Brigandage is the life and practice of highway robbery and plunder . It is practiced by a brigand , a person who is typically part of a gang and lives by pillage and robbery.
99-442: The word brigand entered English as brigant via French from Italian as early as 1400. Under the laws of war, soldiers acting on their own recognizance without operating in chain of command are brigands, liable to be tried under civilian laws as common criminals. However, on occasions brigands are not mere malefactors, but may be rebels against a state or union perceived as the enemy. Bad administration and suitable terrain encourage
198-629: A mountain range consisting of parallel smaller chains extending c. 1,200 km (750 mi) the length of peninsular Italy . In the northwest they join the Ligurian Alps at Altare . In the southwest they end at Reggio di Calabria , the coastal city at the tip of the peninsula. Since 2000 the Environment Ministry of Italy, following the recommendations of the Apennines Park of Europe Project, has defined
297-544: A certain kind of brigandage, in early days, when the travel routes to the American West were infested by highwaymen . Such outlaws, when captured, were often dealt with in an extra-legal manner by groups of vigilantes known as vigilance committees . A notable example is the Harpe brothers , who were active during the late 18th century. [...] it would be going much too far to say that the absence of an efficient police
396-415: A defined group of people immediately below them. If an officer of unit "A" does give orders directly to a lower-ranked member of unit "B", it would be considered highly unusual (i.e., a faux pas, or extraordinary circumstances, such as a lack of time or inability to confer with the officer in command of unit "B") as officer "A" would be seen as subverting the authority of the officer of unit "B". Depending on
495-599: A high diversity of flora and fauna. These mountains are one of the last refuges of the big European predators such as the Italian wolf and the Marsican brown bear , now extinct in the rest of Central Europe . The mountains lend their name to the Apennine peninsula that forms the major part of Italy. They are mostly verdant, although one side of the highest peak, Corno Grande , is partially covered by Calderone glacier ,
594-477: A large measure of public sympathy, and were warned or concealed by the population, even when they were not actively supported. David Hannay writing in the 1911 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica stated that in " Corsica the maquis has never been without its brigand hero, because industry has been stagnant, family feuds persist, and the government has never quite succeeded in persuading
693-672: A lesser degree, terrain that permits easy escape from the incumbents. The Scottish Marches supplied a theatre for the gentlemen reivers . After the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639–1651), policing the Scottish moss-troopers tied up many English soldiers of the occupying New Model Army . Their contemporaries in Ireland became known as "tories" . Rapparees , Irish guerrillas of a later generation, fought for King James II after
792-544: A picked corps) on special police duty with a detachment of twenty men from the Ravenna fleet. Snow lies on the highest peaks of the Apennines for almost the whole year. The range produces no minerals, but there are a considerable number of good mineral springs , some of which are thermal (such as Bagni di Lucca , Montecatini , Monsummano , Porretta, Telese), while others are cool (such as Nocera, Sangemini , Cinciano),
891-715: A series of tunnels have been constructed to conduct "the Bologna-Florence rail line", which is neither a single line nor a single tunnel. The Porrettana Line went into service in 1864, the Direttissima in 1934 and the High Speed in 1996. A few dozen tunnels support the three of them, the longest on the High-Speed Line being the Voglia Tunnel at 16.757 km (10.412 mi). The longest is on
990-644: A special corps of police, the Esquadra de Catalunya . For five generations the colonel of the esquadra was always a Veciana. Since the organization of Guardia Civil by the Duke of Ahumada , about 1844, brigandage has been well kept down. At the close of the Carlist War in 1874 a few bands again infested Catalonia . In relatively unsettled parts of the United States there was a considerable amount of
1089-701: A stone marks the top of the pass. In the vicinity are fragments of the old road and three ruins of former fortifications. At Carcare , the main roads connect with the upper Bormida valley (Bormida di Mallare) before turning west. The Scrivia , the Trebbia and the Taro , tributaries of the Po River , drain the northeast slopes. The range contains dozens of peaks. Toward the southern end the Aveto Natural Regional Park includes Monte Penna . Nearby
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#17327755549251188-630: Is a technology complex in central and southern Italy from the Italian Middle Bronze Age (15th–14th centuries BC). In the mid-20th century the Apennine was divided into Proto-, Early, Middle and Late sub- phases , but now archaeologists prefer to consider as "Apennine" only the ornamental pottery style of the later phase of Middle Bronze Age (BM3). This phase is preceded by the Grotta Nuova facies (central Italy) and by
1287-414: Is a group of people who carry out orders based on others' authority within the group. In a military context, the chain of command is the line of authority and responsibility along which orders are passed within a military unit and between different units. In simpler terms, the chain of command is the succession of leaders through which command is exercised and executed. Orders are transmitted down
1386-606: Is at about 3,200 m (10,500 ft), leaving the Apennines below it, except for the one remaining glacier. Snow may fall from October to May. Rainfall increases with latitude. The range's climates, depending on elevation and latitude, are the Oceanic climate and Mediterranean climate . The mammal fauna is mainly composed of Italian wolves (endemic), Corsican hare , badgers , weasels , foxes , marmots , Etruscan shrew , Crested porcupine , European snow vole and Apennine shrews (endemic), Marsican brown bears (endemic),
1485-629: Is deep and separates the Apennines on the left bank from a lesser range, the Tuscan Anti-Apennines (Sub-Apennines) on its right. The Apennine System forms an irregular arc with centers of curvature located in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The northern and southern segments comprise parallel chains that can be viewed as single overall mountain ridges, such as the Ligurian Mountains. The center, being thicker and more complex,
1584-545: Is from a verb brigare "to brawl, fight" (whence also brigade ). For a bandito or bando a man declared outlaw by proclamation, see the article Bandit . Towards the end of wars, irreconcilables may refuse to accept the loss of their cause, and may continue hostilities using irregular tactics. Upon capture by the victorious side, whether the capturing power has to recognize them as soldiers (who must be treated as prisoners of war ) or as brigands (who can be tried under civilian law as common criminals) depends on whether
1683-663: Is geologically divided into an inner and an outer arc with regard to the centers of curvature. The geologic definition, however, is not the same as the geographic. Based on rock type and orogenic incidents, the northern segment of the arc is divided into the Outer Northern Apennines (ONA) and the Inner Northern Apennines (INA). The Central Apennines are divided into the Umbrian–Marchean ( Appennino umbro-marchigiano ) or Roman Apennines in
1782-418: Is higher. It is also easier to replace managers , so they have a personal interest in more distributed responsibility and perhaps more consensus decision making . Ubiquitous command and control posits for military organizations, a generalisation from hierarchies to networks that allows for the use of hierarchies when they are appropriate, and non-hierarchical networks when they are inappropriate. This includes
1881-422: Is illegal (i.e., the person carrying out the order would be committing an illegal act). (See superior orders .) In addition, within combat units, line officers are in the chain of command, but staff officers in specialist fields (such as medical, dental, legal, supply, and chaplain ) are not, except within their own specialty. For example, a medical officer in an infantry battalion would be responsible for
1980-470: Is mainly grasslands of the Montane grasslands and shrublands biome; with Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, and Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub below it. The tree line in the Apennines can be found in the range 1,600 m (5,200 ft) to 2,000 m (6,600 ft). About 5% of the map area covered by the Apennines is at or above the tree line—or in the treeline ecotone. The snow line
2079-544: Is part of the Monti Sibillini , incorporated into Parco Nazionale dei Monti Sibillini . Further north is the parco naturale regionale della Gola della Rossa e di Frasassi [ it ] , in which are the Gola della Rossa ("Red Gorge") and Frasassi Caves . Still further north is Parco Sasso Simone e Simoncello. The Italian Park Service calls it the "green heart" of Italy. The region is heavily forested , such as
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#17327755549252178-506: Is seen as the most visible element of a "power network." In this model, social capital is viewed as being mobilized in response to orders that move through the hierarchy leading to the phrase "command and control". Regardless of the degree of control or results achieved, and regardless of how the hierarchy is justified and rationalized, certain aspects of a command hierarchy tend to be similar: However, people of such compatible views often have similar systemic biases because they are from
2277-514: Is that it derives from the Celtic penn , 'mountain', 'summit': A-penn-inus , which could have been assigned during the Celtic domination of north Italy in the 4th century BC or before. The name originally applied to the north Apennines. However historical linguists have never found a derivation with which they all agree. Wilhelm Deecke said: "[…] its etymology is doubtful but some derive it from
2376-566: Is the Bocca Serriola Pass in northern Umbria , which links Fano and Città di Castello . The Tiber River at Rome flows from Monte Fumaiolo in the Tuscan-Romagnol Apennine from northeast to southwest, projecting into the Tyrrhenian Sea at right angles to the shore. The upper Tiber, however, flows from northwest to southeast, gradually turning through one right angle clockwise. The northern Tiber Valley
2475-780: Is the Italian sparrow . The reasons for this choice are related to the fact that the Italian wolf, which inhabits the Apennine Mountains and the Western Alps , features prominently in Latin and Italian cultures, such as in the legend of the founding of Rome . In Italy the transhumance took place mainly starting from the Abruzzi Apennines, moving both towards the Tuscan and Lazio Maremma and above all towards
2574-421: Is the highest point of Ligurian Apennines, Monte Maggiorasca at 1,800 m (5,900 ft). The main and only feasible overland route connecting the coastal plain of Liguria to the north Italian plain runs through Bocchetta di Altare. It has always been of strategic importance. Defenders of north Italy have had to control it since ancient times, as the various fortifications placed there testify. Trenitalia ,
2673-510: Is the sole cause of brigandage in countries not subject to foreign invasion, or where the state is not very feeble. [...] But there have been times and countries in which the law and its administration have been so far regarded as enemies by people who were not themselves criminals, that all who defied them have been sure of a measure of sympathy. Then and there it was that brigandage has flourished, and has been difficult to extirpate. Attribution Chain of command A command hierarchy
2772-515: The Alpine system . Prior to the explosion of data on the topic from about the year 2000, many authors took the approach that the Apennines had the same origin as the Alps. Even today, some authors use the term Alpine-Apennine system. They are not, however, the same system and did not have the same origin. The Alps were millions of years old before the Apennines rose from the sea. The northward movement of
2871-628: The Aterno from the north-west and the Gizio from the south-east, is more important; and so is the Sangro . The central Apennines are crossed by the railway from Rome to Pescara via Avezzano and Sulmona: the railway from Orte to Terni (and thence to Foligno ) follows the Nera valley; while from Terni a line ascends to the plain of Rieti, and thence crosses the central chain to Aquila, whence it follows
2970-673: The Eurasian eagle-owl There are also numerous amphibians such as the Apennine yellow-bellied toad (endemic), the Italian cave salamander (endemic), the Italian newt (endemic), the Italian stream frog (endemic) and the Spectacled salamander (endemic), the Italian tree frog (endemic), the Agile frog , the Italian edible frog (endemic), the Common toad , the Balearic green toad ,
3069-684: The European fallow deer , the European mouflon and the Pyrenean chamois . There are also numerous birds such as the golden eagle , the Bonelli's eagle , the Eurasian goshawk , the hoopoe , the hawk , the European roller , the White-backed woodpecker , the European green woodpecker , the Alpine chough , the Egyptian vulture , the European nightjar , the Italian sparrow (endemic) and
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3168-643: The Ligurian Sea in the Gulf of Genoa , from about Savona below the upper Bormida River valley to about La Spezia ( La Cisa pass ) below the upper Magra River valley. The range follows the Gulf of Genoa separating it from the upper Po Valley . The northwestern border follows the line of the Bormida River to Acqui Terme . There the river continues northeast to Alessandria in the Po Valley , but
3267-703: The Majella Massif. Among them are two national parks: Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National Park and Majella National Park ; and the Regional Park of the Monti Simbruini. Gran Sasso contains Corno Grande , the highest peak of the Apennines (2912 m). Other features between the western and central ranges are the plain of Rieti , the valley of the Salto, and the Lago Fucino ; while between
3366-838: The Northern spectacled salamander (endemic), the Fire salamander , the Smooth newt , the Alpine newt , and the Italian crested newt . The reptile fauna is mainly composed of suc as the Italian Aesculapian snake (endemic), the Dice snake , the Green whip snake , the Aesculapian snake , the Smooth snake , the Vipera ursinii , the Vipera aspis , the Italian wall lizard (endemic),
3465-486: The Po Valley in northern Italy. Compressional forces have been acting from north to south in the Alps and from south to north in the Apennines, but instead of being squeezed into mountains the valley has been subsiding at 1 to 4 mm (0.16 in) per year since about 25 mya , before the Apennines existed. It is now known to be not an erosional feature, but is a filled portion of the Adriatic Trench, called
3564-513: The Podarcis muralis , the European green lizard . Notable Apennine freshwater fishes are the Brook lamprey (endemic), Lombardy lamprey , Italian bleak (endemic), Horse barbel (endemic), Eurasian carp , Scardola scardafa (endemic), European perch , Chubius Chub , Tench and Northern pike . The Italian wolf is the national animal of Italy, while the national bird of the country
3663-1234: The Pollino National Park , the Vesuvius National Park , the Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni National Park , the Appennino Lucano - Val d'Agri - Lagonegrese National Park , the Sila National Park , the Aspromonte National Park . Important rivers originate from the Apennines are the Panaro , the Secchia , the Reno , the Marecchia , the Rubicon , the Metauro , the Arno , the Tiber ,
3762-421: The Revolution of 1688 and on his defeat degenerated into brigands. The forests of England gave cover to the outlaws, who were flatteringly portrayed in the ballads of Robin Hood . The dense Maquis shrubland and hills of Corsica gave the Corsican brigand many advantages, just as the bush of Australia concealed the bushranger . The Apennines , the mountains of Calabria , the Sierras of Spain , were
3861-425: The Savio , the Nera , the Velino , the Tronto , the Aterno-Pescara , the Aniene , the Liri , the Sangro and the Volturno . Among the lakes of glacial origin of the Alpine type is Lago di Pilato . The Apennines were created in the Apennine orogeny beginning in the early Neogene (about 20 mya , the middle Miocene ) and continuing today. Geographically they are partially (or appear to be) continuous with
3960-476: The Slavs ) had some claim to believe themselves the representatives of their people against oppressors. The only approach to an attempt to maintain order was the permission given to part of the population to carry arms in order to repress the klephts. They were hence called armatoli . In fact the armatole tended to act more as allies than enemies of the klephts. The conditions which favor the development of brigandage may be summed up as bad administration and to
4059-399: The Tavoliere delle Puglie . The Apennines are to some extent covered with forests, though these were probably more extensive in classical times ( Pliny mentions especially pine , oak and beech woods, Hist. Nat . xvi. 177); they have indeed been greatly reduced in comparatively modern times by indiscriminate timber-felling, and though serious attempts at reforestation have been made by
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4158-422: The combat medics in that unit but would not be eligible to command the battalion or any of its subordinate units. The term is also used in a civilian management context describing comparable hierarchical structures of authority. Such structures are included in Fire Departments, Police Departments, and other organizations that have a paramilitary command or power structure. In sociology , command hierarchy
4257-409: The orogeny . These extend in a northwest–southeast direction from the River Tronto to the River Sangro , which drain into the Adriatic . The coastal hills of the east extend between San Benedetto del Tronto in the north and Torino di Sangro in the south. The eastern chain consists mainly of the southern part of the Monti Sibillini , the Monti della Laga , the Gran Sasso d'Italia Massif and
4356-421: The African Plate and its collision with the European Plate then caused the Alpine Orogeny , beginning in the late Mesozoic. The band of mountains created extends from Spain to Turkey in a roughly east–west direction and includes the Alps. The Apennines are much younger, extend from northwest to southeast, and are not a displacement of the Alpine chain. The key evidence of the difference is the geologic behavior of
4455-538: The Apennine range, and so are Cilento hills on the west. On the converse the promontory of Mount Gargano , on the east, is completely isolated, and so are the Campanian volcanic arc near Naples . The district is traversed from north-west to south-east by the railway from Sulmona to Benevento and on to Avellino , and from south-west to northeast by the railways from Caianello via Isernia to Campobasso and Termoli, from Caserta to Benevento and Foggia, and from Nocera Inferiore and Avellino to Rocchetta Sant'Antonio,
4554-426: The Apennines System to include the mountains of north Sicily , a total distance of 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) . The system forms an arc enclosing the east of the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas. The Apennines conserve some intact ecosystems that have survived human intervention. In these are some of the best-preserved forests and montane grasslands in Europe, now protected by national parks and, within them,
4653-440: The Buck or Dandy), Pedranza, &c. Jose Maria, called El Tempranillo (The Early Bird), was a liberal in the rising against Ferdinand VII , 1820–1823, then a smuggler, then a bandolero . He was finally bought off by the government and took a commission to suppress the other brigands. Jose Maria was at last shot by one of them, whom he was endeavouring to arrest. In Catalonia , where brigands are called bandolers , it began in
4752-435: The Calabrian southern Apennine Mountains extend along the northern coast of Sicily (the Sicilian Apennines, Italian Appennino siculo )— Pizzo Carbonara (6,493 feet (1,979 m)) being the highest peak. The number of vascular plant species in the Apennines has been estimated at 5,599. Of these, 728 (23.6%) are in the treeline ecotone . Hemicryptophytes predominate in the entire Apennine chain. The tree line ecotone
4851-434: The Direttissima, the Great Apennine Tunnel, which at 18.5 kilometres (11.5 miles) is the longest entirely within Italy, although the Simplon Tunnel , which connects Italy and Switzerland, is longer. Automobile traffic is carried by the Autostrada del Sole, Route A1, which goes through numerous shorter tunnels, bypassing an old road, originally Roman, through Futa Pass. In December 2015, a new Route A1 called Variante di Valico
4950-446: The Greek Pindus Mountains from the same root, but *kwen- < *kwi- is not explained by any rule. By some, English pin , as well as pen and Latin pinna or penna , 'feather' (in the sense of the horn of the quill), have been connected to the name. This view has the word originating in Latium inconsistently with the theory of the northern origin. None of these derivations is accepted unquestionably. The Apennine culture
5049-434: The Greeks and Sicilians with timber for shipbuilding. The railway from South Eufemia to Catanzaro and Catanzaro Marina crosses the isthmus, and an ancient road may have run from Squillace to Monteleone. The second group extends to the south end of the Italian Peninsula , culminating in the Aspromonte (1,960 metres (6,420 ft)) to the east of Reggio di Calabria . In both groups the rivers are quite unimportant. Finally,
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#17327755549255148-411: The Late Bronze Age as it is defined in Greece and the Aegean. The people of the Apennine culture were alpine cattle herdsmen grazing their animals over the meadows and groves of mountainous central Italy. They lived in small hamlets located in defensible places. On the move between summer pastures they built temporary camps or lived in caves and rock shelters. Their range was not necessarily confined to
5247-505: The Ligurian-Celtish Pen or Ben , which means mountain peak." A large number of place names seem to reflect pen : Penarrig, Penbrynn, Pencoid, Penmon, Pentir, etc. or ben : Beanach, Benmore, Benabuird, Benan, Bencruachan, etc. In one derivation Pen/Ben is cognate with Old Irish cenn , 'head', but an original *kwen- would be required, which is typologically not found in languages that feature labio-velars . Windisch and Brugmann reconstructed Indo-European *kwi- , deriving also
5346-415: The Protoapennine B facies (southern Italy) and succeeded by the Subapennine facies of 13th-century ("Bronzo Recente"). Apennine pottery is a burnished ware incised with spirals, meanders and geometrical zones, filled with dots or transverse dashes. It has been found on Ischia island in association with LHII and LHIII pottery and on Lipari in association with LHIIIA pottery, which associations date it to
5445-487: The Riserva Naturale Statale Gola del Furlo, where Furlo Pass on the Via Flaminia is located. Both the Etruscans and the Romans constructed tunnels here. The Abruzzi Apennines, located in Abruzzo , Molise and southeastern Lazio , contain the highest peaks and most rugged terrain of the Apennines. They are known in history as the territory of the Italic peoples first defeated by the city of Rome . Coincidentally they exist in three parallel folds or chains surviving from
5544-410: The Romans used the Via Flaminia between Rome and Rimini . The montane distance between Florence in Tuscany and Bologna in Emilia-Romagna is shorter, but exploitation of it required the conquest of more rugged terrain, which was not feasible for the ancients. Railway lines were constructed over the mountains in the early 19th century but they were of low capacity and unimprovable. Since 1856,
5643-411: The Sele—joined by the Negro and Calore—on the west, and the Bradano , Basento , Agri, Sinni on the east, which flow into the gulf of Taranto; to the south of the last-named river there are only unimportant streams flowing into the sea east and west, inasmuch as here the width of the peninsula diminishes to some 64 kilometres (40 mi). The railway running south from Sicignano to Lagonegro, ascending
5742-439: The Tuscan Apennines. They extend to the upper Tiber River . The highest point is Monte Cimone at 2,165 m (7,103 ft). A separate branch, the Apuan Alps , goes southwest, bordering the coast south of La Spezia . Whether they are to be considered part of the Apennines is a matter of opinion; certainly, they are part of the Apennine System. Topographically only the valley of the River Serchio , which running parallel to
5841-405: The brigands, and the other prisoners were then murdered. In the Balkan peninsula, under Turkish rule, brigandage continued to exist in connection with Christian revolt against the Turks. The dacoits or brigands of India were of the same stamp as their European colleagues. The Pindaris were more than brigands, and the Thugs were a religious sect. Until the middle of the 19th century Italy
5940-461: The central and eastern ranges are the valleys of Aquila and Sulmona . The chief rivers on the west are the Nera , with its tributaries the Velino and Salto, and the Aniene , both of which fall into the Tiber. On the east there is at first a succession of small rivers which flow into the Adriatic , from which the highest points of the chain are some 20 km distant, such as the Tronto , Tordino, Vomano and others. The Pescara , which receives
6039-476: The chain of command and receive orders only from those directly above them. A service member who has difficulty executing a duty or order and appeals for relief directly to an officer above his immediate commander in the chain of command is likely to be disciplined for not respecting the chain of command. Similarly, an officer is usually expected to give orders only to his or her direct subordinate(s), even if only to pass an order down to another service member lower in
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#17327755549256138-521: The chain of command than said subordinate. The concept of chain of command also implies that higher rank alone does not entitle a higher-ranking service member to give commands to anyone of lower rank. For example, an officer of unit "A" does not directly command lower-ranking members of unit "B", and is generally expected to approach an officer of unit "B" if he requires action by members of that unit. The chain of command means that individual members take orders from only one superior and only give orders to
6237-499: The chain of command, from a responsible superior, such as a commissioned officer , to lower-ranked subordinate(s) who either execute the order personally or transmit it down the chain as appropriate, until it is received by those expected to execute it. "Command is exercised by virtue of office and the special assignment of members of the Armed Forces holding military rank who are eligible to exercise command." In general, military personnel give orders only to those directly below them in
6336-480: The coast turns and exits into the Tyrrhenian Sea north of Pisa , separates the Apuan Alps from the Apennines; geologically the rock is of a slightly different composition, marble . The Roman marble industry was centered at Luna , and is now active in Carrara . As the Tuscan Apennines divide the peninsula between the Po Valley and the plains and hills of Tuscany and Lazio , transportation over them has been used to achieve political and economic unity. Historically
6435-451: The detainees "respect the laws and customs of war" and whether they operate within a chain of command and are "not persons acting on their own responsibility". In certain conditions the brigand has not been a mere malefactor. Brigandage may be, and not infrequently has been, the last resort of a people subject to invasion. The Calabrians who fought for Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies , and the Spanish irregular levies , which maintained
6534-427: The development of brigands. Historical examples of brigands (often called so by their enemies) have existed in territories of France, Greece and the Balkans, India, Italy, Mexico and Spain, as well as certain regions of the United States. The English word brigant (also brigaunt ) was introduced as early as 1400, via Old French brigand from Italian brigante "trooper, skirmisher, foot soldier". The Italian word
6633-423: The government, much remains to be done. They also furnish considerable summer pastures, especially in the Abruzzi : Pliny ( Hist. Nat . xi. 240) praises the cheese of the Apennines. In the forests Italian wolves were frequent, and still are found, the flocks being protected against them by large sheep-dogs; Marsican brown bears , however, which were known in Roman times, have almost entirely disappeared. Nor are
6732-429: The hills; their pottery has been found on the Capitoline Hill in Rome as well as on the islands mentioned above. The Apennines are divided into three sectors: northern ( Appennino settentrionale ), central ( Appennino centrale ), and southern ( Appennino meridionale ). A number of long hiking trails wind through the Apennines. Of note is European walking route E1 coming from northern Europe and traversing
6831-544: The homes of the Italian banditi , and the Spanish bandoleros (member of a gang) and salteadores (raiders). The great haunts of brigands in Europe have been central and southern Italy and parts of Spain. England was ruled by William III , when "a fraternity of plunderers, thirty in number according to the lowest estimate, squatted near Waltham Cross under the shades of Epping Forest , and built themselves huts, from which they sallied forth with sword and pistol to bid passengers stand". The Gubbings (so called in contempt from
6930-422: The junction for Foggia, Spinazzola (for Barletta, Bari, and Taranto ) and Potenza. Roman roads followed the same lines as the railways: the Via Appia ran from Capua to Benevento, whence the older road went to Venosa and Taranto and so to Brindisi , while the Via Traiana ran nearly to Troia (near Foggia) and thence to Bari. The valley of the Ofanto , which runs into the Adriatic close to Barletta , marks
7029-416: The lengths of the northern and central Apennines. The Grand Italian Trail begins in Trieste and after winding through the Alpine arc traverses the entire Apennine system, Sicily and Sardinia. The northern Apennines consist of three subchains : the Ligurian ( Appennino ligure ), Tuscan-Emilian ( Appennino tosco-emiliano ), and Umbrian Apennines ( Appennino umbro ). The Ligurian Apennines border
7128-531: The most famous outlaw during the Italian unification ) received from various kinds of manuténgoli (maintainers) – great men, corrupt officials, political parties, and the peasants who were terrorized, or who profited by selling the brigands food and clothes. In the Campagna in 1866, two English travellers, William John Charles Möens and the Rev. John Cruger Murray Aynsley, were captured and held for ransom; Aynsley
7227-662: The mountainous Upper Carniola region in the 18th and 19th century. They were suppressed by the army in 1853. In Spain brigandage was common in and south of the Sierra Morena . It reached its greatest heights in Andalusia . In Andalusia, the Sierra Morena, and the Serrania de Ronda , have produced the bandits whose achievements form the subject of popular ballads, such as Francisco Esteban El Guapo (Francis Stephen,
7326-649: The mountains bend away to the southeast. The upper Bormida can be reached by a number of roads proceeding inland at a right angle to the coast southwest of Savona , the chief one being the Autostrada Torino-Savona. They ascend to the Bocchetta di Altare , sometimes called Colle di Cadibona , 436 m (1,430 ft), the border between the Ligurian Alps along the coast to the west and the Ligurian Apennines. A bronze plaque fixed to
7425-675: The national resistance against the French from 1808 to 1814, were called brigands by their enemies. " It is you who are the thieves ", was the defense of the Calabrian who was tried as a brigand by a French court-martial during the reign of Joachim Murat in Naples . In the Balkan peninsula , under Ottoman rule , the brigands (called klephts by the Greeks and hayduks or haydutzi by
7524-587: The north and the Abruzzi Apennines ( Appennino abruzzese ) in the south. It extends from Bocca Serriola pass in the north to Forlì pass in the south. The west border of the Umbria-Marche Apennines (or Appennino umbro-marchigiano )) runs through Cagli . They extend south to the Tronto River, the south border of the ONA. The highest peak, Monte Vettore , at 2,478 m (8,130 ft),
7623-649: The northern termination of the first range of the Lucanian Apennines (now Basilicata ), which runs from east to west, while south of the valleys of the Sele (on the west) and Basento (on the east)—which form the line followed by the railway from Battipaglia via Potenza to Metaponto —the second range begins to run due north and south as far as the plain of Sibari . The highest point is the Monte Pollino 2,233 metres (7,325 ft). The chief rivers are
7722-419: The notion of mission agreement , to support "edge in" as well as "top-down" flow of intent. Apennine Mountains The Apennines or Apennine Mountains ( / ˈ æ p ə n aɪ n / AP -ə-nyne ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἀπέννινα ὄρη or Ἀπέννινον ὄρος; Latin : Appenninus or Apenninus Mons – a singular with plural meaning; Italian : Appennini [appenˈniːni] ) are
7821-535: The only glacier in the Apennines. The eastern slopes down to the Adriatic Sea are steep, whilst the western slopes form foothills on which most of the towns of peninsular Italy are located. The mountains tend to be named after the province or provinces in which they are located; for example the Ligurian Apennines are in Liguria . The etymology most frequently repeated, because of its semantic appropriateness,
7920-468: The people to support the law. The brigand is always a hero to at least one faction of Corsicans ." In 1870 an English party, consisting of Lord and Lady Muncaster , Mr Vyner, Mr Lloyd, Mr Herbert, and Count de Boyl, was captured at Oropos, near Marathon, and a ransom of £25,000 was demanded. Lord and Lady Muncaster were set at liberty to seek for the ransom, but the Greek government sent troops in pursuit of
8019-426: The same culture. Such problems as groupthink or willingness to accept one standard of evidence internal to the group, but require drastically higher evidence from outside, are common. In part to address these problems, much modern management science has focused on reducing reliance on command hierarchy especially for information flow , since the cost of communications is now low, and the cost of management mistakes
8118-541: The sea, occurs on the east coast, extending halfway across the peninsula. Here the limestone Apennines proper cease and the granite mountains of Calabria begin. The first group extends as far as the isthmus formed by the gulfs of South Eufemia and Squillace; it is known as the Sila, and the highest point reached is 1,930 metres (6,330 ft) (the Botte Donato ). The forests which covered it in ancient times supplied
8217-413: The situation or the standard procedure of the military organization, the lower-ranked member being ordered may choose to carry out the order anyway, or advise that it has to be cleared with his or her own chain of command first, which in this example would be with officer "B". Refusal to carry out an order is almost always considered insubordination ; the only exception usually allowed is if the order itself
8316-568: The state railway system, highly developed on the coastal plain, now traverses the mountains routinely through a number of railway tunnels, such as the one at Giovi Pass . The southeastern border of the Ligurian Apennines is the Fiume Magra , which projects into the Tyrrhenian Sea south of La Spezia , and the Fiume Taro , which runs in the opposite direction to join the Po. The divide between
8415-531: The strife of the peasants against the feudal exactions of the landlords. It had its traditional hero, Roc Guinart, who figures in the second part of Don Quixote . The revolt against the house of Austria in 1640 and the War of the Succession (1700–1714) greatly stimulated Catalan brigandage. A country gentleman named Pere Veciana, hereditary balio (military and civil lieutenant) of the archbishop of Tarragona in
8514-784: The three parallel chains are broken up into smaller groups; among them may be named the Matese , the highest point of which is the Monte Miletto 2,050 metres (6,725 ft). The chief rivers on the south-west are the Liri or Garigliano with its tributary the Sacco, the Volturno , Sebeto, Sarno, on the north the Trigno, Biferno and Fortore . Daunian mountains , in Apulia , are connected with
8613-550: The town of Valls , armed his farm-servants and resisted the attacks of the brigands. With the help of neighbouring country gentlemen he formed a strong band, known as the Mossos (Boys) of Veciana, the precedent of current Catalan police, the Mossos d'Esquadra . The brigands combined to get rid of him by making an attack on the town of Valls, but were repulsed with great loss. The government of Philip V then commissioned Veciana to raise
8712-505: The traditional epic invocation to the muse. A fine example is The most beautiful history of the life and death of Pietro Mancino, chief of Banditi , which begins: :"Io canto li ricatti, e il fiero ardire In the Kingdom of Naples , every successive revolutionary disturbance saw a recrudescence of brigandage down to the unification of 1860–1861. The source of the trouble was the supporters of brigands (like Carmine Crocco from Basilicata ,
8811-521: The trimmings and refuse of fish) infested Devonshire for a generation from their headquarters near Brent Tor , on the edge of Dartmoor . In France there were the Écorcheurs , or Skinners, in the 15th century, and the Chauffeurs around the time of the revolution. The first were large bands of discharged mercenary soldiers who pillaged the country. The second were ruffians who forced their victims to pay ransom by holding their feet in fires. In
8910-794: The two upper river valleys is the Cisa Pass . Under it (in two tunnels) runs the Autostrada della Cisa between Spezia and Parma . Starting at Cisa Pass , the mountain chain turns further to the southeast, to cross the peninsula along the border between the Emilia-Romagna and Tuscany regions. They are named the Tuscan–Emilian Apennines west of the Futa Pass and the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines east of it, or just
9009-749: The valley of the Aterno to Sulmona. In ancient times the Via Salaria , Via Caecilia and Via Tiburtina all ran from Rome to the Adriatic coast . The volcanic mountains of the province of Rome are separated from the Apennines by the Tiber valley, and the Monti Lepini , part of the Volscian chain, by the valleys of the Sacco and Liri . In the southern Apennines, to the south of the Sangro valley,
9108-528: The valley of the Negro, is planned to extend to Cosenza, along the line followed by the ancient Via Popilia, which beyond Cosenza reached the west coast at Terina and thence followed it to Reggio. The Via Herculia [ it ] , a branch of the Via Traiana , ran from Aequum Tuticum to the ancient Nerulum . At the narrowest point the plain of Sibari, through which the rivers Coscile and Crati flow to
9207-851: The water of which is both drunk on the spot and sold as table water elsewhere. The Apennines are home to twelve Italian national parks : the Appennino Tosco-Emiliano National Park , the Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna National Park , the Monti Sibillini National Park , the Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National Park , the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park , the Maiella National Park ,
9306-556: The wild goats called rotae , spoken of by Marcus Terentius Varro ( Rerum rusticarum II. i. 5), which may have been either Pyrenean chamois or steinbock , to be found. Brigandage appears to have been prevalent in Roman times in the more remote parts of the Apennines, as it was until recently. An inscription found near the Furlo pass was set up in AD 246 by an evocatus Augusti (a member of
9405-485: The years preceding the French Revolution , the royal government was defied by the troops of smugglers and brigands known as faux saulniers , unauthorized salt -sellers, and gangs of poachers haunted the king's preserves round Paris . The salt monopoly and the excessive preservation of the game were so oppressive that the peasantry were provoked to violent resistance and to brigandage. The offenders enjoyed
9504-612: Was divided into small states; therefore, the brigand who was closely pursued in one could flee to another. Thus it was that Marco Sciarra of the Abruzzi , when hard pressed by the Spanish viceroy of Naples – just before and after 1600 – could cross the border of the papal states and return on a favourable opportunity. When pope and viceroy combined against him he took service with Venice , whence he communicated with his friends at home and paid them occasional visits. On one such visit he
9603-434: Was led into a trap and slain. Marco Sciarra was the follower and imitator of Benedetto Mangone, who was documented to have stopped a party of travellers which included Torquato Tasso . Sciarrae allowed them to pass unharmed out of his reverence for poets and poetry. Mangone was finally taken and beaten to death with hammers at Naples. He and his like are the heroes of much popular verse, written in ottava rima beginning with
9702-402: Was opened after many years of construction consisting of major tunnels (the longest being the new 8.6-kilometre (5.3-mile) 'Tunel Base') and new overpasses, shortening the traveling time between Florence and Bologna by road. The Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna National Park is in the southern part of the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines. The southern limit of the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines
9801-472: Was released shortly thereafter. Möens found that the manuténgoli of the brigands among the peasants charged famine prices for food, and extortionate prices for clothes and cartridges. The Mexican brigand Juan Cortina made incursions into Texas before the American Civil War . In Mexico the " Rurales " ended brigandage. In Slovenia the brigands (called Rokovnjači) were active especially in
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