97-556: The British Empire Exhibition was a colonial exhibition held at Wembley Park , London England from 23 April to 1 November 1924 and from 9 May to 31 October 1925. In 1920 the British Government decided to site the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Park , on the site of the pleasure gardens created by Edward Watkin in the 1890s. A British Empire Exhibition had first been proposed in 1902, by
194-551: A Green Swizzle . Colonial exhibition A colonial exhibition was a type of international exhibition that was held to boost trade. During the 1880s and beyond, colonial exhibitions had the additional aim of bolstering popular support for the various colonial empires during the New Imperialism period, which included the scramble for Africa . The first colonial exhibition, in Victoria , Australia , in 1866,
291-751: A butter sculpture, of legendary England cricketer Jack Hobbs being bowled as England succumbed to the Baggy Greens in a Test match. Rather smaller was the pavilion shared by the West Indies and British Guiana , south of the HM Government Pavilion. Each of the West Indian islands had a court in the pavilion, as did the Falkland Islands . The Malta pavilion was modelled on a fortress with its front entrance looking like
388-475: A creative challenge, in that its concept required a large number of buildings in a variety of styles. This offered the architects a unique opportunity to experiment. To simplify construction, the main building material used for the Exhibition buildings was reinforced concrete , (then called "ferro-concrete"), selected for its speed of construction. Wembley Park thus earned the title of the first "concrete city"
485-475: A football pitch, it was not solely intended as a football stadium. Its quarter mile running track, incorporating a 220 yard straight track (the longest in the country) were seen as being at least equally important. The only standard gauge locomotive involved in the construction of the Stadium has survived, and still runs on Sir William McAlpine 's private Fawley Hill railway near Henley . Wembley Park station
582-465: A four-story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignet's descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete but for keeping walls in monolithic construction from overturning. The, 1872–1873, Pippen building in Brooklyn stands as a testament to his technique. In 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced
679-453: A major role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven and studied science. Without Hyatt's work, more dangerous trial and error methods might have been depended on for the advancement in the technology. Joseph Monier , a 19th-century French gardener, was a pioneer in the development of structural, prefabricated and reinforced concrete, having been dissatisfied with the existing materials available for making durable flowerpots. He
776-419: A reduction in its durability. Corrosion and freeze/thaw cycles may damage poorly designed or constructed reinforced concrete. When rebar corrodes, the oxidation products ( rust ) expand and tends to flake, cracking the concrete and unbonding the rebar from the concrete. Typical mechanisms leading to durability problems are discussed below. Cracking of the concrete section is nearly impossible to prevent; however,
873-495: A series of public displays inside the stadium. From 9 May to 1 June 1925, No. 32 Squadron RAF flew an air display six nights a week entitled "London Defended". Similar to the display they had done the previous year, when the aircraft were painted black, it consisted of a night time air display over the Wembley Exhibition flying RAF Sopwith Snipes which were painted red for the display and fitted with white lights on
970-492: A wealth of entertainment, the Exhibition was not a financial success. Despite 18 million visitors in 1924, the project ended that season without breaking even. In an attempt to raise enough money, the late decision was taken to reopen, with some variations, in 1925, but the Exhibition did not do as well in its second season. It closed for good on 31 October 1925, having received 27 million visitors in two years. The final cost reached in excess of £6 million. Variety claimed that it
1067-426: A well-chosen concrete mix will provide additional protection for many applications. Uncoated, low carbon/chromium rebar looks similar to standard carbon steel rebar due to its lack of a coating; its highly corrosion-resistant features are inherent in the steel microstructure. It can be identified by the unique ASTM specified mill marking on its smooth, dark charcoal finish. Epoxy-coated rebar can easily be identified by
SECTION 10
#17327647635661164-658: Is a mixture of coarse (stone or brick chips) and fine (generally sand and/or crushed stone) aggregates with a paste of binder material (usually Portland cement ) and water. When cement is mixed with a small amount of water, it hydrates to form microscopic opaque crystal lattices encapsulating and locking the aggregate into a rigid shape. The aggregates used for making concrete should be free from harmful substances like organic impurities, silt, clay, lignite, etc. Typical concrete mixes have high resistance to compressive stresses (about 4,000 psi (28 MPa)); however, any appreciable tension ( e.g., due to bending ) will break
1261-528: Is coating them with zinc phosphate . Zinc phosphate slowly reacts with calcium cations and the hydroxyl anions present in the cement pore water and forms a stable hydroxyapatite layer. Penetrating sealants typically must be applied some time after curing. Sealants include paint, plastic foams, films and aluminum foil , felts or fabric mats sealed with tar, and layers of bentonite clay, sometimes used to seal roadbeds. Corrosion inhibitors , such as calcium nitrite [Ca(NO 2 ) 2 ], can also be added to
1358-504: Is located across the bay from San Francisco . Two years later, El Campanil survived the 1906 San Francisco earthquake without any damage, which helped build her reputation and launch her prolific career. The 1906 earthquake also changed the public's initial resistance to reinforced concrete as a building material, which had been criticized for its perceived dullness. In 1908, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors changed
1455-541: Is one in which both the compressive and tensile zones reach yielding at the same imposed load on the beam, and the concrete will crush and the tensile steel will yield at the same time. This design criterion is however as risky as over-reinforced concrete, because failure is sudden as the concrete crushes at the same time of the tensile steel yields, which gives a very little warning of distress in tension failure. Steel-reinforced concrete moment-carrying elements should normally be designed to be under-reinforced so that users of
1552-428: Is one in which the concrete element is only reinforced near the tensile face and the reinforcement, called tension steel, is designed to resist the tension. A doubly reinforced beam is the section in which besides the tensile reinforcement the concrete element is also reinforced near the compressive face to help the concrete resist compression and take stresses. The latter reinforcement is called compression steel. When
1649-430: Is one in which the tension capacity of the tension steel is greater than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (over-reinforced at tensile face). So the "over-reinforced concrete" beam fails by crushing of the compressive-zone concrete and before the tension zone steel yields, which does not provide any warning before failure as the failure is instantaneous. A balanced-reinforced beam
1746-579: Is the theoretical failure point with a certain probability. It is stated under factored loads and factored resistances. Reinforced concrete structures are normally designed according to rules and regulations or recommendation of a code such as ACI-318, CEB, Eurocode 2 or the like. WSD, USD or LRFD methods are used in design of RC structural members. Analysis and design of RC members can be carried out by using linear or non-linear approaches. When applying safety factors, building codes normally propose linear approaches, but for some cases non-linear approaches. To see
1843-446: Is transferred from the concrete to the bar interface so as to change the tensile stress in the reinforcing bar along its length. This load transfer is achieved by means of bond (anchorage) and is idealized as a continuous stress field that develops in the vicinity of the steel-concrete interface. The reasons that the two different material components concrete and steel can work together are as follows: (1) Reinforcement can be well bonded to
1940-535: The British Empire League , and again in 1913. The Russo-Japanese War had prevented the first plan from being developed and World War I put an end to the second, though there had been a Festival of Empire in 1911, held in part at Crystal Palace . One of the reasons for the suggestion was a sense that other powers were challenging Britain on the world stage. Despite victory in World War I, this
2037-606: The Home Islands , but also held several full-scale expositions inside its colonies of Korea and Taiwan . These exhibitions had objectives comparable to their European counterparts, highlighting economic achievements and social progress under Japanese colonial rule to Japanese and colonial subjects alike. Brussels was the venue for the last colonial exhibition: the Belgian Foire coloniale , held in 1948. Exhibitions that may be described as colonial exhibitions include
SECTION 20
#17327647635662134-583: The MacRobertson Air Race with co-pilot Tom Campbell Black in 1934. The Exhibition is of philatelic interest, as it was the first occasion for which the British Post Office issued commemorative postage stamps . Two stamps were issued on 23 April 1924: a 1d in scarlet , and a 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 d in brown, both being inscribed "British Empire Exhibition 1924"; they were designed by H. Nelson. A second printing, identical to
2231-579: The Mdina Gate , and its rear like one of Birgu 's gates. It was 3 stories high and had a garden. It was designed by Alberto La Ferla and Joseph Cachia Caruana . The Palace of Arts, which was fire-proofed, contained historical room sets, as well as painting and sculpture since the eighteenth century. It also displayed the Queen's Dolls House , now at Windsor Castle , which contained miniature bottles of Bass beer. Kiosks, located both inside and outside
2328-465: The United States , the most common methods of doing this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning . For a strong, ductile and durable construction the reinforcement needs to have the following properties at least: François Coignet used iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures. In 1853, Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure,
2425-468: The tensile strength of concrete was improved by the reinforcing. Before the 1870s, the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire , and having been reintroduced in the early 19th century, was not yet a proven scientific technology. Ernest L. Ransome , an English-born engineer, was an early innovator of reinforced concrete techniques at the end of the 19th century. Using
2522-719: The 1890s, Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Monier's system of reinforcing, established it as a well-developed scientific technology. One of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-story Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904. The first reinforced concrete building in Southern California was the Laughlin Annex in downtown Los Angeles , constructed in 1905. In 1906, 16 building permits were reportedly issued for reinforced concrete buildings in
2619-466: The British Empire was wearing thin among parts of the intelligentsia of the period, who were less impressed. Edward Elgar , who conducted some of his songs at the opening ceremony, remarked that the pomp and self-importance was "vulgar" and overdone. Virginia Woolf visited the Exhibition but was unimpressed; she called it "an outmoded piece of antiquated fiction." Punch magazine lampooned
2716-653: The British sphere of influence). Other popular attractions included the Queen's Dolls House , the Wild West Rodeo, the dance pavilions, and the amusement park, but had very little to do with the empire as a whole. P. G. Wodehouse 's fictional Bertie Wooster may have reflected genuine reactions to the Exhibition in preferring the Green Swizzles at the Planters Bar to anything more didactic. Most of
2813-612: The Burmese pavilion was a temple and the South African building reflected the Dutch style. Aside from the Stadium and major pavilions to house the works of each dominion, colony or group of colonies, there were four other major structures. These were the palaces of Engineering, Industry and Arts, and HM Government Building. All of these palaces can be seen to have had a Roman Imperial character as befitted their political symbolism. At
2910-697: The City of Los Angeles, including the Temple Auditorium and 8-story Hayward Hotel. In 1906, a partial collapse of the Bixby Hotel in Long Beach killed 10 workers during construction when shoring was removed prematurely. That event spurred a scrutiny of concrete erection practices and building inspections. The structure was constructed of reinforced concrete frames with hollow clay tile ribbed flooring and hollow clay tile infill walls. That practice
3007-664: The Colonies . The first section was dedicated to crimes during the colonial conquests, and quoted Albert Londres and André Gide 's criticisms of forced labour . The second one contrasted the Soviet Union 's " nationalities policy " with "imperialist colonialism". Germany and Portugal also staged colonial exhibitions. Human zoos were featured in some of the exhibitions, such as the Parisian 1931 exhibition. The Empire of Japan hosted colonial showcases in exhibitions within
British Empire Exhibition - Misplaced Pages Continue
3104-607: The English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. In 1877, Thaddeus Hyatt , published a report entitled An Account of Some Experiments with Portland-Cement-Concrete Combined with Iron as a Building Material, with Reference to Economy of Metal in Construction and for Security against Fire in the Making of Roofs, Floors, and Walking Surfaces , in which he reported his experiments on the behaviour of reinforced concrete. His work played
3201-477: The Exhibition would strengthen the bonds within the Empire, stimulate trade and demonstrate British greatness both abroad and at home, where the public was believed to be increasingly uninterested in Empire. Wembley Urban District Council was opposed to the idea, as was The Times , which considered Wembley too far from Central London . A world tour headed by Major Ernest Belcher in 1922 that lasted 10 months
3298-644: The LMS at Horwich Works new was also on display and featured in postcards. In 1924, the Metropolitan Railway displayed one of its latest Inner Circle cars, a first class driving trailer which had been built in 1923. In 1925, in the Palace of Housing and Transport, the Metropolitan displayed electric locomotive no. 15, with some of the panelling, doors and framework removed from one side, to allow
3395-589: The Scottish locomotive manufacturer William Beardmore & Company Beardmore's had previously built similar locomotives for the LNWR, which in 1923 had become a constituent of the newly formed London, Midland & Scottish Railway (LMS); when the exhibition closed in November 1924, the LMS bought the locomotive from Beardmore. A Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway designed Baltic Tank 4-6-4T, number 11114, built by
3492-531: The Stadium ensured that the Empire Exhibition grounds in Wembley Park would remain a major London visitor destination. While the Exhibition incurred substantial financial losses, this should not be interpreted as the Exhibition being a failure in terms of raw attendance. 18 million visitors attended in 1924 and 9 million attended in 1925: a substantial slice of the population of Great Britain in
3589-403: The actress Sarah Siddons and 'Miss 1924'. There were also two soap-related characters, Bubbles and The Spirit of Purity. The Palace, which charged admission, was open 13 hours a day, so each beauty was depicted by two actresses/models working shifts. 14 of the performers were depicted on souvenir postcards. Nearly 750,000 people visited the Palace. In addition to the pavilions and kiosks there
3686-695: The actual available length is inadequate for full development, special anchorages must be provided, such as cogs or hooks or mechanical end plates. The same concept applies to lap splice length mentioned in the codes where splices (overlapping) provided between two adjacent bars in order to maintain the required continuity of stress in the splice zone. In wet and cold climates, reinforced concrete for roads, bridges, parking structures and other structures that may be exposed to deicing salt may benefit from use of corrosion-resistant reinforcement such as uncoated, low carbon/chromium (micro composite), epoxy-coated, hot dip galvanized or stainless steel rebar. Good design and
3783-461: The actual bond stress varies along the length of a bar anchored in a zone of tension, current international codes of specifications use the concept of development length rather than bond stress. The main requirement for safety against bond failure is to provide a sufficient extension of the length of the bar beyond the point where the steel is required to develop its yield stress and this length must be at least equal to its development length. However, if
3880-412: The area were straightened and widened, and new road signs installed. In addition, new bus services were introduced to serve the Exhibition. Visitors to the Exhibition were introduced to Wembley and some were later encouraged to move to the area when houses had been built to accommodate them. Conversely, though the Exhibition encouraged the development of Wembley as a typical inter-war suburb, the survival of
3977-543: The chief reasons for the failure of reinforcement bars in concrete. The relative cross-sectional area of steel required for typical reinforced concrete is usually quite small and varies from 1% for most beams and slabs to 6% for some columns. Reinforcing bars are normally round in cross-section and vary in diameter. Reinforced concrete structures sometimes have provisions such as ventilated hollow cores to control their moisture & humidity. Distribution of concrete (in spite of reinforcement) strength characteristics along
British Empire Exhibition - Misplaced Pages Continue
4074-756: The city's building codes to allow wider use of reinforced concrete. In 1906, the National Association of Cement Users (NACU) published Standard No. 1 and, in 1910, the Standard Building Regulations for the Use of Reinforced Concrete . Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete elements including slabs , walls , beams , columns , foundations , frames and more. Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete . Designing and implementing
4171-487: The closing ceremony was presided over by his brother, the future George VI . The Prince wished for the Exhibition to boast "a great national sports ground" and so exercised some influence on the creation of Wembley Stadium at Wembley Park in 1923. A purpose-built "great national sports ground", called the Empire Stadium, was built for the Exhibition. This became Wembley Stadium . The first turf for this stadium
4268-422: The compression zone of a concrete is inadequate to resist the compressive moment (positive moment), extra reinforcement has to be provided if the architect limits the dimensions of the section. An under-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tensile reinforcement is smaller than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (under-reinforced at tensile face). When
4365-447: The concrete before the concrete sets. However, post-tensioning is also employed as a technique to reinforce the concrete. In terms of volume used annually, it is one of the most common engineering materials. In corrosion engineering terms, when designed correctly, the alkalinity of the concrete protects the steel rebar from corrosion . Reinforcing schemes are generally designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of
4462-541: The concrete resists compression and reinforcement " rebar " resists tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry. Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties: As a rule of thumb, only to give an idea on orders of magnitude, steel is protected at pH above ~11 but starts to corrode below ~10 depending on steel characteristics and local physico-chemical conditions when concrete becomes carbonated. Carbonation of concrete along with chloride ingress are amongst
4559-412: The concrete roof and floors in the two-story house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, he had knowledge of tensile stresses. Between 1869 and 1870, Henry Eton would design, and Messrs W & T Phillips of London construct the wrought iron reinforced Homersfield Bridge bridge, with a 50' (15.25 meter) span, over the river Waveney, between
4656-423: The concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure. Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel, polymers or alternate composite material in conjunction with rebar or not. Reinforced concrete may also be permanently stressed (concrete in compression, reinforcement in tension), so as to improve the behavior of the final structure under working loads. In
4753-416: The concrete, thus they can jointly resist external loads and deform. (2) The thermal expansion coefficients of concrete and steel are so close ( 1.0 × 10 to 1.5 × 10 for concrete and 1.2 × 10 for steel) that the thermal stress-induced damage to the bond between the two components can be prevented. (3) Concrete can protect the embedded steel from corrosion and high-temperature induced softening. Because
4850-403: The cross-section of vertical reinforced concrete elements is inhomogeneous. The reinforcement in a RC structure, such as a steel bar, has to undergo the same strain or deformation as the surrounding concrete in order to prevent discontinuity, slip or separation of the two materials under load. Maintaining composite action requires transfer of load between the concrete and steel. The direct stress
4947-500: The educational aspect of the exhibition, which resulted in a 12-volume book, The British Empire: A survey , with Hugh Gunn as the general editor, and which was published in London in 1924. Several railway companies had display stands at the Exhibition; in some cases they exhibited their latest locomotives or coaches. Among the exhibits in the Palace of Engineering was the now famous railway locomotive, LNER 4472 Flying Scotsman ; this
SECTION 50
#17327647635665044-525: The era even accounting for repeat visitors. The exhibition also garnered huge coverage in the press, with over 2,000 articles in The Times of London about the event from 1923 to 1925. Over 6 million listeners tuned in to the radio broadcast of King George V speech at the opening ceremony. Middlebrow British culture continued to be receptive to the brand of imperial pride the Exhibition sought to incubate. That said, patience with such direct celebration of
5141-403: The examples of a non-linear numerical simulation and calculation visit the references: Prestressing concrete is a technique that greatly increases the load-bearing strength of concrete beams. The reinforcing steel in the bottom part of the beam, which will be subjected to tensile forces when in service, is placed in tension before the concrete is poured around it. Once the concrete has hardened,
5238-423: The exceptions being The Gambia and Gibraltar . The Irish Free State did not participate either. The Exhibition's official aim was "to stimulate trade, strengthen bonds that bind mother Country to her Sister States and Daughters, to bring into closer contact the one with each other, to enable all who owe allegiance to the British flag to meet on common ground and learn to know each other". It cost £12 million and
5335-527: The exhibit, the left-leaning New Statesman mostly ignored it, and the Daily Herald condemned it, writing "to this debased spirit we owe many unnecessary wars, the loss of much valuable blood." The Exhibition is a key location in the P. G. Wodehouse short story, " The Rummy Affair of Old Biffy ", in which Sir Roderick Glossop describes it as "the most supremely absorbing and educational collection of objects, both animate and inanimate, gathered from
5432-527: The exhibition halls were intended to be temporary and demolished afterwards, but, partly because of the high cost of demolishing such huge concrete structures, the Palace of Engineering and the British Government Pavilion survived into the 1970s, and the Palace of Industry and the sacred art section of the Palace of Arts until the 2010s. At the suggestion of the chair of the exhibition committee, Scotsman Sir James Stevenson , and thanks to
5529-436: The first apart from the year being changed to 1925, was issued on 9 May 1925. A List of Great Britain commemorative stamps gives further details of British commemorative postage stamps. Envelopes, letter cards, postcards and many other souvenirs commemorating the event were produced as well. A significant number of medals were struck for the Exhibition, both by the organisers and by commercial organisations. Despite providing
5626-568: The first concrete buildings constructed in the United States was a private home designed by William Ward , completed in 1876. The home was particularly designed to be fireproof. G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron and steel concrete construction. In 1879, Wayss bought the German rights to Monier's patents and, in 1884, his firm, Wayss & Freytag , made the first commercial use of reinforced concrete. Up until
5723-427: The following. Reinforced concrete Reinforced concrete , also called ferroconcrete , is a composite material in which concrete 's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are compensated for by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength or ductility. The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars (known as rebar ) and is usually embedded passively in
5820-523: The four corners of the Empire, that has ever been assembled in England's history." Bertie Wooster is somewhat less impressed, remarking that "millions of people, no doubt, are so constituted that they scream with joy and excitement at the spectacle of a stuffed porcupine-fish or a glass jar of seeds from Western Australia – but not Bertram" and sneaks off to the Planters' Bar in the West Indian section for
5917-425: The interior to be viewed; it had been built in 1922. A few years later, it was named Wembley 1924 in honour of the exhibition. Ernest Baguley exhibited their 0-4-0 PM narrow-gauge locomotive No. 774 . The exhibition grounds contained commercial kiosks, run by newspapers, cigarette companies and other businesses. All these structures were designed by the architect Joseph Emberton and his team. One of
SECTION 60
#17327647635666014-413: The intervention of Arthur Elvin , who had been contracted to clear the exhibition site, the Empire Stadium was retained. It became Wembley Stadium , the home of Football in England until 2003, when it was demolished to be replaced by a new stadium . The British Empire Exhibition inevitably led to increased suburban development. An outfall sewer was built to serve the Exhibition and a number of roads in
6111-660: The knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, Ransome improved nearly all the styles and techniques of the earlier inventors of reinforced concrete. Ransome's key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar, thereby improving its bond with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings, Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America. One of his bridges still stands on Shelter Island in New Yorks East End, One of
6208-644: The largest kiosks was the Pears ' Palace of Beauty, selling souvenir soaps. It was located in the amusement park. The Palace of Beauty was white with two curved staircases leading up to a domed gazebo supported by columns. It was also an exhibition space containing 10 soundproofed, glass-fronted rooms, each containing an actress/model dressed as a beautiful woman from history, with accompanying reproduction furniture. The ten beauties were Helen of Troy , Cleopatra , Scheherazade , Dante's Beatrice , Elizabeth Woodville , Mary Queen of Scots , Nell Gwyn , Madame de Pompadour ,
6305-824: The light green color of its epoxy coating. Hot dip galvanized rebar may be bright or dull gray depending on length of exposure, and stainless rebar exhibits a typical white metallic sheen that is readily distinguishable from carbon steel reinforcing bar. Reference ASTM standard specifications A1035/A1035M Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Low-carbon, Chromium, Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, A767 Standard Specification for Hot Dip Galvanized Reinforcing Bars, A775 Standard Specification for Epoxy Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars and A955 Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Stainless Bars for Concrete Reinforcement. Another, cheaper way of protecting rebars
6402-438: The microscopic rigid lattice, resulting in cracking and separation of the concrete. For this reason, typical non-reinforced concrete must be well supported to prevent the development of tension. If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel , is placed in concrete, then the composite material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct tensile actions. A composite section where
6499-656: The most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures. Small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building. Without reinforcement, constructing modern structures with concrete material would not be possible. When reinforced concrete elements are used in construction, these reinforced concrete elements exhibit basic behavior when subjected to external loads . Reinforced concrete elements may be subject to tension , compression , bending , shear , and/or torsion . Concrete
6596-522: The paper industry, water power and Canada as a holiday destination, as well as, in the dairy industry section, a full sized figure of the Prince of Wales, the future Edward VIII , sculpted in butter and preserved in a refrigerated case. This pavilion was also flanked by smaller pavilions dedicated to the Canadian National and Canadian Pacific railways. The Dominion of Newfoundland pavilion
6693-448: The passivation of steel at the anodic oxidation sites. Nitrite is a much more active corrosion inhibitor than nitrate , which is a less powerful oxidizer of the divalent iron. A beam bends under bending moment , resulting in a small curvature. At the outer face (tensile face) of the curvature the concrete experiences tensile stress, while at the inner face (compressive face) it experiences compressive stress. A singly reinforced beam
6790-612: The pavilions, represented individual companies within the Empire, encouraging commercial opportunities. One such was the Pear's Palace of Beauty (see below). Since the Exhibition was the first major event after the war, many firms produced a glut of commemorative items for sale. The management of the exhibition asked the Imperial Studies Committee of the Royal Colonial Institute to assist them with
6887-433: The reinforced concrete element is subject to increasing bending moment, the tension steel yields while the concrete does not reach its ultimate failure condition. As the tension steel yields and stretches, an "under-reinforced" concrete also yields in a ductile manner, exhibiting a large deformation and warning before its ultimate failure. In this case the yield stress of the steel governs the design. An over-reinforced beam
6984-570: The restaurant." In 1925 Veeraswamy & Co ran the Indian restaurant, despite the fact that, for reasons both economic and political, the Indian Government did not take part in the 1925 season. Veeraswamy & Co later founded the first Indian restaurant aimed at a non-Anglo-Indian white clientele in England. After admission, most of the attractions in the grounds were free. They could also be explored after dark. The various buildings of
7081-475: The site were linked by two ' light railways ' of unusual construction, the screw-propelled "Never-Stop Railway". and the ' Roadrails ' line on which trains were hauled by steam or petrol tractors guided by the rails but with driving wheels running on the ground outside the track. Visitors could also travel in electric "Railodok" buses (little more than basic railway station luggage trolleys fitted with open-sided bodywork, but exciting nonetheless). The Stadium itself
7178-581: The size and location of cracks can be limited and controlled by appropriate reinforcement, control joints, curing methodology and concrete mix design. Cracking can allow moisture to penetrate and corrode the reinforcement. This is a serviceability failure in limit state design . Cracking is normally the result of an inadequate quantity of rebar, or rebar spaced at too great a distance. The concrete cracks either under excess loading, or due to internal effects such as early thermal shrinkage while it cures. Ultimate failure leading to collapse can be caused by crushing
7275-474: The structure will receive warning of impending collapse. The characteristic strength is the strength of a material where less than 5% of the specimen shows lower strength. The design strength or nominal strength is the strength of a material, including a material-safety factor. The value of the safety factor generally ranges from 0.75 to 0.85 in Permissible stress design . The ultimate limit state
7372-454: The tension on the reinforcing steel is released, placing a built-in compressive force on the concrete. When loads are applied, the reinforcing steel takes on more stress and the compressive force in the concrete is reduced, but does not become a tensile force. Since the concrete is always under compression, it is less subject to cracking and failure. Reinforced concrete can fail due to inadequate strength, leading to mechanical failure, or due to
7469-426: The time, the palaces of Industry and Engineering were world's largest reinforced concrete structures. The exhibition's roads were named by Rudyard Kipling . The site was also served by Britain's, and possibly the world's, first bus station , which could handle 100,000 passengers a day. The British Empire Exhibition was officially opened by King George V on 23 April 1924— Saint George's Day . The opening ceremony
7566-637: The various colonies of the European nations, as well as several permanent buildings. Among these were the Palais de la Porte Dorée , designed by architect Albert Laprode, which then housed the Musée permanent des Colonies, and serves today as the Cité nationale de l'histoire de l'immigration . The French Communist Party held an anti-colonial counter-exhibition near the 1931 Colonial Exhibition, titled The Truth About
7663-403: The water mix before pouring concrete. Generally, 1–2 wt. % of [Ca(NO 2 ) 2 ] with respect to cement weight is needed to prevent corrosion of the rebars. The nitrite anion is a mild oxidizer that oxidizes the soluble and mobile ferrous ions (Fe ) present at the surface of the corroding steel and causes them to precipitate as an insoluble ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH) 3 ). This causes
7760-574: The wings, tail and fuselage. The display involved firing blank ammunition into the stadium crowds and dropping pyrotechnics from the aeroplanes to simulate shrapnel from guns on the ground, Explosions on the ground also produced the effect of bombs being dropped into the stadium by the Aeroplanes . One of the Pilots in the display was Flying officer C. W. A. Scott who later became famous for breaking three England-Australia solo flight records and winning
7857-481: The world had ever seen. Like the stadium, the other exhibition buildings were designed by John William Simpson and Maxwell Ayrton, assisted by engineer Owen Williams . All three had considerable previous experience of using concrete. Nearly 2,000 men were employed in constructing the Exhibition buildings during 1923-4. The Indian pavilion had towers and domes, the West African pavilion looked like an Arab fort,
7954-641: Was a lake, a funfair, a garden and a working replica coal mine. There were also numerous restaurants, the most expensive of which was the Lucullus restaurant (in 1925 the Wembley Garden Club restaurant) near the exhibition gardens. In 1924 J. Lyons held a monopoly of catering, but the restaurant in the Indian Pavilion used Indian cooks and was advised by Edward Palmer "of Messrs. Veeraswami [sic] & Co." to serve as "Indian Adviser at
8051-443: Was broadcast by BBC Radio , the first such broadcast by a British monarch. The King also sent a telegram that travelled around the world in one minute 20 seconds before being given back to him by a messenger boy. Much of the Empire went on display at Wembley Park, but it had to be, of necessity, reduced to a "taster-sized" version. Of the 58 territories which composed the Empire at the time, 56 participated with displays and pavilions,
8148-459: Was cut on the site of the old tower on 10 January 1922. 250,000 tons of earth were then removed, and the new structure constructed within 10 months, opening well before the rest of the Exhibition was ready. Designed by John William Simpson and Maxwell Ayrton , and built by Sir Robert McAlpine , it could hold 125,000 people, 30,000 of them seated. The building was an unusual mix of Roman imperial and Mughal architecture . Although it incorporated
8245-404: Was granted a patent for reinforcing concrete flowerpots by means of mixing a wire mesh and a mortar shell. In 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders, using iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew that reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, it is not clear whether he even knew how much
8342-470: Was held in the Empire Stadium from 21 July 1924. The newly appointed Master of the King's Musick , Sir Edward Elgar , composed an " Empire March " for it and the music for a series of songs with words by Alfred Noyes . In August 1924, an Imperial Jamboree was held at Wembley, attended by 13,000 Boy Scouts from many parts of the empire, the largest Scout camp held anywhere at that time. The event included
8439-576: Was in some ways even truer in 1919. The country had economic problems and its naval supremacy was being challenged by two of its former allies, the USA and Japan . In 1917 Britain had committed itself eventually to leave India, which effectively signalled the end of the British Empires , while the Dominions had shown little interest in following British foreign policy since the war. It was hoped that
8536-476: Was joined in 1925 by GWR 4079 Pendennis Castle . Several other railway locomotives were exhibited: in 1925, the Southern Railway exhibited no. 866 of their N class , which was brand new, not entering service until 28 November 1925. The 1924 exhibition included a Prince of Wales class 4-6-0 locomotive of London & North Western Railway (LNWR) design, which had been built for the exhibition by
8633-610: Was located next to the HM Government building, and featured a bronze caribou, the emblem of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment . At the conclusion of the exhibition, the memorial was donated by Major William Howe Greene to the citizens of Newfoundland and displayed in Bowring Park . The Australian Pavilion displayed sheep-shearing andboasted a 16-foot diameter ball of Australian wool. It also featured
8730-481: Was mounted to promote participation in the Exhibition, with Agatha Christie and her husband among the participants. The British Empire Exhibition ran from April 1924 to April 1925, closing over the winter, and it made Wembley a household name. In 1919 the Prince of Wales (later Edward VIII ) had become the President of the organising committee for the proposed Exhibition at Wembley Park, north-west London, although
8827-622: Was rebuilt for the British Empire Exhibition and a new station, Exhibition Station (Wembley) , was built on a spur to connect the station to Marylebone . Exhibition station opened on 28 April 1923, the day of Wembley Stadium's first FA cup final . It was later renamed Wembley Exhibition, and then, in February 1928, Wembley Stadium. It was only really used to transport spectators to Wembley events. It stopped carrying passengers in May 1968 and officially closed on 1 September 1969. The Exhibition presented
8924-545: Was slightly smaller. It contained displays on the chemical industry, coal, metals, medicinal drugs, sewage disposal, food, drinks, tobacco, clothing, gramophones, gas and Nobel explosives. Surprisingly the Ulster Pavilion designed by Clough Williams-Ellis was located in the Palace of Industry. Each colony and dominion was assigned its own distinctive pavilion to reflect local culture and architecture. The Canada Pavilion contained displays on minerals, farming, forestry,
9021-422: Was strongly questioned by experts and recommendations for "pure" concrete construction were made, using reinforced concrete for the floors and walls as well as the frames. In April 1904, Julia Morgan , an American architect and engineer, who pioneered the aesthetic use of reinforced concrete, completed her first reinforced concrete structure, El Campanil, a 72-foot (22 m) bell tower at Mills College , which
9118-735: Was the largest exhibition ever staged anywhere in the world. It attracted 27 million visitors. Admission cost 1s 6d ( 7 + 1 ⁄ 2 p) for adults and 9d ( 3 + 3 ⁄ 4 p) for children. The Palace of Engineering (in 1925 the Palace of Housing & Transport) was the largest exhibition building. It contained a crane capable of moving 25 tons (a practical necessity, not an exhibit) and contained displays on engineering, shipbuilding, electric power, motor vehicles, railways (including locomotives, see below), metallurgy and telegraphs and wireless. In 1925 there seems to have been less emphasis on things that could also be classified as Industry, with instead more on housing and aircraft. The Palace of Industry
9215-631: Was the progeny of 25 years of similar exhibitions held in Melbourne , in which other colonies within the Australian continent participated. Perhaps the most notable colonial exhibition was the 1931 Paris Colonial Exposition , which lasted six months and sold 33 million tickets. Paris's Colonial Exhibition opened on 6 May 1931 on 110 hectares (272 acres) of the Bois de Vincennes . The exhibition included dozens of temporary museums and façades representing
9312-559: Was the world's biggest outdoor failure, costing the UK Government $ 90 million (over £20 million based on the exchange rates at the time). Two of the most popular attractions were US dodgem cars and a copy of the tomb of Tutankhamen . Both of these were in the funfair, with the tomb there because the Kingdom of Egypt was no longer a British Protectorate, having been officially independent since 1922 (although in practice still in
9409-463: Was used extensively for performances by massed bands and choirs, military and historical displays, an Edinburgh-like tattoo , fireworks, the first Rugby Union match to be played at Wembley, a simulation of an air attack on London (London Defended, see below) and a genuine rodeo which caused some alarm to animal lovers. A highlight was the elaborate " Pageant of Empire " organised by pageant master Frank Lascelles . This involved thousands of actors and
#565434