bronze Age and the early Iron Age . The culture settled in the region and in large continued to develop agriculture and the domestication of farm animals . The natural economy of the culture was based on weaving, pottery and metal works . The Lusatian culture's populace that inhabited the Brzeg Lands was identified by archaeological excavations, revealing 17 individual localities, including 3 hamlets and 8 burial sites, namely

12642-675: The expansionist policies of the Holy Roman Empire in the west, resulting in a chequered co-existence, with Piast rulers like Mieszko I, Casimir I the Restorer or Władysław I Herman trying to protect the Polish state by treaties, oath of allegiances and marriage alliances with the Imperial Ottonian and Salian dynasties. The Bohemian Přemyslid dynasty , the Hungarian Arpads and their Anjou successors,

12789-504: The exploitation of slaves. Outside Italy, slaves were on average an estimated 10 to 20% of the population, sparse in Roman Egypt but more concentrated in some Greek areas. Expanding Roman ownership of arable land and industries affected preexisting practices of slavery in the provinces. Although slavery has often been regarded as waning in the 3rd and 4th centuries, it remained an integral part of Roman society until gradually ceasing in

12936-612: The extinction of the last duke George William of Legnica in 1675, Brieg came under the direct rule of the Habsburgs. In 1537 Duke Frederick II of Legnica concluded a treaty with Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg , whereby the Hohenzollerns of Brandenburg would inherit the duchy upon the extinction of the Silesian Piasts. On the death of George William the last duke in 1675, however, Austria refused to acknowledge

13083-501: The fall of the town to the Soviets the remaining German population were later expelled in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement . The town, under the historic Polish name Brzeg became again part of Poland and was repopulated by Poles whom Soviets expelled from the eastern part of interwar Poland . From the late 19th century the then German town of Brieg had expanded into a traditional military garrison town, from 1897 until 1919 it

13230-457: The father's name, with some exceptions. Women could own property, enter contracts, and engage in business. Inscriptions throughout the Empire honour women as benefactors in funding public works, an indication they could hold considerable fortunes. The archaic manus marriage in which the woman was subject to her husband's authority was largely abandoned by the Imperial era, and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into

13377-640: The first emperor to convert to Christianity , and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the Eastern Empire. During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties, the empire was divided along an east–west axis, with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome. Julian , who under the influence of his adviser Mardonius attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion , only briefly interrupted

13524-690: The founder of the church may have been Bolesław I the Tall or Henry the Bearded . Around the peripheries of the settlement was the location of several hospital buildings. Towards the route to Wrocław in the town's west was the location of the Hospital of the Holy Ghost ( Świętego Ducha ), used both to cure the town's dwellers and as an inn for travellers along the Wrocław- Opole route the town of Brzeg

13671-456: The functioning of cities that in the later Empire, as the ranks of the town councils became depleted, those who had risen to the Senate were encouraged to return to their hometowns, in an effort to sustain civic life. In the later Empire, the dignitas ("worth, esteem") that attended on senatorial or equestrian rank was refined further with titles such as vir illustris ("illustrious man"). The appellation clarissimus (Greek lamprotatos )

13818-586: The gords in 1109. Between the ninth and early-tenth century, the Brzeg Lands, together with all of Silesia , were part of Great Moravia until its demise in AD 906, after which, until 990 the region was under the rule of the Premyslids . Around 990, Silesia was incorporated into Mieszko I 's Poland . During the Fragmentation of Poland (1138 – c.  1314 ), the area of the Brzeg Lands, along with

13965-463: The high banks' of the Oder River; its name is derived from Polish brzeg 'shore'. Konstanty Damrot  [ pl ] (1841–1895), in his book of the etymology of Silesian localities, states that in a Latin document from 1234 the settlement's name was Visoke breg ( Polish : Wysokibrzeg , German : Wissokembreghe ; literally 'high bank'). A native or resident of Brzeg is known as

14112-692: The historian Christopher Kelly described it: Then the empire stretched from Hadrian's Wall in drizzle-soaked northern England to the sun-baked banks of the Euphrates in Syria; from the great Rhine – Danube river system, which snaked across the fertile, flat lands of Europe from the Low Countries to the Black Sea , to the rich plains of the North African coast and the luxuriant gash of

14259-624: The interior of the synagogue was completely demolished and the Torah scrolls publicly burned; numerous shops were ransacked. During World War II, from 1940 to 1944, the Germans operated a forced labour camp for Jewish men in the town. The community was not reestablished after the Holocaust . The shape of the town, including its neighbouring osiedla , is comparable to that of a deformed rectangle , elongated 3.54 kilometres (2.20 miles) north-south and 4.10 kilometres (2.55 miles) west-east. The area of

14406-521: The last Roman emperor. He died in battle in 1453 against Mehmed II and his Ottoman forces during the siege of Constantinople . Mehmed II adopted the title of caesar in an attempt to claim a connection to the former Empire. His claim was soon recognized by the Patriarchate of Constantinople , but not by most European monarchs. The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history, with contiguous territories throughout Europe, North Africa, and

14553-534: The last male Piast, died in 1679. The last legitimate heir, Duchess Karolina of Legnica-Brieg died in 1707 and is buried in Trzebnica Abbey . Nevertheless, numerous families, like the illegitimate descendants of the Silesian duke Adam Wenceslaus of Cieszyn (1574–1617), link their genealogy to the dynasty. About 1295, Przemysł II used a coat of arms with a white eagle – a symbol later referred to as

14700-592: The late 1st century prompted legislation that prohibited the castration of a slave against his will "for lust or gain". Roman slavery was not based on race . Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians, with a minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) estimated at 5% of the total in the capital at its peak, where their number was largest. Foreign slaves had higher mortality and lower birth rates than natives, and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions. The average recorded age at death for

14847-520: The locality. The locality was first settled by Silesian tribes and in later history, until 1675, by the Piast duchies of Duchy of Brzeg , Legnica and Wołów, united under the Duchy of Legnica-Wołów-Brzeg. Presently, the region is spotted with numerous towns, including Brzeg, Grodków and Strzelin , as well as villages, with agriculture providing the major source of income. The development of agriculture

14994-546: The lot of the other Silesian Jews. They carried on insignificant trade operations as a rule. The conquest of Silesia by Frederick the Great brought but slight change in their condition. A synagogue was built in Brieg in 1799, and a rabbi was first appointed in 1816. The Jewish population numbered 156 in 1785; 376 in 1843; 282 in 1913; 255 in 1933; and 123 in 1939. In the Kristallnacht pogroms of 1938 under Nazi Germany

15141-399: The lowest number of foreign tourists in the Opole Voivodeship , with some 95% being national tourists. Per 1000 of the population, there are 1.60–3.89 available accommodations, which is behind nine of the eleven regional capitals (being at level with Kędzierzyn-Koźle ) in the Opole Voivodeship , including Opole , with 3.90–5.89 tourist accommodations per 1000 of the population. Brzeg has

15288-524: The main administrative role in the region. Between the late-twelfth and early-thirteen century, the Dukes of Wrocław set up a curia , led by a claviger. In 1235, Henry the Bearded occupied the area around Oława , by which Walloons had to turn over a tribute of 1 scale of grain and of oat to the settlement of Brzeg, suggesting the existence of a granary and other outbuildings in the curia's established headquarters. Some two hundred m south-west from

15435-486: The marriage. Technically she remained under her father's legal authority, even though she moved into her husband's home, but when her father died she became legally emancipated. This arrangement was a factor in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed compared to many other cultures up to the modern period: although she had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free of his direct scrutiny in daily life, and her husband had no legal power over her. Although it

15582-416: The members of the three higher "orders", along with certain military officers. The granting of universal citizenship in 212 seems to have increased the competitive urge among the upper classes to have their superiority affirmed, particularly within the justice system. Sentencing depended on the judgment of the presiding official as to the relative "worth" ( dignitas ) of the defendant: an honestior could pay

15729-730: The military. The last reference to Gaulish was between 560 and 575. The emergent Gallo-Romance languages would then be shaped by Gaulish. Proto-Basque or Aquitanian evolved with Latin loan words to modern Basque . The Thracian language , as were several now-extinct languages in Anatolia, are attested in Imperial-era inscriptions. The Empire was remarkably multicultural, with "astonishing cohesive capacity" to create shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples. Public monuments and communal spaces open to all—such as forums , amphitheatres , racetracks and baths —helped foster

15876-677: The municipal school, led to the two being split again in 1534. The town continued to flourish under the reign of Duke George II . George II maintained close contacts with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and its nobility , and rebuilt the Ducal Castle in Renaissance style, built the Renaissance town hall, established a new mausoleum of the Piast dukes and built a new gymnasium, opened in 1569. The libraries of

16023-444: The new de facto monarch. As Roman provinces were being established throughout the Mediterranean, Italy maintained a special status which made it domina provinciarum ("ruler of the provinces"), and – especially in relation to the first centuries of imperial stability – rectrix mundi ("governor of the world") and omnium terrarum parens ("parent of all lands"). The 200 years that began with Augustus's rule

16170-407: The new title of Augustus , marking his accession as the first Roman emperor . The vast Roman territories were organized into senatorial provinces, governed by proconsuls who were appointed by lot annually, and imperial provinces, which belonged to the emperor but were governed by legates . The first two centuries of the Empire saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as

16317-476: The old schools were merged into the newly named Piast Library. The gymnasium became popular among Polish nobility, whose children were often educated there. Among the graduates were Polish Royal secretary and poet Joachim Bielski  [ pl ] and reformer Samuel Hartlib , co-founder of the Royal Society of London. In 1595 Brzeg was again fortified by Joachim Frederick of Brzeg and Legnica . In

16464-412: The political career track, but equestrians often possessed greater wealth and political power. Membership in the equestrian order was based on property; in Rome's early days, equites or knights had been distinguished by their ability to serve as mounted warriors, but cavalry service was a separate function in the Empire. A census valuation of 400,000 sesterces and three generations of free birth qualified

16611-507: The poor were other sources. Vernae , by contrast, were "homegrown" slaves born to female slaves within the household, estate or farm. Although they had no special legal status, an owner who mistreated or failed to care for his vernae faced social disapproval, as they were considered part of the family household and in some cases might actually be the children of free males in the family. Rome differed from Greek city-states in allowing freed slaves to become citizens; any future children of

16758-406: The regional capital of Brzeg County ( Powiat Brzeski ), is located in the west of the Opole Voivodeship , in the south-east of Poland. The settlement is located in the valley of the Oder , located between Opole 38.5 km to its east and Wrocław , 40.7 kilometres (25.3 miles) to its north-west. The town has a predominantly flat relief (in comparison to the river scarp on the eastern bank of

16905-415: The residents came in phases: education, communal work, marriages and the provision of material goods and items left behind by the former populace. By 1975, 37.9% of the population of Brzeg had settled in the town after 1960. Breakdown of population origin of Brzeg in 1950 : Breakdown of migrant population origin of Brzeg in 1950 : Population change : Brzeg is the centre for industry and production in

17052-727: The rest of Silesia, came under the control of King of Poland , Bolesław III Wrymouth 's oldest son, Władysław II the Exile . The most favourable area for the settlement of Brzeg is located between the Castle Square ( Plac Zamkowy ), with elevated ground extending south-east towards the Square of the American Polonia ( Plac Polonii Amerykańskiej ). Before the town's foundation, three separate settlements existed in its modern-day territory, with "Wysoki Brzeg" ( Alta ripa ) bearing

17199-538: The river). The River Oder, at low water levels (predominantly between June and early September) forms eyots north of Jerzynowa, Kępa and Srebrna Islands. The locality is located in the Brzeg Plain ( Rownina Brzeska ), part of the Silesian Lowlands . The Brzeg Plain's boundaries are outlined by the Oder river to its north, the Nysa Kłodzka Valley to its south-east, the hillocks of Grodków Hills and

17346-528: The slaves of the city of Rome was seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females). During the period of republican expansionism when slavery had become pervasive, war captives were a main source of slaves. The range of ethnicities among slaves to some extent reflected that of the armies Rome defeated in war, and the conquest of Greece brought a number of highly skilled and educated slaves. Slaves were also traded in markets and sometimes sold by pirates . Infant abandonment and self-enslavement among

17493-646: The state and a series of short-lived emperors led the Empire, which was later reunified under Aurelian ( r.  270–275 ). The civil wars ended with the victory of Diocletian ( r.  284–305 ), who set up two different imperial courts in the Greek East and Latin West . Constantine the Great ( r.  306–337 ), the first Christian emperor , moved the imperial seat from Rome to Byzantium in 330, and renamed it Constantinople . The Migration Period , involving large invasions by Germanic peoples and by

17640-529: The strife-torn Year of the Four Emperors , from which Vespasian emerged as the victor. Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty , followed by the Nerva–Antonine dynasty which produced the " Five Good Emperors ": Nerva , Trajan , Hadrian , Antoninus Pius , and Marcus Aurelius . In the view of contemporary Greek historian Cassius Dio , the accession of Commodus in 180 marked

17787-652: The stronghold of Giecz . Shortly afterwards they relocated their residence to Gniezno , where Prince Mieszko I ruled over the Civitas Schinesghe from about 960. The Piasts temporarily also ruled over Pomerania , Bohemia and the Lusatias , as well as part of Ruthenia , and the Hungarian Spiš region in present-day Slovakia . The ruler bore the title of a duke or a king , depending on their position of power. The Polish monarchy had to deal with

17934-461: The succession of Christian emperors. Theodosius I , the last emperor to rule over both East and West, died in 395 after making Christianity the state religion . The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century. The Romans fought off all invaders, most famously Attila , but the empire had assimilated so many Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to dismember itself. Most chronologies place

18081-529: The task of protecting the Ducal Castle along the riverside. By the turn of the thirteenth century, the defenceless populace living in the pastures of the Brzeg Plain began to relocate into the fortified Visoke breg , building up a new osiedle around the present-day streets of: Łokietka , Piastowska and Trzech Kotwic (extending south-east). The osiedle was documented as Stary Brzeg ( Antiqua Brega ; Alt Brieg ), to be renamed Wieś Brzeska: Brygischedorf (c. 1329) and villa Bregensis in c. 1339. To

18228-575: The throne at Kraków , the capital of the Lesser Polish Seniorate Province . Numerous dukes like Mieszko III the Old , Władysław III Spindleshanks or Leszek I the White were crowned, only to be overthrown shortly afterwards, and others restored and ousted, at times repeatedly. The senior branch of the Silesian Piasts, descendants of Bolesław III Wrymouth 's eldest son Duke Władysław II the Exile , went separate ways and since

18375-562: The time of Nero , however, it was not unusual to find a former slave who was richer than a freeborn citizen, or an equestrian who exercised greater power than a senator. The blurring of the Republic's more rigid hierarchies led to increased social mobility , both upward and downward, to a greater extent than all other well-documented ancient societies. Women, freedmen, and slaves had opportunities to profit and exercise influence in ways previously less available to them. Social life, particularly for those whose personal resources were limited,

18522-514: The town in 1950), and CIK car accessories plant. All three industries are located between Ciepłownicza Street ( ul. Ciepłownicza ) and Składowa Street ( ul. Składowa ). Brzeg is also home to one of the largest confectionery companies in Poland , PWC Odra S.A. (founded in 1946). Presently, the firm is part of the joint-stock company Otmuchów Group . The production plant is located by Starobrzeska Street ( ul. Starobrzeska ). As of 2015, Brzeg had

18669-473: The town, including the village of Rataje, which was incorporated into Brzeg on January 1, 1973, is some 16 km (6.2 sq mi). In comparison to Opole, with a total area of 48 km (19 sq mi); Nysa 's 29 km (11 sq mi) and Kędzierzyn-Koźle 's 23 km (8.9 sq mi); Brzeg is ranked fourth in the Opole Voivodeship by both population and area. Brzeg, as

18816-534: The validity of the treaty and annexed the duchies and Frederick the Great of the Kingdom of Prussia used this treaty to justify his claim at the invasion of Silesia during the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740. Brieg and most of Silesia were annexed by Prussia in 1741 during the First Silesian War . In 1807 the town's fortifications were pulled down by Napoleon's army. The Prussian Province of Silesia , and thus Brieg, consequently became part of

18963-462: The war, 60% of Brieg was destroyed and many of the town's inhabitants died during the severe winter of 1944–5 as they fled from the advancing Red Army . The war had brought the most severe destruction to the town in its entire history. Some of the town's population was evacuated by the German Army who moved its population further west inside Germany for safety and declared Brieg a fortress. After

19110-484: The west of the fortified centre of Brzeg, the settlement of Rataje (a separate village until 1975) as the former village's etymology suggests, centered around the upkeep of the ducal pastures. The town received German town law in 1250 from the Wrocław Duke Henry III the White . The foundation was carried out by the three lokators, Gerkinus of Złotoryja , Ortlif and Heinrich of Reichenbach ( Dzierżoniów ). From

19257-411: The world's total population and made it the most populous unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century. Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak from 70 million to more than 100 million . Each of the three largest cities in the Empire – Rome, Alexandria , and Antioch – was almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the 17th century. As

19404-529: Was a lateral formation, extending northerly from the former Sudetes Wildland to the southern foothills of the Sudetes Mountains. The clearing's characteristics set it as a point for defence in the Lower Silesia region, lined with barrages made out of cut down woodland. The Brzeg Plain was settled due to its fertile soil , allowing for the earliest forms of agriculture to develop in

19551-442: Was a point of pride to be a "one-man woman" ( univira ) who had married only once, there was little stigma attached to divorce , nor to speedy remarriage after being widowed or divorced. Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will. A mother's right to own and dispose of property, including setting the terms of her will, gave her enormous influence over her sons into adulthood. As part of

19698-544: Was characteristic of the establishment of gord settlements, towns and the continued development of trade and crafts . It is believed the permanent populace around modern-day Brzeg was set up by Silesian tribes . The first mention of the Silesian tribes is made in the mid-ninth-century document known as the Bavarian Geographer ( Latin : Geographus Bavarus ), which included the Silesian gord of Ryczyn, located 8.3 kilometres (5.2 mi) north-west of Brzeg, in

19845-527: Was further defined by their citizenship. Most citizens held limited rights (such as the ius Latinum , "Latin right"), but were entitled to legal protections and privileges not enjoyed by non-citizens. Free people not considered citizens, but living within the Roman world, were peregrini , non-Romans. In 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana extended citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of

19992-466: Was further fostered by a proliferation of voluntary associations and confraternities ( collegia and sodalitates ): professional and trade guilds, veterans' groups, religious sodalities, drinking and dining clubs, performing troupes, and burial societies . According to the jurist Gaius , the essential distinction in the Roman " law of persons " was that all humans were either free ( liberi ) or slaves ( servi ). The legal status of free persons

20139-563: Was granted to the Order of Saint John , subsequently founding the Church of St. Nicholas in 1292. The town was fortified in 1297. From 1311 to 1675 Brzeg was the capital of a Lower Silesian duchy ( Duchy of Brzeg ) ruled by a local line of the Polish Piast dynasty , one of whom built a castle in 1341. The Duchy became a fief of the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1329. The town was burned by

20286-586: Was located in the middle of, with an average walking distance between each town taking one day. The area around the Holy Ghost Hospital, present-day Moniuszko Square ( Plac Moniuszki ), was the location of a major market, positioned by the cross roads of the Wrocław – Nysa route, east of the Wrocławska Gate. By the end of the thirteenth century, the Duke of Brzeg possessed 10 shambles . The market

20433-603: Was mostly accomplished under the Republic , though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century, when Roman control in Europe, Africa, and Asia was strengthened. Under Augustus , a "global map of the known world" was displayed for the first time in public at Rome, coinciding with the creation of the most comprehensive political geography that survives from antiquity, the Geography of Strabo . When Augustus died,

20580-671: Was necessary to maintain order, collect information, and extract revenue. The Romans often exploited internal political divisions. Communities with demonstrated loyalty to Rome retained their own laws, could collect their own taxes locally, and in exceptional cases were exempt from Roman taxation. Legal privileges and relative independence incentivized compliance. Roman government was thus limited , but efficient in its use of available resources. The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified emperors and some members of their families with divinely sanctioned authority ( auctoritas ). The rite of apotheosis (also called consecratio ) signified

20727-416: Was never a legal requirement for Latin in the Empire, but it represented a certain status. High standards of Latin, Latinitas , started with the advent of Latin literature. Due to the flexible language policy of the Empire, a natural competition of language emerged that spurred Latinitas , to defend Latin against the stronger cultural influence of Greek. Over time Latin usage was used to project power and

20874-445: Was not a nation-state in the modern sense, but a network of self-ruled towns (with varying degrees of independence from the Senate ) and provinces administered by military commanders. It was governed by annually elected magistrates ( Roman consuls above all) in conjunction with the Senate. The 1st century BC was a time of political and military upheaval, which ultimately led to rule by emperors. The consuls' military power rested in

21021-426: Was not itself an elected office in ancient Rome; an individual gained admission to the Senate after he had been elected to and served at least one term as an executive magistrate . A senator also had to meet a minimum property requirement of 1 million sestertii . Not all men who qualified for the ordo senatorius chose to take a Senate seat, which required legal domicile at Rome. Emperors often filled vacancies in

21168-671: Was the first historical ruling dynasty of Poland . The first documented Polish monarch was Duke Mieszko I ( c.  960 –992). The Piasts' royal rule in Poland ended in 1370 with the death of King Casimir III the Great . Branches of the Piast dynasty continued to rule in the Duchy of Masovia (until 1526) and in the Duchies of Silesia until the last male Silesian Piast died in 1675. The Piasts intermarried with several noble lines of Europe, and possessed numerous titles, some within

21315-755: Was the home town base to Infantry Regiment No. 157 designated from 1902 the 4th Silesian Infantry Regiment No. 157 ( 4. Schlesisches Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 157 ) of the Royal Prussian Army and respectively the Imperial German Army . In 1914 under the regiment's last peacetime commander Lieutenant General Paul Tiede the regiment began mobilizing for the Western Front at the outbreak of World War I as part of VI Army Corps ( VI. Armee-Korps ), 12th Division ( 12. Division ), 78th Infantry Brigade ( 78. Infanterie-Brigade ). At

21462-447: Was used to designate the dignitas of certain senators and their immediate family, including women. "Grades" of equestrian status proliferated. As the republican principle of citizens' equality under the law faded, the symbolic and social privileges of the upper classes led to an informal division of Roman society into those who had acquired greater honours ( honestiores ) and humbler folk ( humiliores ). In general, honestiores were

21609-476: Was useful for a career in the military, government, or law. Bilingual inscriptions indicate the everyday interpenetration of the two languages. Latin and Greek's mutual linguistic and cultural influence is a complex topic. Latin words incorporated into Greek were very common by the early imperial era, especially for military, administration, and trade and commerce matters. Greek grammar, literature, poetry and philosophy shaped Latin language and culture. There

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