121-587: In Irish mythology , Bres (or Bress ) was a king of the Tuatha Dé Danann . He is often referred to by the name Eochaid / Eochu Bres . He was an unpopular king, and favoured his Fomorian kin. Eochu Bres has been translated as "beautiful horseman." The scribes who wrote down the text of the Cath Maige Tuired record Bres as meaning 'beautiful', however, this may be a false etymology. The original meaning of Bres may have derived from
242-663: A féth fíada ('magic mist'). They are said to have travelled from the north of the world, but then were forced to live underground in the sídhe after the coming of the Irish. In some tales, such as Baile in Scáil , kings receive affirmation of their legitimacy from one of the Tuath Dé, or a king's right to rule is affirmed by an encounter with an otherworldly woman (see sovereignty goddess ). The Tuath Dé can also bring doom to unrightful kings. The medieval writers who wrote about
363-430: A "goddess of poets". Writing in the seventh century, Tírechán explained the sídh folk as "earthly gods" (Latin dei terreni ), while Fiacc's Hymn says the Irish adored the sídh before the coming of Saint Patrick . Several of the Tuath Dé are cognate with ancient Celtic deities: Lugh with Lugus , Brigid with Brigantia , Nuada with Nodons , and Ogma with Ogmios . Nevertheless, John Carey notes that it
484-424: A bitter, poisonous red liquid which was then "milked" into pails and offered to Bres to drink. Bres, who was under an obligation not to refuse hospitality, drank it down without flinching, and it killed him. The Lebor Gabála mentions this incident briefly, however the deadly liquid is identified as sewage. Irish mythology Irish mythology is the body of myths indigenous to the island of Ireland . It
605-426: A decrease in human impact on plant life in the bogs in the third century, and specifically that "the impact of human activity upon the flora around the bogs from which the pollen came was less between c. 200 BC and c. AD 300 than either before or after." The third and fourth centuries saw a rapid recovery. The reasons for the decline and recovery are uncertain, but it has been suggested that recovery may be linked to
726-422: A desire to record their native culture and hostility to pagan beliefs, resulting in some of the gods being euhemerised . Many of the later sources may also have formed parts of a propaganda effort designed to create a history for the people of Ireland that could bear comparison with the mythological descent of their British invaders from the founders of Rome, as promulgated by Geoffrey of Monmouth and others. There
847-673: A flint worked by a human found in 1968 at Mell, Drogheda , is much older, probably well pre-dating 70,000 BC, and this is normally regarded as having been carried to Ireland on an ice sheet, probably from what is now the bottom of the Irish Sea . In 2021, a reindeer bone fragment discovered in Castlepook Cave near Doneraile , Co. Cork in 1972, was dated to 33,000 years ago, establishing human activity in Ireland more than 20,000 years earlier than previously thought. A British site on
968-601: A good degree of social organization, include linear earthworks such as the Black Pig's Dyke and Cliadh Dubh , probably representing boundaries, and acting as hindrances to cattle-raids, and "toghers" or wooden trackways across boggy areas, of which the best-known is the Corlea Trackway , a corduroy road dated to 148-147 BC, and about a kilometre long and some three metres wide. The late Iron Age saw sizeable changes in human activity. Thomas Charles-Edwards coined
1089-502: A great number of archaeological finds have been recovered from these. The anaerobic conditions sometimes preserve organic materials exceptionally well, as with a number of bog bodies , a Mesolithic wicker fish-trap, and a Bronze Age textile with delicate tassels of horse hair. During the Last Glacial Maximum , (between about 26,000 and 20,000 years BP) ice sheets more than 3,000 m (9,800 ft) thick scoured
1210-631: A group of manuscripts that originated in the West of Ireland in the late 14th century or the early 15th century: The Yellow Book of Lecan , The Great Book of Lecan and The Book of Ballymote . The first of these is in the Library of Trinity College and the others are in the Royal Irish Academy. The Yellow Book of Lecan is composed of sixteen parts and includes the legends of Fionn Mac Cumhail, selections of legends of Irish Saints, and
1331-599: A group of stories of visits to the Irish Other World (which may be westward across the sea, underground, or simply invisible to mortals). The most famous, Oisin in Tir na nÓg belongs to the Fenian Cycle, but several free-standing adventures survive, including The Adventure of Conle , The Voyage of Bran mac Ferbail , and The Adventure of Lóegaire . The voyages, or immrama , are tales of sea journeys and
SECTION 10
#17327729081371452-508: A narrow walkway to the shore. Some use or extend natural islets, and the largest probably housed a number of families, and animals. It is thought that most of the 1,200-odd crannogs in Ireland were begun in the Bronze Age, although many sites seem to have been used, continuously or intermittently, over very long periods, even into medieval times. The large Dowris Hoard , originally of over 200 items, mostly in bronze, has given its name to
1573-424: A period reaching into centuries, and show no signs of use. Miniature axes, too small to be useful, were made, and a "tiny porcellanite axe" has been found in a passage tomb; another example has a hole for a cord, and may have been worn as jewellery or an amulet . Other stone shapes made were chisels , adzes , maces and spearheads. Only one decorated macehead has been found, in one of the tombs at Knowth , but it
1694-580: A process that began in central Europe as LBK ( Linear Pottery culture ) about 6000 BC. Within several hundred years this culture was present in northern France. An alternative Neolithic culture, La Hoguette culture, that arrived in France's northwestern region appears to be a derivative of the Ibero Italian-Eastern Adriatic Impressed Cardial Ware culture ( Cardium pottery ). The La Hoguette culture, like
1815-596: A root meaning "fight," "blow," "effort," "uproar," or "din." In the Lebor Gabála and Cath Maige Tuired , Bres is portrayed as beautiful to behold, yet harsh and inhospitable. However, the poem Carn Hui Neit from the dindsenchas praises Bres' "kindly" and "noble" character and calls him the "flower" of the Tuatha Dé Danann. There, the following flattering descriptions are provided for Bres: In Cath Maige Tuired Bres' parents were Prince Elatha of
1936-545: A small rectangular stone chest, covered with a stone slab and buried a short distance below the surface. The body might be cremated, or not. Decorated pots often accompanied the remains, and later cremated remains were placed inside the urn, which was turned upside-down, and might also have grave goods of various sorts. Numerous stone circles were also erected at this time, chiefly in Ulster and Munster. Crannogs are timber homes built in shallow lakes for security, often with
2057-703: A succession of peoples, the fifth of whom was the people known as the Tuatha Dé Danann ("Peoples of the Goddess Danu"), who were believed to have inhabited the island before the arrival of the Gaels , or Milesians . They faced opposition from their enemies, the Fomorians , led by Balor of the Evil Eye. Balor was eventually slain by Lugh Lámfada (Lugh of the Long Arm) at the second battle of Magh Tuireadh. With
2178-523: A triad and connected with sovereignty and sacred animals. They guard the battlefield and those who do battle, and according to the stories in the Táin Bó Cúailnge , some of them may instigate and direct war themselves. The main goddesses of battle are The Morrígan, Macha, and Badb . Other warrior women are seen in the role of training warriors in the Fianna bands, such as Liath Luachra , one of
2299-776: A variety of styles, and often polished. The products of axe factories next to sources of porcellanite , an especially good stone, were traded across Ireland; the main ones were Tievebulliagh and Rathlin Island , both in County Antrim . There were also imports from Britain, including products of the Langdale axe industry of the English Lake District . There was a much rarer class of imported prestige axe head made from jadeite from north Italy; these may have been slowly traded across Europe to reach Ireland over
2420-471: A wider political and military significance. There are several ringforts in the complex topping the Hill of Tara , which seems to have its origins in the late Iron Age, although the site also includes a Neolithic passage grave and other earlier tombs. This is one of a number of major sites connected in later literature and mythology with kingship, and probably had a ritual and religious significance, though it
2541-547: Is a sea-serpent-like monster in Irish mythology and folklore. These monsters were believed to inhabit many lakes and rivers in Ireland and there are legends of saints, especially St. Patrick, and heroes fighting them. The three main manuscript sources for Irish mythology are the late 11th/early 12th century Lebor na hUidre (Book of the Dun Cow), which is in the library of the Royal Irish Academy , and
SECTION 20
#17327729081372662-700: Is another monument type that dates to the Late Neolithic or Early Bronze Age. These carvings are found on open-air boulders and outcrops and the most common motifs are cup and ring marks and radial grooves. This art is often referred to as Atlantic rock art due its similarity to other carvings across Atlantic Europe. In Ireland, the art appears in clusters with the most significant concentrations in County Fermanagh and County Donegal , County Wicklow and County Carlow , County Louth and County Monaghan , Cork, and Kerry. The densest clusters are on
2783-591: Is another. During the Bronze Age, the climate of Ireland deteriorated and extensive deforestation took place. The population of Ireland at the end of the Bronze Age was probably in excess of 100,000, and may have been as high as 200,000. It is possible that it was not much greater than it had been at the height of the Neolithic. In Ireland, the Bronze Age lasted until c. 500 BC, later than in continental Europe and also Britain. The Irish Iron Age has long been thought to begin around 500 BC and then continue until
2904-677: Is extremely fine. Some finds may also be miniature maceheads. Pierced beads and pendants are found, and two necklaces of shells (from Phoenix Park in Dublin) are very carefully made, with graded periwinkle shells; these were on the remains of two males. As an example of the exceptional preservation sometimes possible in items found in anaerobic bogs, part of a finely woven bag with circular handles has survived; it used reedy plant material wound round thin strips of wood. Decorated pottery, apparently made for funerary rather than domestic use, appears to imitate basketry patterns. Open-air rock art
3025-739: Is from Ferriter's Cove on the Dingle Peninsula , where a flint knife, cattle bones and a sheep's tooth were found and dated to c. 4350 BC . At the Céide Fields in County Mayo , an extensive Neolithic field system (arguably the oldest known in the world) has been preserved beneath a blanket of peat . Consisting of small fields separated from one another by dry-stone walls, the Céide Fields were farmed for several centuries between 3500 and 3000 BC. Wheat and barley were
3146-511: Is known as the Copper Age or Chalcolithic , commenced about 2500 BC. Bronze was used for the manufacture of both weapons and tools. Swords, axes, daggers, hatchets, halberds, awls, drinking utensils and horn-shaped trumpets are just some of the items that have been unearthed at Bronze Age sites. Irish craftsmen became particularly noted for the horn-shaped trumpet, which was made by the cire perdue , or lost wax , process. Copper used in
3267-534: Is mostly lost. The return of freezing conditions in the Younger Dryas , which lasted from 10,900 BC to 9700 BC, may have depopulated Ireland. During the Younger Dryas, sea levels continued to rise, and an ice-free land bridge between Great Britain and Ireland never returned. The last ice age fully came to an end in Ireland about 8000 BC. Until the single 2016 Palaeolithic dating described above,
3388-508: Is not wholly accurate to describe all of them as gods in the medieval literature itself. He argues that the literary Tuath Dé are sui generis , and suggests "immortals" might be a more neutral term. Many of the Tuath Dé are not defined by singular qualities, but are more of the nature of well-rounded humans, who have areas of special interests or skills like the druidic arts they learned before traveling to Ireland. In this way, they do not correspond directly to other pantheons such as those of
3509-488: Is now impossible to be clear as to what this was. Navan Fort ( Emain Macha ), another major hilltop site, had a very large circular building constructed on it about 100 BC. It was forty metres across, with 275 tree-posts in rings. The largest was the central post, a tree felled about 95 BC. Within the century following the whole building was destroyed, apparently in a ritual fashion. Other large-scale constructions, requiring
3630-635: Is referred to as the Midlandian glaciation . During the period between 17,500 and 12,000 years ago, a warmer period referred to as the Bølling-Allerød allowed for the rehabitation of northern areas of Europe by roaming hunter-gatherers . Genetic evidence suggests this reoccupation began in southwestern Europe, and faunal remains suggest the existence of a refugium in Iberia that extended up into southern France . Species originally attracted to
3751-750: Is some disagreement about when speakers of a Celtic language first arrived in Ireland. It is thought by some scholars to be associated with the Beaker People of the Bronze Age, however others argue that " Celts " arrived much later at the beginning of the Iron Age. The Bronze Age began once copper was alloyed with tin to produce true bronze artefacts, and this took place around 2000 BC, when some "Ballybeg-type" flat axes and associated metalwork were produced. The tin needed to be imported, normally from Cornwall . The period preceding this, in which Lough Ravel and most Ballybeg axes were produced, and which
Bres - Misplaced Pages Continue
3872-654: Is the Cailleach , said to have lived many lives that begin and end with her in stone formation. She is still celebrated at Ballycrovane Ogham Stone with offerings and the retelling of her life's stories. The tales of the Cailleach connect her to both land and sea. Several Otherworldly women are associated with sacred sites where seasonal festivals are held. They include Macha of Eamhain Mhacha , Carman , and Tailtiu , among others. Warrior goddesses are often depicted as
3993-605: Is the oldest surviving manuscript written entirely in the Irish language; the early 12th-century Book of Leinster , which is in the Library of Trinity College Dublin ; and Bodleian Library, MS Rawlinson B 502 ( Rawl. ), which is in the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford . Despite the dates of these sources, most of the material they contain predates their composition. Other important sources include
4114-678: The Corionototae of northern Britain). Up to about 150 BC, there are many finds that show stylistic influence from continental Europe (as in the preceding Dowris phase), and some direct imports. After that date, relationships with British styles predominate, perhaps reflecting some movement of people. The Keshcarrigan Bowl , possibly made in Britain, is an example of this. Another cup found in Fore, County Westmeath does seem to be an import. Examples from Iron Age Ireland of La Tène style ,
4235-656: The DQ2.5 aspect of the AH8.1 haplotype may have been involved in the slowing of cereal culture into Ireland, Scotland and Scandinavia since this haplotype confers susceptibility to a Triticeae protein induced disease as well as Type I diabetes and other autoimmune diseases that may have arisen as an indirect result of Neolithisation. Some regions of Ireland showed patterns of pastoralism that indicated that some Neolithic peoples continued to move and indicates that pastoral activities dominated agrarian activities in many regions or that there
4356-622: The Dagda 's name is interpreted in medieval texts as "the good god". Nuada is cognate with the British god Nodens ; Lugh is a reflex of the pan- Celtic deity Lugus , the name of whom may indicate "Light"; Tuireann may be related to the Gaulish Taranis ; Ogma to Ogmios ; the Badb to Catubodua . The Ulster Cycle is traditionally set around the first century AD, and most of
4477-601: The Fomorians and Eri of the Tuatha Dé Danann . Alternately in The Fate of the Children of Turenn , Bres' father is Balor of the Evil Eye. He grew so quickly that by the age of seven he was the size of a 14-year-old. His wife was Brigid , daughter of the Dagda , and his son was Ruadan, who was killed by Goibniu . In the First Battle of Magh Tuiredh , King Nuada of the Tuatha Dé Danann lost his hand; because he
4598-729: The Fomorians . Important works in the cycle are the Lebor Gabála Érenn ("Book of Invasions"), a legendary history of Ireland, the Cath Maige Tuired ("Battle of Moytura"), and the Aided Chlainne Lir (" Children of Lir "). The Ulster Cycle consists of heroic legends relating to the Ulaid , the most important of which is the epic Táin Bó Cúailnge ("Cattle Raid of Cooley"). The Fenian Cycle focuses on
4719-474: The Greeks or Romans . Irish goddesses or Otherworldly women are usually connected to the land, the waters, and sovereignty, and are often seen as the oldest ancestors of the people in the region or nation. They are maternal figures caring for the earth itself as well as their descendants, but also fierce defenders, teachers and warriors. The goddess Brigid is linked with poetry, healing, and smithing. Another
4840-603: The Iveragh and Dingle peninsulas in Kerry. Metallurgy arrived in Ireland with new people, generally known as the Bell Beaker People from their characteristic pottery, in the shape of an inverted bell. This was quite different from the finely made, round-bottomed pottery of the Neolithic. It is found, for example, at Ross Island , and associated with copper mining there, which had begun by at least 2,400 BC. There
4961-514: The Togail Troí , an Irish adaptation of Dares Phrygius ' De excidio Troiae historia , found in the Book of Leinster. They also argue that the material culture depicted in the stories is generally closer to that of the time of their composition than to that of the distant past. The Mythological Cycle , comprising stories of the former gods and origins of the Irish, is the least well preserved of
Bres - Misplaced Pages Continue
5082-421: The bards of nobility. Once the noble houses started to decline, this tradition was put to an abrupt end. The bards passed the stories to their families, and the families would take on the oral tradition of storytelling. During the first few years of the 20th century, Herminie Templeton Kavanagh wrote down many Irish folk tales, which she published in magazines and in two books. Twenty-six years after her death,
5203-471: The "Golden Age" of Roman Britain in the third and fourth centuries. The archaeological evidence for trade with, or raids on, Roman Britain is strongest in northern Leinster , centred on modern County Dublin , followed by the coast of County Antrim , with lesser concentrations in the Rosses on the north coast of County Donegal and around Carlingford Lough . As Roman Britain collapsed politically, there
5324-532: The Bronze Age, and also continuing to be used into the Early Medieval period. Although today seen as mostly dating from the early historic period, some of the perhaps 60,000 ringforts or raths in Ireland date back to the Late Iron Age. These vary greatly in size and function, with smaller ones a single-family farmstead (with slaves), or merely an enclosure for animals, and larger ones clearly having
5445-529: The Cycle of the Kings, or more correctly Cycles, as there are a number of independent groupings. This term is a more recent addition to the cycles, with it being coined in 1946 by Irish literary critic Myles Dillon . The kings that are included range from the almost entirely mythological Labraid Loingsech , who allegedly became High King of Ireland around 431 BC, to the entirely historical Brian Boru . However,
5566-553: The Dowris Phase or period, as a term for the final phase of the Irish Bronze Age, about 900-600 BC. With 48 examples, the hoard contained all but two of the known examples of the distinctive "crotals", bronze rattles in the shape of a bull's testicle , as well as 26 horns or trumpets, weapons, and vessels. The rather earlier Dunaverney flesh-hook (perhaps 1050–900 BC) is suggestive of a culture where elite feasting
5687-637: The Fianna Cycle is the Acallam na Senórach ( Colloquy of the Old Men ), which is found in two 15th century manuscripts, the Book of Lismore and Laud 610, as well as a 17th century manuscript from Killiney , County Dublin . The text is dated from linguistic evidence to the 12th century. The text records conversations between Caílte mac Rónáin and Oisín , the last surviving members of
5808-596: The Fianna, and Saint Patrick , and consists of about 8,000 lines. The late dates of the manuscripts may reflect a longer oral tradition for the Fenian stories. The Fianna of the story are divided into the Clann Baiscne, led by Fionn mac Cumhaill (often rendered as "Finn MacCool", Finn Son of Cumhall), and the Clann Morna, led by his enemy, Goll mac Morna . Goll killed Fionn's father, Cumhal , in battle and
5929-682: The Fomorians in the Battle of Mag Tuired . This has been likened to other Indo-European myths of a war between gods, such as the Æsir and Vanir in Norse mythology and the Olympians and Titans in Greek mythology . Heroes in Irish mythology can be found in two distinct groups. There is the lawful hero who exists within the boundaries of the community, protecting their people from outsiders. Within
6050-412: The Fomorians, for the help he sought. He led the Fomorians in the Second Battle of Magh Tuireadh but lost. He was found unprotected on the battlefield by Lugh and pleaded for his life. Lugh spared him because he promised to teach the Tuatha Dé agriculture . In a contradictory account from the dindsenchas Bres' death is described at the hands of Lugh. Lugh made 300 wooden cows, and filled them with
6171-401: The Gaelic-speaking community in Scotland and there are many extant texts from that country. They also differ from the Ulster Cycle in that the stories are told mainly in verse and that in tone they are nearer to the tradition of romance than the tradition of epic. The stories concern the doings of Fionn mac Cumhaill and his band of soldiers, the Fianna . The single most important source for
SECTION 50
#17327729081376292-427: The Irish deposits may well have been essentially exhausted. Construction of wedge tombs tailed off from about 2,200 BC, and while the previous tradition of large scale monument building was much reduced, existing earlier megalithic monuments continued in use in the form of secondary insertions of funerary and ritual artefacts. Towards the end of the Bronze Age the single-grave cist made its appearance. This consisted of
6413-611: The Mesolithic era lived on a varied diet of seafood, birds, wild boar and hazelnuts . There is no evidence for deer in the Irish Mesolithic and it is likely that the first red deer were introduced in the early stages of the Neolithic. The human population hunted with spears , arrows and harpoons tipped with small stone blades called microliths , while supplementing their diet with gathered nuts , fruit and berries . They lived in seasonal shelters, which they constructed by stretching animal skins or thatch over wooden frames. They had outdoor hearths for cooking their food. During
6534-473: The Mesolithic the population of Ireland was probably never more than a few thousand. Surviving artefacts include small microlith blades and points, and later larger stone tools and weapons, in particular the versatile Bann flake . Many areas of Europe entered the Neolithic (New Stone Age) with a 'package' of cereal cultivars, pastoral animals (domesticated oxen/cattle, sheep, goats), pottery, weaving, housing and burial cultures, which arrived simultaneously,
6655-428: The Mythological Cycle represents a Golden Age, the Ulster Cycle is Ireland's Heroic Age . Like the Ulster Cycle, the Fianna Cycle or Fenian Cycle, also referred to as the Ossianic Cycle, is concerned with the deeds of Irish heroes. The stories of the Cycle appear to be set around the 3rd century and mainly in the provinces of Leinster and Munster . They differ from the other cycles in the strength of their links with
6776-515: The Neolithic population, and were probably communal graves used over a long period. In most of the tombs that have been excavated, human remains—usually, but not always, cremated—have been found. Grave goods—pottery, arrowheads, beads, pendants, axes, etc.—have also been uncovered. These megalithic tombs , more than 1,200 of which are now known, can be divided for the most part into four broad groups, all of which would originally have been covered with earth, that in many cases has been eroded away to leave
6897-428: The Roman world, perhaps as far away as Alexandria . The headland of Drumanagh , near Dublin and not yet fully excavated, may have represented a centre for trade with Roman Britain . Drumanagh is an example of the coastal promontory fort , using cliff headlands with a narrow neck to reduce the extent of fortification necessary. In Ireland these seem to be mainly a feature of the Iron Age, with some perhaps dating to
7018-403: The Tuath Dé were Christians. Sometimes they explained the Tuath Dé as fallen angels ; neutral angels who sided neither with God nor Lucifer and were punished by being forced to dwell on the Earth; or ancient humans who had become highly skilled in magic. However, several writers acknowledged that at least some of them had been gods. There is strong evidence that many of the Tuath Dé represent
7139-415: The Tuatha Dé Danann were defeated by the Milesians. By the Middle Ages, the Tuatha Dé Danann were not viewed so much as gods as the shape-shifting magician population of an earlier Golden Age Ireland. Texts such as Lebor Gabála Érenn and Cath Maige Tuireadh present them as kings and heroes of the distant past, complete with death-tales. However, there is considerable evidence, both in the texts and from
7260-500: The Tuatha Dé complained that after visiting his house their knives were never greased and their breaths did not smell of ale . Cairbre , poet of the Tuatha Dé, composed a scathing poem against him, which was the first satire in Ireland, and everything went wrong for Bres after that. After Bres had ruled for seven years, Nuada had his hand, which had formerly been replaced with a silver one by Dian Cecht and Creidhne , replaced with one of flesh and blood by Dian Cecht's son Miach , with
7381-441: The Ulster Cycle is the Táin Bó Cúailnge . Other important Ulster Cycle tales include The Tragic Death of Aife's only Son , Bricriu's Feast , and The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel . The Exile of the Sons of Usnach , better known as the tragedy of Deirdre and the source of plays by John Millington Synge , William Butler Yeats , and Vincent Woods , is also part of this cycle. This cycle is, in some respects, close to
SECTION 60
#17327729081377502-402: The Wooing Of Étain and Cath Maige Tuireadh , the (second) Battle of Magh Tuireadh . One of the best known of all Irish stories, Oidheadh Clainne Lir , or The Tragedy of the Children of Lir , is also part of this cycle. Lebor Gabála Érenn is a pseudo-history of Ireland, tracing the ancestry of the Irish back to before Noah . It tells of a series of invasions or "takings" of Ireland by
7623-469: The action takes place in the provinces of Ulster and Connacht . It consists of a group of heroic tales dealing with the lives of Conchobar mac Nessa , king of Ulster, the great hero Cú Chulainn , who was the son of Lug ( Lugh ), and of their friends, lovers, and enemies. These are the Ulaid , or people of the North-Eastern corner of Ireland and the action of the stories centres round the royal court at Emain Macha (known in English as Navan Fort), close to
7744-400: The arrival of the Gaels, the Tuatha Dé Danann retired underground to become the fairy people of later myth and legend. The Metrical Dindshenchas is the great onomastics work of early Ireland, giving the naming legends of significant places in a sequence of poems. It includes a lot of important information on Mythological Cycle figures and stories, including the Battle of Tailtiu, in which
7865-537: The beginning of the arrival of the Celts (i.e. speakers of the Proto-Celtic language ) and thus Indo-European speakers, to the island. Alternatively, many hold the view that this happened with the bearers of the Bell Beaker culture, probably Indo-European speaking, reaching Ireland during the earlier stage of the Bronze Age. The Celtic languages of Britain and Ireland, also known as Insular Celtic , can be divided into two groups, Goidelic and Brittonic . When primary written records of Celtic first appear in about
7986-509: The boy Fionn was brought up in secrecy. As a youth, while being trained in the art of poetry, he accidentally burned his thumb while cooking the Salmon of Knowledge, which allowed him to suck or bite his thumb to receive bursts of stupendous wisdom. He took his place as the leader of his band and numerous tales are told of their adventures. Two of the greatest of the Irish tales, Tóraigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne ( The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne ) and Oisín in Tír na nÓg form part of
8107-425: The cycle. The Diarmuid and Grainne story, which is one of the cycle's few prose tales, is a probable source of Tristan and Iseult . The world of the Fianna Cycle is one in which professional warriors spend their time hunting, fighting, and engaging in adventures in the spirit world. New entrants into the band are expected to be knowledgeable in poetry as well as undergo a number of physical tests or ordeals. Most of
8228-425: The cycles; these include the echtrai tales of journeys to the Otherworld (such as The Voyage of Bran ), and the Dindsenchas ("lore of places"). Some written materials have not survived, and many more myths were likely never written down. The main supernatural beings in Irish mythology are the Tuatha Dé Danann ("the folk of the goddess Danu"), also known by the earlier name Tuath Dé ("god folk" or "tribe of
8349-419: The earliest evidence of human occupation after the retreat of the ice was dated to the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), around 7000 BC . Although sea levels were still lower than they are today, Ireland was very probably already an island by the time the first settlers arrived by boat, very likely from Britain. The earliest inhabitants of the island were seafarers who depended for much of their livelihood upon
8470-600: The earliest known version of the Táin Bó Cúailnge ("The Cattle Raid of Cooley"). This is one of Europe's oldest epics written in a vernacular language. Other 15th-century manuscripts, such as The Book of Fermoy , also contain interesting materials, as do such later syncretic works such as Geoffrey Keating 's Foras Feasa ar Éirinn ( The History of Ireland ) ( c. 1640 ). These later compilers and writers may well have had access to manuscript sources that have since disappeared. Most of these manuscripts were created by Christian monks , who may well have been torn between
8591-413: The early Christian era in Ireland, which brought some written records and therefore the end of prehistoric Ireland. This view has been somewhat upset by the recent carbon-dating of the wood shaft of a very elegant iron spearhead found in the River Inny near Lackan , which gave a date of between 811 and 673 BC. This may further erode the belief, still held by some, that the arrival of iron-working marked
8712-504: The early Christian period, to form the Insular art of the Book of Kells and other well-known masterpieces, perhaps under influence from Late Roman and post-Roman Romano-British styles. The 1st century BC Broighter Gold hoard, from Ulster, includes a small model boat, a spectacular torc with relief decoration influenced by classical style, and other gold jewellery probably imported from
8833-839: The early part of the Holocene Ireland itself had a climate that was inhospitable to most European animals and plants. Human occupation was unlikely, although fishing was possible. Britain and Ireland may have been joined by a land bridge , but because this hypothetical link would have been cut by rising sea levels early into the warm period, perhaps by 14,000 BC, few temperate terrestrial flora or fauna would have crossed into Ireland. Snakes and most other reptiles could not populate Ireland because any land bridge disappeared before temperatures became warm enough for them. The lowered sea level also joined Britain to continental Europe; this persisted much longer, probably until around 5600 BC. The earliest known modern humans in Ireland date back to
8954-437: The eastern coast of the Irish Sea , dated to 11,000 BC, indicated people in the area were eating a marine diet including shellfish . These people may have also colonised Ireland by boat. Perhaps because there were few resources outside of coastal areas which permitted fishing, the region may not have been continually occupied. The early coastline of Ireland is now almost entirely under the sea, so evidence of coastal populations
9075-530: The exploits of the mythical hero Finn and his warrior band the Fianna , including the lengthy Acallam na Senórach ("Tales of the Elders"). The Cycles of the Kings comprises legends about historical and semi-historical kings of Ireland (such as Buile Shuibhne , "The Madness of King Sweeny"), and tales about the origins of dynasties and peoples. There are also mythological texts that do not fit into any of
9196-463: The fifth century, Gaelic or Goidelic, in the form of Primitive Irish , is found in Ireland, while Brittonic, in the form of Common Brittonic , is found in Britain. The Iron Age includes the period in which the Romans ruled most of the neighbouring island of Great Britain . Roman interest in the area led to some of the earliest written evidence about Ireland . The names of its tribes were recorded by
9317-405: The fifth century. He suggested that the decrease in agricultural productivity might be due to a large-scale export of slaves to Roman Britain . Others such as Joseph Raftery, Barry Raftery , and Donnchadh Ó Corráin have drawn attention to a decline in human settlement and activity in Ireland, starting from around the first century BC. Pollen data extracted from Irish bogs indicate
9438-819: The four cycles. It is about the principal people who invaded and inhabited the island. The people include Cessair and her followers, the Formorians, the Partholinians, the Nemedians, the Firbolgs, the Tuatha Dé Danann , and the Milesians. The most important sources are the Metrical Dindshenchas or Lore of Places and the Lebor Gabála Érenn or Book of Invasions . Other manuscripts preserve such mythological tales as The Dream of Aengus ,
9559-643: The geographer Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD. The recorded tribes of Ireland included at least three with names identical or similar to British or Gaulish tribes: the Brigantes (also the name of the largest tribe in northern and midland Britain), the Manapii (possibly the same people as the Menapii , a Belgic tribe of northern Gaul ) and the Coriondi (a name similar to that of Corinion , later Cirencester and
9680-473: The gods of Irish paganism . The name itself means "tribe of gods", and the ninth-century Scél Tuain meic Cairill (Tale of Tuan mac Cairill ) speaks of the Tuath Dé ocus Andé , "tribe of gods and un-gods". Goibniu, Credne and Luchta are called the trí dé dáno , "three gods of craft". In Sanas Cormaic ( Cormac's Glossary), Anu is called "mother of the Irish gods", Nét a "god of war", and Brigid
9801-469: The gods"). Early medieval Irish writers also called them the fir dé (god-men) and cenéla dé (god-kindreds), possibly to avoid calling them simply 'gods'. They are often depicted as kings, queens, bards, warriors, heroes, healers and craftsmen who have supernatural powers and are immortal. Prominent members include The Dagda ("the great god"); The Morrígan ("the great queen" or "phantom queen"); Lugh ; Nuada ; Aengus ; Brigid ; Manannán ; Dian Cécht
9922-550: The greatest glory of the Kings' Cycle is the Buile Shuibhne ( The Frenzy of Sweeney ), a 12th century tale told in verse and prose. Suibhne, king of Dál nAraidi , was cursed by St. Ronan and became a kind of half-man, half bird, condemned to live out his life in the woods, fleeing from his human companions. The story has captured the imaginations of contemporary Irish poets and has been translated by Trevor Joyce and Seamus Heaney . The adventures, or echtrae , are
10043-594: The healer; and Goibniu the smith. They are also said to control the fertility of the land; the tale De Gabáil in t-Sída says the first Gaels had to establish friendship with the Tuath Dé before they could raise crops and herds. They dwell in the Otherworld but interact with humans and the human world. Many are associated with specific places in the landscape, especially the sídhe : prominent ancient burial mounds such as Brú na Bóinne , which are entrances to Otherworld realms. The Tuath Dé can hide themselves with
10164-400: The help of his sister Airmed ; following the successful replacement, Nuada was restored to kingship and Bres was exiled. He went to his father for help to recover his throne, but Elatha would not help him gain by foul means what he had been unable to keep: "You have no right to get it by injustice when you could not keep it by justice". Bres was guided by his father to Balor , another leader of
10285-509: The historical record begins when the Romans invaded; as Ireland was not invaded by the Romans its historical record starts later, with the coming of Christianity . The two periods that have left the most spectacular groups of remains are the Neolithic, with its megalithic tombs , and the Bronze Age, which left among other things, gold jewellery from a time when Ireland was a major centre of gold mining. Ireland has many areas of bogland , and
10406-674: The iconography of the Gundestrup Cauldron . However, these "nativist" claims have been challenged by "revisionist" scholars who believe that much of the literature was created, rather than merely recorded, in Christian times, more or less in imitation of the epics of classical literature that came with Latin learning. The revisionists point to passages apparently influenced by the Iliad in Táin Bó Cuailnge , and to
10527-443: The impressive stone frameworks: The theory that these four groups of monuments were associated with four separate waves of invading colonists still has its adherents today, but the growth in population that made them possible need not have been the result of colonisation: it may simply have been the natural consequence of the introduction of agriculture. The stone axe was the primary and essential tool for farming, carefully made in
10648-800: The key early Mesolithic excavations are the settlement site at Mount Sandel in Coleraine , County Londonderry ; the cremations at Hermitage, County Limerick on the bank of the River Shannon ; and the campsite at Lough Boora in County Offaly . As well as these, early Mesolithic lithic scatters have been noted around the island, from the north in County Donegal to the south in County Cork . The population has been tentatively estimated at around 8,000. The hunter-gatherers of
10769-429: The kin-group or tuath , heroes are human and gods are not. The Fianna warrior bands are seen as outsiders, connected with the wilderness, youth, and liminal states. Their leader was called Fionn mac Cumhaill, and the first stories of him are told in fourth century. They are considered aristocrats and outsiders who protect the community from other outsiders; though they may winter with a settled community, they spend
10890-462: The landscape of Ireland. By 24,000 years ago they extended beyond the southern coast of Ireland; but by 16,000 years ago the glaciers had retreated so that only an ice bridge remained between Ireland and Scotland. By 14,000 years ago Ireland was completely isolated from Britain; and this glacial period is recognized as having ended about 11,700 years ago, without glaciers being present, but leaving Ireland as an arctic tundra landscape. This period
11011-684: The last decades. It begins with the first evidence of permanent human residence in Ireland around 10,500 BC (although there is evidence of human presence as early as 31,000 BC ) and finishes with the start of the historical record around 400 AD . Both the beginning and end dates of the period are later than for much of Europe and all of the Near East . The prehistoric period covers the Palaeolithic , Mesolithic , Neolithic , Bronze Age and Iron Age societies of Ireland. For much of Europe ,
11132-405: The late Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age). This date was pushed back some 2,500 years by a radiocarbon dating performed in 2016 on a bear bone excavated in 1903 in the " Alice and Gwendoline Cave ", County Clare . The bone has cut marks showing it was butchered when fresh and gave a date of around 10,500 BC, showing humans were in Ireland at that time, soon after the ice retreated. In contrast,
11253-518: The late Mesolithic period. The red deer was introduced from Britain about this time. From around 4500 BC a Neolithic package that included cereal cultivars, housing culture (similar to those of the same period in Scotland) and stone monuments arrived in Ireland. Sheep, goats, cattle and cereals were imported from southwestern continental Europe, after which the population rose significantly. The earliest clear proof of farmers in Ireland or Great Britain
11374-468: The later Voyage of St. Brendan . While not as ancient, later 8th century AD works, that influenced European literature, include The Vision of Adamnán . Although there are no written sources of Irish mythology, many stories are passed down orally through traditional storytelling. Some of these stories have been lost, but some Celtic regions continue to tell folktales to the modern-day. Folktales and stories were primarily preserved by monastic scribes from
11495-612: The manufacture of bronze was mined in Ireland, chiefly in the southwest of the island (as in the later Bronze Age copper mine at Derrycarhoon ), while the tin was imported from Cornwall in Britain. The earliest known copper mine in these islands was located at Ross Island , at the Lakes of Killarney in County Kerry ; mining and metalworking took place there between 2400 and 1800 BC. Another of Europe's best-preserved copper mines has been discovered at Mount Gabriel in County Cork , which
11616-525: The modern town of Armagh . The Ulaid had close links with the Irish colony in Scotland , and part of Cú Chulainn's training takes place in that colony. The cycle consists of stories of the births, early lives and training, wooing, battles, feastings, and deaths of the heroes. It also reflects a warrior society in which warfare consists mainly of single combats and wealth is measured mainly in cattle. These stories are written mainly in prose. The centerpiece of
11737-410: The mythological cycle. Some of the characters from the latter reappear, and the same sort of shape-shifting magic is much in evidence, side by side with a grim, almost callous realism. While we may suspect a few characters, such as Medb or Cú Roí , of once being deities, and Cú Chulainn in particular displays superhuman prowess, the characters are mortal and associated with a specific time and place. If
11858-609: The native Irish gods with their homes in burial mounds. The third group are the gods that dwell in the sea and the fourth group includes stories of the Otherworld. The gods that appear most often are the Dagda and Lugh. Some scholars have argued that the stories of these gods align with Greek stories and gods. The Fomorians or Fomori ( Old Irish : Fomóire ) are a supernatural race, who are often portrayed as hostile and monstrous beings. Originally, they were said to come from under
11979-534: The north during the pre- boreal period included reindeer and aurochs . Some sites as far north as Sweden inhabited earlier than 10,000 years ago suggest that humans might have used glacial termini as places from which to hunt migratory game. These factors and ecological changes brought humans to the edge of the northernmost ice-free zones of continental Europe by the onset of the Holocene (11.5ky ago) and this included regions close to Ireland. However, during
12100-499: The phrase "Irish Dark Age" to refer to a period of apparent economic and cultural stagnation in late prehistoric Ireland, lasting from c. 100 BC to c. AD 300. He used the phrase to describe a gap in the archaeological record coinciding with the Roman Empire in Britain and continental Europe. Charles-Edwards notes the lack of continuity between Ptolemy 's writings on the peoples of second-century Ireland and writings in ogham in
12221-437: The poems are attributed to being composed by Oisín . This cycle creates a bridge between pre-Christian and Christian times. It was part of the duty of the medieval Irish bards, or court poets , to record the history of the family and the genealogy of the king they served. This they did in poems that blended the mythological and the historical to a greater or lesser degree. The resulting stories from what has come to be known as
12342-854: The principal crops cultivated. Pottery made its appearance around the same time as agriculture. Ware similar to that found in northern Great Britain has been excavated in Ulster (Lyle's Hill pottery) and in Limerick . Typical of this ware are wide-mouthed, round-bottomed bowls. This follows a pattern similar to western Europe or gradual onset of Neolithic, such as seen in La Hoguette Culture of France and Iberia's Impressed Cardial Ware Culture. Cereal culture advance markedly slows north of France; certain cereal strains such as wheat were difficult to grow in cold climates—however, barley and German rye were suitable replacements. It can be speculated that
12463-538: The sea or the earth. Later, they were portrayed as sea raiders, which was probably influenced by the Viking raids on Ireland around that time. Later still they were portrayed as giants. They are enemies of Ireland's first settlers and opponents of the Tuatha Dé Danann, although some members of the two races have offspring. The Fomorians were viewed as the alter-egos to the Tuath Dé The Tuath Dé defeat
12584-401: The sea, and later inland settlements or camps were usually close to water. Although archaeologists believe Mesolithic people heavily relied on riverine and coastal environments, ancient DNA indicates they had probably ceased contact with Mesolithic societies on the island of Britain and further afield. Evidence for Mesolithic hunter-gatherers has been found throughout the island: a number of
12705-535: The summers living wild, training adolescents and providing a space for war-damaged veterans. The time of vagrancy for these youths is designated as a transition in life post puberty but pre-manhood. Manhood being identified as owning or inheriting property. They live under the authority of their own leaders, or may be somewhat anarchic, and may follow other deities or spirits than the settled communities. The church refused to recognize this group as an institution and referred to them as "sons of death". The Oilliphéist
12826-868: The tales from her two books, Darby O'Gill and the Good People and Ashes of Old Wishes, were made into the film Darby O'Gill and the Little People . Noted Irish playwright Lady Gregory also collected folk stories to preserve Irish history. The Irish Folklore Commission gathered folk tales from the general Irish populace from 1935 onward. Primary sources in English translation Primary sources in Medieval Irish Secondary sources Prehistoric Ireland The prehistory of Ireland has been pieced together from archaeological evidence, which has grown at an increasing rate over
12947-468: The term for Iron Age Celtic art , are very few, to a "puzzling" extent, although some of these are of very high quality, such as a number of scabbards from Ulster and the Petrie Crown , apparently dating to the 2nd century AD. This was well after Celtic art elsewhere had been subsumed into Gallo-Roman art and its British equivalent. Despite this it was in Ireland that the style seemed to revive in
13068-544: The western Cardial culture, raised sheep and goats more intensely. By 5100 BC there is evidence of dairy practices in southern England, and modern English cattle appear to be derived from "T1 Taurids" that were domesticated in the Aegean region shortly after the onset of the Holocene . These animals were probably derived from cattle from the Linear Pottery culture . Around 4300 BC cattle arrived in northern Ireland during
13189-618: The wider Celtic world, that they were once considered deities . Even after they are displaced as the rulers of Ireland, characters such as Lugh , the Mórrígan , Aengus and Manannán Mac Lir appear in stories set centuries later, betraying their immortality. A poem in the Book of Leinster lists many of the Tuatha Dé, but ends "Although [the author] enumerates them, he does not worship them". Goibniu , Creidhne and Luchta are referred to as Trí Dé Dána ("three gods of craftsmanship"), and
13310-536: The women who trained the hero Fionn mac Cumhaill . Zoomorphism is an important feature. Badb Catha, for instance, is "the Raven of Battle", and in the Táin Bó Cúailnge , The Morrígan shapeshifts into an eel, a wolf, and a cow. Irish gods are divided into four main groups. Group one encompasses the older gods of Gaul and Britain. The second group is the main focus of much of the mythology and surrounds
13431-568: The wonders seen on them that may have resulted from the combination of the experiences of fishermen combined and the Other World elements that inform the adventures. Of the seven immrama mentioned in the manuscripts, only three have survived: The Voyage of Máel Dúin , the Voyage of the Uí Chorra , and the Voyage of Snedgus and Mac Riagla . The Voyage of Mael Duin is the forerunner of
13552-511: The world of the last elites of prehistoric Ireland. The large areas of bog in Ireland have produced over a dozen ancient bog bodies , mostly from the Iron Age. Some were found and reburied before archaeological and scientific investigation was possible. Some survive as skeletons only, but the best-preserved have retained their flesh, hair, and clothing. The oldest appears to be the Neolithic Stoneyisland Man , perhaps
13673-464: Was a collar consisting of a bar or ribbon of metal, twisted into a spiral. Other types of gold jewellery made in Ireland during the Bronze Age, most shared with Britain, include earrings, sun disks, bracelets, clothes fasteners, and in the Late Bronze Age, the distinctively Irish large "gorgets", and bullae amulets . After the Bronze Age goldwork almost ceased to be produced in Ireland;
13794-551: Was a division of labour between pastoral and agrarian aspects of the Neolithic. At the height of the Neolithic the population of the island was probably in excess of 100,000, and perhaps as high as 200,000. But there appears to have been an economic collapse around 2500 BC, and the population declined for a while. The most striking characteristic of the Neolithic in Ireland was the sudden appearance and dramatic proliferation of megalithic monuments . The largest of these tombs were clearly places of religious and ceremonial importance to
13915-524: Was also a tendency to rework Irish genealogies to fit them into the schemas of Greek or biblical genealogy. Whether medieval Irish literature provides reliable evidence of oral tradition remains a matter for debate. Kenneth Jackson described the Ulster Cycle as a "window on the Iron Age", and Garret Olmsted has attempted to draw parallels between Táin Bó Cuailnge , the Ulster Cycle epic and
14036-535: Was even settlement by Irish people, and leaders, in Wales and western Britain. Inhumation burials may also have spread from Roman Britain, and had become common in Ireland by the fourth and fifth centuries. Some protohistoric records begin to appear during this period. Early Irish literature was not written down until the Early Medieval period, but many scholars accept that the saga cycles preserve in some form elements from much earlier, that give some insights into
14157-534: Was imperfect, he could not be king. Hoping to reconcile relations between the Fomorians and the Tuatha Dé Danann, Bres was named king and Brigid of the Tuatha de Danann married him, giving him a son, Ruadan , who would later be killed trying to assassinate Goibniu . Bres made the Tuatha Dé Danann pay tribute to the Fomorians and work as slaves: Ogma was forced to carry firewood, and the Dagda had to dig trenches around forts. He neglected his duties of hospitality:
14278-549: Was important, and reflects influence from continental Europe; very large riveted bronze cauldrons were also made. Large numbers of bronze weapons were produced, and typical sword shapes changed from shorter ones for stabbing and thrusting on foot, to longer ones, perhaps for a mounted warrior to slash with. This is one example of a Dowris Phase design type originating in the Hallstatt culture of continental Europe, probably transmitted via southern Britain; chapes for scabbards
14399-481: Was originally passed down orally in the prehistoric era . In the early medieval era , some myths were transcribed by Christian monks , who heavily altered and Christianised the myths. Irish mythology is the best-preserved branch of Celtic mythology . The myths are conventionally grouped into ' cycles '. The Mythological Cycle consists of tales and poems about the god-like Tuatha Dé Danann , who are based on Ireland's pagan deities, and other mythical races like
14520-486: Was very possibly a major factor in the Bronze Age Irish economy. In the early stages of the Bronze Age the gold ornaments included simple but finely decorated gold lunulae , a distinctively Irish type of object later made in Britain and continental Europe, and disks of thin gold sheet. Many of these seem to have been long in use before they were deposited. Later the thin twisted torc made its appearance; this
14641-616: Was worked for several centuries in the middle of the second millennium. Mines in Cork and Kerry are believed to have produced as much as 370 tonnes of copper during the Bronze Age. Ireland was also rich in native gold, and the Bronze Age saw the first extensive working of this precious metal by Irish craftsmen. More Bronze Age gold hoards have been discovered in Ireland than anywhere else in Europe. Irish gold ornaments have been found as far afield as Germany and Scandinavia , and gold-related trade
#136863