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121-436: ( Unfinished PhD ) Sergey Mikhailovich Brin (Russian: Сергей Михайлович Брин ; born August 21, 1973) is an American computer scientist and businessman who co-founded Google with Larry Page . He was the president of Google's parent company, Alphabet Inc. , until stepping down from the role on December 3, 2019. He and Page remain at Alphabet as co-founders, controlling shareholders and board members. As of November 2024, Brin
242-512: A Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions or may be granted a master's degree en route to the doctoral degree. Sometimes this status is also colloquially known as "ABD", meaning " all but dissertation ". PhD graduates may undertake a postdoc in the process of transitioning from study to academic tenure . Individuals who have earned the Doctor of Philosophy degree use the title Doctor (often abbreviated "Dr" or "Dr."), although
363-409: A dissertation , and, in some cases, defend their work before a panel of other experts in the field. In many fields, the completion of a PhD is typically required for employment as a university professor , researcher, or scientist. In the context of the Doctor of Philosophy and other similarly titled degrees, the term "philosophy" does not refer to the field or academic discipline of philosophy , but
484-402: A peer-reviewed context. Moreover, some PhD programs, especially in science, require one to three published articles in peer-reviewed journals. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university; this defense is open to the public in some countries, and held in private in others; in other countries, the dissertation is examined by
605-476: A tooltip . This style makes citing easier and improves the reader's experience. Citation styles can be broadly divided into styles common to the humanities and the sciences, though there is considerable overlap. Some style guides, such as the Chicago Manual of Style , are quite flexible and cover both parenthetical and note citation systems. Others, such as MLA and APA styles, specify formats within
726-421: A "sandwich PhD" will be awarded by two universities. It is possible to broaden the field of study pursued by a PhD student by the addition of a minor subject of study within a different discipline. A career in academia generally requires a PhD, although in some countries it is possible to reach relatively high positions without a doctorate. In North America, professors are increasingly being required to have
847-662: A 6-month extension is usually possible upon citing delays out of the control of the student. Some universities also fund a similar scholarship that matches the APA amount. Due to a continual increase in living costs, many PhD students are forced to live under the poverty line. In addition to the more common RTP and university scholarships, Australian students have other sources of scholarship funding, coming from industry, private enterprise, and organisations. Australian citizens, permanent residents, and New Zealand citizens are not charged course fees for their PhD or research master's degree, with
968-668: A PhD in computer science. There he met Page, with whom he built a web search engine . The program became popular at Stanford, and he discontinued his PhD studies to start up Google in Susan Wojcicki 's garage in Menlo Park . Sergey Mikhailovich Brin was born on August 21, 1973, in Moscow in the Soviet Union , to Russian Jewish parents, Mikhail and Eugenia Brin, both graduates of Moscow State University (MSU). His father
1089-554: A PhD in the sciences or humanities. Graduate schools slowly emerged in the United States . In 1852, the first honorary PhD in the nation was given at Bucknell University in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania to Ebenezer Newton Elliott. Nine years later, in 1861, Yale University awarded three PhDs: to Eugene Schuyler in philosophy and psychology, Arthur Williams Wright in physics, and James Morris Whiton in classics. Over
1210-544: A PhD program. In the US, Canada, India, and Denmark, for example, many universities require coursework in addition to research for PhD degrees. In other countries (such as the UK) there is generally no such condition, though this varies by university and field. Some individual universities or departments specify additional requirements for students not already in possession of a bachelor's degree or equivalent or higher. In order to submit
1331-464: A PhD, and the percentage of faculty with a PhD may be used as a university ratings measure. The motivation may also include increased salary, but in many cases, this is not the result. Research by Bernard H. Casey of the University of Warwick, U.K, suggests that, over all subjects, PhDs provide an earnings premium of 26% over non-accredited graduates, but notes that master's degrees already provide
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#17327656825591452-414: A citation is actually supplementary material, or suggestions for further reading. Parenthetical referencing, also known as Harvard referencing, has full or partial, in-text, citations enclosed in circular brackets and embedded in the paragraph. An example of a parenthetical reference: Depending on the choice of style, fully cited parenthetical references may require no end section. Other styles include
1573-411: A citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression embedded in the body of an intellectual work that denotes an entry in the bibliographic references section of the work for the purpose of acknowledging the relevance of the works of others to the topic of discussion at the spot where the citation appears. Generally, the combination of both the in-body citation and the bibliographic entry constitutes what
1694-441: A citation on Misplaced Pages "could be considered a public parallel to scholarly citation". A scientific publication being "cited in a Misplaced Pages article is considered an indicator of some form of impact for this publication" and it may be possible to detect certain publications through changes to Misplaced Pages articles. Wikimedia Research's Cite-o-Meter tool showed a league table of which academic publishers are most cited on Misplaced Pages as does
1815-486: A doctoral programme at a university in Canada typically requires completion of a Master's degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades and proven research ability. In some cases, a student may progress directly from an Honours Bachelor's degree to a PhD program; other programs allow a student to fast-track to a doctoral program after one year of outstanding work in a Master's program (without having to complete
1936-404: A good overall ranking of pages and ordering of follow-up pages." Page said that in mid-1998 they finally realized the further potential of their project: "Pretty soon, we had 10,000 searches a day. And we figured, maybe this is really real." Some compared Page and Brin's vision to the impact of Johannes Gutenberg , the inventor of modern printing: In 1440, Johannes Gutenberg introduced Europe to
2057-399: A graduate student, a candidate must demonstrate truthful and original contributions to their specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. The doctoral candidate's work should be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. This committee should be composed of examiners that are external to
2178-403: A list of the citations, with complete bibliographical references, in an end section, sorted alphabetically by author. This section is often called "References", "Bibliography", "Works cited" or "Works consulted". In-text references for online publications may differ from conventional parenthetical referencing. A full reference can be hidden, only displayed when wanted by the reader, in the form of
2299-491: A machine laboratory, and extracted spare parts from inexpensive computers to create a device that they used to connect the nascent search engine with Stanford's broadband campus network. After filling Page's room with equipment, they then converted Brin's dorm room into an office and programming center, where they tested their new search engine designs on the web. The rapid growth of their project caused Stanford's computing infrastructure to experience problems. Page and Brin used
2420-611: A master's degree at the minimum is de rigueur in Washington's foreign policy world, it is no wonder many are starting to feel that the PhD is a necessary escalation, another case of costly signaling to potential employers". Similarly, an article on the Australian public service states that " credentialism in the public service is seeing a dramatic increase in the number of graduate positions going to PhDs and masters degrees becoming
2541-471: A number of different guides exist. Individual publishers often have their own in-house variations as well, and some works are so long-established as to have their own citation methods too: Stephanus pagination for Plato ; Bekker numbers for Aristotle ; citing the Bible by book, chapter and verse; or Shakespeare notation by play. The Citation Style Language (CSL) is an open XML-based language to describe
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#17327656825592662-426: A page by the "Academic Journals WikiProject". Research indicates a large share of academic citations on the platform are paywalled and hence inaccessible to many readers. "[ citation needed ]" is a tag added by Misplaced Pages editors to unsourced statements in articles requesting citations to be added. The phrase is reflective of the policies of verifiability and no original research on Misplaced Pages and has become
2783-522: A panel of expert examiners who stipulate whether the dissertation is in principle passable and any issues that need to be addressed before the dissertation can be passed. Some universities in the non- English -speaking world have begun adopting similar standards to those of the anglophone PhD degree for their research doctorates (see the Bologna process ). A PhD student or candidate is conventionally required to study on campus under close supervision. With
2904-594: A premium of 23% and a bachelor's 14%. While this is a small return to the individual (or even an overall deficit when tuition and lost earnings during training are accounted for), he claims there are significant benefits to society for the extra research training. However, some research suggests that overqualified workers are often less satisfied and less productive at their jobs. These difficulties are increasingly being felt by graduates of professional degrees, such as law school, looking to find employment. PhD students may need to take on debt to undertake their degree. A PhD
3025-499: A result, his father was "promptly fired". For related reasons, his mother had to leave her job. For the next eight months, without any steady income, they were forced to take on temporary jobs as they waited, afraid their request would be denied as it was for many refuseniks . In May 1979, they were granted their official exit visas and were allowed to leave the country. The Brin family lived in Vienna and Paris while Mikhail Brin secured
3146-506: A scholarship to cover them. Completion requirements vary. Most Australian PhD programs do not have a required coursework component. The credit points attached to the degree are all in the product of the research, which is usually an 80,000-word thesis that makes a significant new contribution to the field. Recent pressure on higher degree by research (HDR) students to publish has resulted in increasing interest in Ph.D by publication as opposed to
3267-409: A scholarship to study for their PhD degree. The most common of these was the government-funded Australian Postgraduate Award (APA) until its dissolution in 2017. It was replaced by Research Training Program (RTP), awarded to students of "exceptional research potential", which provides a living stipend to students of approximately A$ 34,000 a year (tax-free). RTPs are paid for a duration of 3 years, while
3388-478: A set curriculum, based upon the trivium and the quadrivium , by the 19th century it had come to house all the courses of study in subjects now commonly referred to as sciences and humanities. Professors across the humanities and sciences focused on their advanced research. Practically all the funding came from the central government, and it could be cut off if the professor was politically unacceptable. These reforms proved extremely successful, and fairly quickly
3509-450: A standard examination (for example the Test of English as a Foreign Language ). Depending on the field, the student may also be required to demonstrate ability in one or more additional languages. A prospective student applying to French-speaking universities may also have to demonstrate some English language ability. Citation A citation is a reference to a source. More precisely,
3630-404: A successful PhD admission application, copies of academic transcripts, letters of recommendation, a research proposal, and a personal statement are often required. Most universities also invite for a special interview before admission. A candidate must submit a project, thesis, or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in
3751-429: A suitable record of publication and research grants. Late in the 20th century, "publish or perish" became increasingly important in colleges and smaller universities. Detailed requirements for the award of a PhD degree vary throughout the world and even from school to school. It is usually required for the student to hold an Honours degree or a Master's degree with high academic standing, in order to be considered for
Sergey Brin - Misplaced Pages Continue
3872-657: A teaching position at the University of Maryland with help from Anatole Katok . During this time, the Brin family received support and assistance from the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society . They arrived in the United States on October 25, 1979. Brin attended elementary school at Paint Branch Montessori School in Adelphi, Maryland , but he received further education at home; his father, a professor in
3993-461: A university and award PhDs. This led to the formation of the Association of American Universities by 14 leading research universities (producing nearly 90% of the approximately 250 legitimate research doctorates awarded in 1900), with one of the main goals being to "raise the opinion entertained abroad of our own Doctor's Degree." In Germany, the national government funded the universities and
4114-399: A year to house them and two Gulfstream V jets owned by Google executives at Moffett Federal Airfield . The aircraft has scientific equipment installed by NASA to allow experimental data to be collected in flight. Brin is a backer of LTA Research & Exploration LLC, an airship maker company. In October 2023, LTA's 124-meter long flagship, Pathfinder 1, became the largest airship since
4235-420: A year). According to the article, only the fastest developing countries (e.g. China or Brazil) have a shortage of PhDs. In 2022, Nature reported that PhD students' wages in biological sciences in the US do not cover living costs. The U.S. higher education system often offers little incentive to move students through PhD programs quickly and may even provide incentive to slow them down. To counter this problem,
4356-504: Is a reference to a book, article , web page , or other published item. Citations should supply sufficient detail to identify the item uniquely. Different citation systems and styles are used in scientific citation , legal citation , prior art , the arts , and the humanities . Regarding the use of citations in the scientific literature, some scholars also put forward "the right to refuse unwanted citations" in certain situations deemed inappropriate. Citation content can vary depending on
4477-659: Is a retired mathematics professor at the University of Maryland , and his mother is a researcher at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center . The Brin family lived in a three-room apartment in central Moscow, which they also shared with Sergey's paternal grandmother. In 1977, after his father returned from a mathematics conference in Warsaw, Poland, Mikhail Brin announced that it was time for the family to emigrate. They formally applied for their exit visa in September 1978, and as
4598-470: Is also required in some positions outside academia, such as research jobs in major international agencies. In some cases, the Executive Directors of some types of foundations may be expected to hold a PhD . A PhD is sometimes felt to be a necessary qualification in certain areas of employment, such as in foreign policy think-tanks: U.S. News & World Report wrote in 2013 that "[i]f having
4719-418: Is citation errors, which often occur due to carelessness on either the researcher or journal editor's part in the publication procedure. For example, a study that analyzed 1,200 randomly selected citations from three major business ethics journals concluded that an average article contains at least three plagiarized citations when authors copy and paste a citation entry from another publication without consulting
4840-480: Is commonly thought of as a citation (whereas bibliographic entries by themselves are not). Citations have several important purposes. While their uses for upholding intellectual honesty and bolstering claims are typically foregrounded in teaching materials and style guides (e.g., ), correct attribution of insights to previous sources is just one of these purposes. Linguistic analysis of citation-practices has indicated that they also serve critical roles in orchestrating
4961-556: Is important to note that programmes with a similar name to 'doctor' should only be included in ISCED level 8 if they satisfy the criteria described in Paragraph 263. For international comparability purposes, the term 'doctoral or equivalent' is used to label ISCED level 8." In German-speaking nations, most Eastern European nations, successor states of the former Soviet Union, most parts of Africa, Asia, and many Spanish-speaking countries,
Sergey Brin - Misplaced Pages Continue
5082-657: Is the 7th-richest person in the world , with an estimated net worth of $ 153 billion, according to the Bloomberg Billionaires Index and Forbes . Brin immigrated to the United States from the Soviet Union at the age of six. He earned his bachelor's degree at the University of Maryland, College Park , following in his father's and grandfather's footsteps by studying mathematics as well as computer science. After graduation, in September 1993, he enrolled in Stanford University to acquire
5203-466: Is used by the University of Oxford . Additionally, it was formerly used by the University of York and University of Sussex in the United Kingdom. PhDs are awarded for programs across the whole breadth of academic fields. Since it is an earned research degree, those studying for a PhD are required to produce original research that expands the boundaries of knowledge, normally in the form of
5324-521: Is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning, which is "love of wisdom". In most of Europe, all fields (history, philosophy, social sciences , mathematics, and natural philosophy / sciences ) other than theology , law , and medicine (the so-called professional, vocational, or technical curricula ) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe
5445-525: The Hindenburg to receive clearance for flight testing, permitted over the boundaries of Moffett Field and neighboring Palo Alto Airport ’s airspaces, at a height of up to 460 meters. Brin was raised Jewish, but is not religious. In May 2007, Brin married biotech analyst and entrepreneur Anne Wojcicki in the Bahamas . They had a son in late 2008 and a daughter in late 2011. In August 2013, it
5566-660: The Baccalauréat is the examination taken at the end of secondary studies. The reforms at the Humboldt University transformed the Faculty of Philosophy or Arts (and its more recent successors such as the Faculty of Sciences) from a lower faculty into one on a par with the Faculties of Law and Medicine. Similar developments occurred in many other continental European universities, and at least until reforms in
5687-478: The PageRank algorithm , and realized that it could be used to build a search engine far superior to those existing at the time. The new algorithm relied on a new kind of technology that analyzed the relevance of the backlinks that connected one Web page to another, and allowed the number of links and their rank, to determine the rank of the page. Combining their ideas, they began utilizing Page's dormitory room as
5808-621: The Prussian government . The arts faculty, which in Germany was labelled the faculty of philosophy, started demanding contributions to research, attested by a dissertation, for the award of their final degree, which was labelled Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated as Ph.D.)—originally this was just the German equivalent of the Master of Arts degree. Whereas in the Middle Ages the arts faculty had
5929-867: The World Economic Forum and the Technology, Entertainment and Design Conference. ... PC Magazine has praised Google in the Top 100 Web Sites and Search Engines (1998) and awarded Google the Technical Excellence Award, for Innovation in Web Application Development in 1999. In 2000, Google earned a Webby Award , a People's Voice Award for technical achievement, and in 2001, was awarded Outstanding Search Service, Best Image Search Engine, Best Design, Most Webmaster Friendly Search Engine, and Best Search Feature at
6050-428: The etiquette associated with this usage may be subject to the professional ethics of the particular scholarly field, culture, or society. Those who teach at universities or work in academic, educational, or research fields are usually addressed by this title "professionally and socially in a salutation or conversation". Alternatively, holders may use post-nominal letters such as "Ph.D.", "PhD", or "DPhil", depending on
6171-470: The 1650s (when they gradually started replacing the MA as the highest academic degree; arguably, one of the earliest German PhD holders is Erhard Weigel (Dr. phil. hab., Leipzig, 1652). The full course of studies might, for example, lead in succession to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts , Licentiate of Arts , Master of Arts , or Bachelor of Medicine , Licentiate of Medicine, or Doctor of Medicine , but before
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#17327656825596292-482: The BSc, rather than a research degree. The first higher doctorate in the modern sense was Durham University 's DSc, introduced in 1882. This was soon followed by other universities, including the University of Cambridge establishing its ScD in the same year and the University of London transforming its DSc into a research degree in 1885. These were, however, very advanced degrees, rather than research-training degrees at
6413-599: The Fulbright Program and the Organization of American States (OAS), have been known to grant full scholarships for tuition with apportions for housing. Others apply for funds to CONICET, the national public body of scientific and technical research, which typically awards more than a thousand scholarships each year for this purpose, thus guaranteeing many PhD candidates remain within the system. Upon completion of at least two years' research and coursework as
6534-406: The German universities started attracting foreign students, notably from the United States. The American students would go to Germany to obtain a PhD after having studied for a bachelor's degree at an American college. So influential was this practice that it was imported to the United States, where in 1861 Yale University started granting the PhD degree to younger students who, after having obtained
6655-671: The MA, as the highest academic degree; and in Italy in 1927, when PhDs gradually started replacing the Laurea as the highest academic degree. Research degrees first appeared in the UK in the late 19th century in the shape of the Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD) and other such "higher doctorates". The University of London introduced the DSc in 1860, but as an advanced study course, following on directly from
6776-441: The Master's). An application package typically includes a research proposal, letters of reference, transcripts, and in some cases, a writing sample or Graduate Record Examinations scores. A common criterion for prospective PhD students is the comprehensive or qualifying examination, a process that often commences in the second year of a graduate program. Generally, successful completion of the qualifying exam permits continuance in
6897-557: The PhD level. Harold Jeffreys said that getting a Cambridge ScD was "more or less equivalent to being proposed for the Royal Society." In 1917, the current PhD degree was introduced, along the lines of the American and German model, and quickly became popular with both British and foreign students. The slightly older degrees of Doctor of Science and Doctor of Literature/Letters still exist at British universities; together with
7018-616: The PhD, such as the Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A.) for music performers, Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D.) for legal scholars and the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.) for studies in education. In 2005 the European University Association defined the "Salzburg Principles", 10 basic principles for third-cycle degrees (doctorates) within the Bologna Process . These were followed in 2016 by the "Florence Principles", seven basic principles for doctorates in
7139-759: The Search Engine Watch Awards. Doctor of Philosophy A Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD or DPhil ; Latin : philosophiae doctor or doctor in philosophia ) is a terminal degree , that usually denotes the highest level of academic achievement in a given discipline and is awarded following a course of graduate study and original research . The name of the degree is most often abbreviated PhD (or, at times, as Ph.D. in North America ), pronounced as three separate letters ( / ˌ p iː eɪ tʃ ˈ d iː / PEE -aych- DEE ). The abbreviation DPhil, for "Doctor of Philosophy",
7260-551: The Sergey Brin Family Foundation and a donor-advised fund for his philanthropic giving. They donated extensively to The Michael J. Fox Foundation and in 2009 gave $ 1 million to support the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society . Brin is a donor to Democratic Party candidates and organizations, having donated $ 5,000 to Barack Obama 's reelection campaign and $ 30,800 to the DNC . he was a featured speaker at
7381-710: The United States introduced the Doctor of Arts degree in 1970 with seed money from the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching . The aim of the Doctor of Arts degree was to shorten the time needed to complete the degree by focusing on pedagogy over research, although the Doctor of Arts still contains a significant research component. Germany is one of the few nations engaging these issues, and it has been doing so by reconceptualising PhD programs to be training for careers, outside academia, but still at high-level positions. This development can be seen in
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#17327656825597502-463: The admission to a PhD program at public Argentine University requires the full completion of a Master's degree or a Licentiate degree. Non-Argentine Master's titles are generally accepted into a PhD program when the degree comes from a recognized university. While a significant portion of postgraduate students finance their tuition and living costs with teaching or research work at private and state-run institutions, international institutions, such as
7623-650: The age of 19. In 1993, he interned at Wolfram Research , the developers of Mathematica . Brin began his graduate study in computer science at Stanford University on a graduate fellowship from the National Science Foundation , receiving an M.S. in computer science in 1995. As of 2008, he was on leave from his PhD studies at Stanford. During an orientation for new students at Stanford, he met Larry Page . The two men seemed to disagree on most subjects, but after spending time together they "became intellectual soul-mates and close friends." Brin's focus
7744-811: The arts laid out by the European League of Institutes of the Arts , which have been endorsed by the European Association of Conservatoires , the International Association of Film and Television Schools , the International Association of Universities and Colleges of Art, Design and Media, and the Society for Artistic Research . The specific requirements to earn a PhD degree vary considerably according to
7865-541: The associated reference(s). There also has been analysis of citations of science information on Misplaced Pages or of scientific citations on the site, e.g. enabling listing the most relevant or most-cited scientific journals and categories and dominant domains. Since 2015, the altmetrics platform Altmetric.com also shows citing English Misplaced Pages articles for a given study, later adding other language editions. The Wikimedia platform under development Scholia also shows "Misplaced Pages mentions" of scientific works. A study suggests
7986-525: The awarding institution. It is, however, traditionally considered incorrect to use both the title and post-nominals together, although usage in that regard has been evolving over time. In the universities of Medieval Europe , study was organized in four faculties: the basic faculty of arts, and the three higher faculties of theology, medicine, and law ( canon law and civil law ). All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees (bachelor of arts, of theology, of laws, of medicine) and final degrees. Initially,
8107-474: The bachelor's degree, had completed a prescribed course of graduate study and successfully defended a thesis or dissertation containing original research in science or in the humanities. In Germany, the name of the doctorate was adapted after the philosophy faculty started being split up − e.g. Dr. rer. nat. for doctorates in the faculty of natural sciences − but in most of the English-speaking world
8228-434: The base entry level qualification". The Economist published an article in 2010 citing various criticisms against the state of PhDs. These included a prediction by economist Richard B. Freeman that, based on pre-2000 data, only 20% of life science PhD students would gain a faculty job in the U.S., and that in Canada 80% of postdoctoral research fellows earned less than or equal to an average construction worker ($ 38,600
8349-461: The basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the "faculty of philosophy". A PhD candidate must submit a project, thesis , or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research , which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed journal. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university. Universities sometimes award other types of doctorate besides
8470-489: The candidate until the examination is complete. A formal oral defence is generally not part of the examination of the thesis, largely because of the distances that would need to be travelled by the overseas examiners; however, since 2016, there is a trend toward implementing this in many Australian universities. At the University of South Australia, PhD candidates who started after January 2016 now undertake an oral defence via an online conference with two examiners. Admission to
8591-412: The citation-system used (e.g., Oxford , Harvard , MLA , NLM , American Sociological Association (ASA), American Psychological Association (APA), etc.). Each system is associated with different academic disciplines , and academic journals associated with these disciplines maintain the relevant citational style by recommending and adhering to the relevant style guides . A bibliographic citation
8712-468: The context of a single citation system. These may be referred to as citation formats as well as citation styles. The various guides thus specify order of appearance, for example, of publication date, title, and page numbers following the author name, in addition to conventions of punctuation, use of italics, emphasis, parenthesis, quotation marks, etc., particular to their style. A number of organizations have created styles to fit their needs; consequently,
8833-500: The corresponding degree to a Doctor of Philosophy is simply called "Doctor" ( Doktor ), and the subject area is distinguished by a Latin suffix (e.g., "Dr. med." for Doctor medicinae , Doctor of Medicine; "Dr. rer. nat." for Doctor rerum naturalium , Doctor of the Natural Sciences; "Dr. phil." for Doctor philosophiae , Doctor of Philosophy; " Dr. iur. " for Doctor iuris , Doctor of Laws). In Argentina,
8954-438: The country, institution, and time period, from entry-level research degrees to higher doctorates . During the studies that lead to the degree, the student is called a doctoral student or PhD student ; a student who has completed any necessary coursework and related examinations and is working on their thesis/dissertation is sometimes known as a doctoral candidate or PhD candidate . A student attaining this level may be granted
9075-827: The current claim. The digitization of patent data and increasing computing power have led to a community of practice that uses these citation data to measure innovation attributes, trace knowledge flows, and map innovation networks. Modern scientists are sometimes judged by the number of times their work is cited by others—this is actually a key indicator of the relative importance of a work in science. Accordingly, individual scientists are motivated to have their own work cited early and often and as widely as possible, but all other scientists are motivated to eliminate unnecessary citations so as not to devalue this means of judgment . A formal citation index tracks which referred and reviewed papers have referred which other such papers. Baruch Lev and other advocates of accounting reform consider
9196-472: The degrees are Bachelor of Sacred Theology (STB), Licentiate of Sacred Theology (STL), and Doctor of Sacred Theology (STD), and in canon law : Bachelor of Canon Law (JCB), Licentiate of Canon Law (JCL), and Doctor of Canon Law (JCD). Until the mid-19th century, advanced degrees were not a criterion for professorships at most colleges. That began to change as the more ambitious scholars at major schools went to Germany for one to three years to obtain
9317-477: The department of mathematics at the University of Maryland, encouraged him to learn mathematics and his family helped him retain his Russian-language skills. He attended Eleanor Roosevelt High School, Maryland . In September 1990, Brin enrolled in the University of Maryland, where he received his Bachelor of Science from the Department of Computer Science in 1993 with honors in computer science and mathematics at
9438-431: The diocese in which the university was located, but later it evolved into an academic degree in its own right, in particular in the continental universities. According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150. The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal teacher's credential in the 17th century (circa 1652). There were no PhDs in Germany before
9559-515: The divorce was finalized. Brin's mother, Eugenia, has been diagnosed with Parkinson's disease . In 2008, he decided to make a donation to the University of Maryland School of Medicine , where his mother has received treatment. According to Forbes , Brin has donated over $ 1 billion to fund research on the disease. Brin and Wojcicki, although divorced, jointly ran The Brin Wojcicki Foundation until 2014. Since then, Brin has used
9680-455: The documents. A typical aim would be to identify the most important documents in a collection. A classic example is that of the citations between academic articles and books. For another example, judges of law support their judgements by referring back to judgements made in earlier cases (see citation analysis in a legal context ). An additional example is provided by patents which contain prior art , citation of earlier patents relevant to
9801-509: The early 21st century, many European countries (e.g., Belgium, Spain, and the Scandinavian countries) had in all faculties triple degree structures of bachelor (or candidate) − licentiate − doctor as opposed to bachelor − master − doctor; the meaning of the different degrees varied from country to country, however. To this day, this is also still the case for the pontifical degrees in theology and canon law; for instance, in sacred theology ,
9922-461: The early modern era, many exceptions to this existed. Most students left the university without becoming masters of arts, whereas regulars (members of monastic orders) could skip the arts faculty entirely. This situation changed in the early 19th century through the educational reforms in Germany , most strongly embodied in the model of the University of Berlin , founded in 1810 and controlled by
10043-540: The exception in some universities of the student services and amenities fee (SSAF) which is set by each university and typically involves the largest amount allowed by the Australian government. All fees are paid for by the Australian government, except for the SSAF, under the Research Training Program. International students and coursework master's degree students must pay course fees unless they receive
10164-520: The extensive number of PhD holders, typically from the fields of law, engineering, and economics, at the very top corporate and administrative positions. To a lesser extent, the UK research councils have tackled the issue by introducing, since 1992, the EngD . Mark C. Taylor opined in 2011 in Nature that total reform of PhD programs in almost every field is necessary in the U.S. and that pressure to make
10285-415: The field of communication, Michael Bugeja and Daniela V. Dimitrova have found that citations to online sources have a rate of decay (as cited pages are taken down), which they call a "half-life", that renders footnotes in those journals less useful for scholarship over time. Other experts have found that published replications do not have as many citations as original publications. Another important issue
10406-672: The following two decades, Harvard University , New York University , Princeton University , and the University of Pennsylvania , also began granting the degree. Major shifts toward graduate education were foretold by the opening of Clark University in 1887 which offered only graduate programs and the Johns Hopkins University which focused on its PhD program. By the 1890s, Harvard, Columbia, Michigan and Wisconsin were building major graduate programs, whose alumni were hired by new research universities. By 1900, 300 PhDs were awarded annually, most of them by six universities. It
10527-478: The formatting of citations and bibliographies. In some areas of the humanities, footnotes are used exclusively for references, and their use for conventional footnotes (explanations or examples) is avoided. In these areas, the term footnote is actually used as a synonym for reference , and care must be taken by editors and typesetters to ensure that they understand how the term is being used by their authors. In their research on footnotes in scholarly journals in
10648-411: The former's basic HTML programming skills to set up a simple search page for users, as they did not have a web page developer to create anything visually elaborate. They also began using any computer part they could find to assemble the necessary computing power to handle searches by multiple users. As their search engine grew in popularity among Stanford users, it required additional servers to process
10769-410: The graduate program. Formats for this examination include oral examination by the student's faculty committee (or a separate qualifying committee), or written tests designed to demonstrate the student's knowledge in a specialized area (see below) or both. At English-speaking universities, a student may also be required to demonstrate English language abilities, usually by achieving an acceptable score on
10890-413: The higher faculties were quite different from the current PhD degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research . No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements and examinations. Besides these degrees, there was the licentiate . Originally this was a license to teach, awarded shortly before the award of the master's or doctoral degree by
11011-460: The impact; while in sociology the number of references, the article length, and title length are among the factors. Studies of methodological quality and reliability have found that "reliability of published research works in several fields may be decreasing with increasing journal rank". Nature Index recognizes that citations remain a controversial and yet important metric for academics. They report five ways to increase citation counts: (1) watch
11132-465: The legal training for the common law system was provided by the Inns of Court (with some minor exceptions, see Doctors' Commons ), and few students undertook formal study in theology. This contrasted with the situation in the continental European universities at the time, where the preparatory role of the Faculty of Philosophy or Arts was to a great extent taken over by secondary education: in modern France,
11253-620: The mechanical printing press, printing Bibles for mass consumption. The technology allowed for books and manuscripts—originally replicated by hand—to be printed at a much faster rate, thus spreading knowledge and helping to usher in the European Renaissance ... Google has done a similar job. The comparison was also noted by the authors of The Google Story : "Not since Gutenberg ... has any new invention empowered individuals, and transformed access to information, as profoundly as Google." Also, not long after
11374-456: The more traditional Ph.D by dissertation, which typically requires a minimum of two publications, but which also requires traditional thesis elements such as an introductory exegesis , and linking chapters between papers. The PhD thesis is sent to external examiners who are experts in the field of research and who have not been involved in the work. Examiners are nominated by the candidate's university, and their identities are often not revealed to
11495-463: The much older degrees of Doctor of Divinity (DD), Doctor of Music (DMus), Doctor of Civil Law (DCL), and Doctor of Medicine (MD), they form the higher doctorates, but apart from honorary degrees, they are only infrequently awarded. In English (but not Scottish) universities, the Faculty of Arts had become dominant by the early 19th century. Indeed, the higher faculties had largely atrophied, since medical training had shifted to teaching hospitals,
11616-552: The name "Doctor of Philosophy" was retained for research doctorates in all disciplines. The PhD degree and similar awards spread across Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The degree was introduced in France in 1808, replacing diplomas as the highest academic degree; into Russia in 1819, when the Doktor Nauk degree, roughly equivalent to a PhD, gradually started replacing the specialist diploma , roughly equivalent to
11737-574: The necessary changes will need to come from many sources (students, administrators, public and private sectors, etc.). Other articles in Nature have also examined the issue of PhD reform. Freeman Dyson , professor emeritus at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , was opposed to the PhD system and did not have a PhD degree. On the other hand, it was understood by all his peers that he
11858-581: The number of times a patent is cited to be a significant metric of its quality, and thus of innovation . Reviews often replace citations to primary studies. Two metascientists reported that in a growing scientific field , citations disproportionately cite already well-cited papers, possibly slowing and inhibiting canonical progress to some degree in some cases. They find that "structures fostering disruptive scholarship and focusing attention on novel ideas" could be important. Recommendation systems sometimes also use citations to find similar studies to
11979-424: The one the user is currently reading or that the user may be interested in and may find useful. Better availability of integrable open citation information could be useful in addressing the "overwhelming amount of scientific literature". Knowledge agents may use citations to find studies that are relevant to the user's query, in particular citation statements are used by scite.ai to answer a question, also providing
12100-478: The original source. Experts have found that simple precautions, such as consulting the author of a cited source about proper citations, reduce the likelihood of citation errors and thus increase the quality of research. Another study noted that approximately 25% citations do not support the claims made, a finding that affects many disciplines, including history. Research suggests the impact of an article can be, partly, explained by superficial factors and not only by
12221-458: The popularity of distance education and e-learning technologies, some universities now accept students enrolled into a distance education part-time mode. In a " sandwich PhD " program, PhD candidates do not spend their entire study period at the same university. Instead, the PhD candidates spend the first and last periods of the program at their home universities and in between conduct research at another institution or field research . Occasionally
12342-474: The program, and at least one of them should also be external to the institution. The academic degree of Doctor, respective to the correspondent field of science that the candidate has contributed with original and rigorous research, is received after a successful defense of the candidate's dissertation. Admission to a PhD program in Australia requires applicants to demonstrate capacity to undertake research in
12463-428: The proposed field of study. The standard requirement is a bachelor honours degree with either first-class or upper second-class honours. Research master's degrees and coursework master's degrees with a 25% research component are usually considered equivalent. It is also possible for research master's degree students to "upgrade" to PhD candidature after demonstrating sufficient progress. PhD students are sometimes offered
12584-532: The queries. In August 1996, the initial version of Google was made available on the Stanford Web site. By early 1997, the BackRub page described the state as follows: BackRub already exhibited the rudimentary functions and characteristics of a search engine: a query input was entered and it provided a list of backlinks ranked by importance. Page recalled: "We realized that we had a querying tool. It gave you
12705-519: The research programs of the leading professors. It was impossible for professors who were not approved by Berlin to train graduate students . In the United States, by contrast, private universities and state universities alike were independent of the federal government. Independence was high, but funding was low. The breakthrough came from private foundations, which began regularly supporting research in science and history; large corporations sometimes supported engineering programs. The postdoctoral fellowship
12826-436: The same subject. There is research about citations and development of related tools and systems, mainly relating to scientific citations. Citation analysis is a method widely used in metascience . Citation analysis is the examination of the frequency, patterns, and graphs of citations in documents. It uses the directed graph of citations — links from one document to another document — to reveal properties of
12947-410: The scientific merits of an article. Field-dependent factors are usually listed as an issue to be tackled not only when comparisons across disciplines are made, but also when different fields of research of one discipline are being compared. For example, in medicine, among other factors, the number of authors, the number of references, the article length, and the presence of a colon in the title influence
13068-591: The state of knowledge on a particular topic, identifying gaps in the existing knowledge that should be filled or describing areas where inquiries should be continued or replicated. Citation has also been identified as a critical means by which researchers establish stance: aligning themselves with or against subgroups of fellow researchers working on similar projects and staking out opportunities for creating new knowledge. Conventions of citation (e.g., placement of dates within parentheses, superscripted endnotes vs. footnotes , colons or commas for page numbers, etc.) vary by
13189-499: The text of a paper using a notes system without a full bibliography could look like: The note, located either at the foot of the page (footnote) or at the end of the paper (endnote) would look like this: In a paper with a full bibliography, the shortened note might look like: The bibliography entry, which is required with a shortened note, would look like this: In the humanities, many authors also use footnotes or endnotes to supply anecdotal information. In this way, what looks like
13310-536: The text, either bracketed or superscript or both. The numbers refer to either footnotes (notes at the end of the page) or endnotes (notes on a page at the end of the paper) that provide source detail. The notes system may or may not require a full bibliography, depending on whether the writer has used a full-note form or a shortened-note form. The organizational logic of the bibliography is that sources are listed in their order of appearance in-text, rather than alphabetically by author last name. For example, an excerpt from
13431-429: The title length and punctuation; (2) release the results early as preprints; (3) avoid referring to a country in the title, abstract, or keywords; (4) link the article to supporting data in a repository; and (5) avoid hyphens in the titles of research articles. Citation patterns are also known to be affected by unethical behavior of both the authors and journal staff. Such behavior is called impact factor boosting and
13552-437: The titles of master and doctor were used interchangeably for the final degrees—the title Doctor was merely a formality bestowed on a Teacher/Master of the art—but by the late Middle Ages the terms Master of Arts and Doctor of Theology/Divinity, Doctor of Law, and Doctor of Medicine had become standard in most places (though in the German and Italian universities the term Doctor was used for all faculties). The doctorates in
13673-489: The two "cooked up their new engine for web searches, they began thinking about information that was at the time beyond the web," such as digitizing books and expanding health information. In June 2008, Brin invested $ 4.5 million in Space Adventures , a Virginia -based space tourism company. Brin and Page jointly own a customized Boeing 767–200 and a Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet , and pay $ 1.3 million
13794-585: The type of source and may include: Along with information such as authors, date of publication, title and page numbers, citations may also include unique identifiers depending on the type of work being referred to. Broadly speaking, there are two types of citation systems, the Vancouver system and parenthetical referencing. However, the Council of Science Editors (CSE) adds a third, the citation-name system . The Vancouver system uses sequential numbers in
13915-440: Was a world leading scientist with many accomplishments already under his belt during his graduate study years and he was eligible to gain the degree at any given moment. The UNESCO , in its International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED), states that: "Programmes to be classified at ISCED level 8 are referred to in many ways around the world such as PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar terms. However, it
14036-418: Was announced that Brin and his wife were living separately after Brin had an extramarital affair with a Google Glass colleague. In June 2015, Brin and Wojcicki finalized their divorce. On November 7, 2018, he married Nicole Shanahan , a legal tech founder. They have a daughter, born in late 2018. Brin and Shanahan separated on December 15, 2021, and Brin filed for divorce on January 4, 2022. In summer 2023,
14157-648: Was banned by the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York in 1897. This had a nation-wide impact, and after 1907, less than 10 honorary PhDs were awarded in the United States each year. The last authenticated PhD awarded honoris causa was awarded in 1937 to Bing Crosby by Gonzaga University . At the start of the 20th century, U.S. universities were held in low regard internationally and many American students were still traveling to Europe for PhDs. The lack of centralised authority meant anyone could start
14278-563: Was established by the Rockefeller Foundation in 1919. Meanwhile, the leading universities, in cooperation with the learned societies, set up a network of scholarly journals. " Publish or perish " became the formula for faculty advancement in the research universities. After World War II, state universities across the country expanded greatly in undergraduate enrollment, and eagerly added research programs leading to masters or doctorate degrees. Their graduate faculties had to have
14399-508: Was no longer necessary to study in Germany. However, half of the institutions awarding earned PhDs in 1899 were undergraduate institutions that granted the degree for work done away from campus. Degrees awarded by universities without legitimate PhD programs accounted for about a third of the 382 doctorates recorded by the US Department of Education in 1900, of which another 8–10% were honorary. The awarding of PhD as an honorary degree
14520-413: Was on developing data mining systems while Page's was on extending "the concept of inferring the importance of a research paper from its citations in other papers". Together, they authored a paper titled "The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine". To convert the backlink data gathered by BackRub's web crawler into a measure of importance for a given web page, Brin and Page developed
14641-539: Was reported to involve even the top-tier journals. Specifically the high-ranking journals of medical science, including The Lancet , JAMA and The New England Journal of Medicine , are thought to be associated with such behavior, with up to 30% of citations to these journals being generated by commissioned opinion articles. On the other hand, the phenomenon of citation cartels is rising. Citation cartels are defined as groups of authors that cite each other disproportionately more than they do other groups of authors who work on
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