128-603: Universities in the United Kingdom have generally been instituted by royal charter , papal bull , Act of Parliament , or an instrument of government under the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 or the Higher Education and Research Act 2017 . Degree awarding powers and the ' university ' title are protected by law, although the precise arrangements for gaining these vary between the constituent countries of
256-419: A joint stock company under the name of London University. Due to its lack of theology teaching, its willingness to grant degrees (if it were given this power) to non-Anglicans, and its unauthorised assumption of the title of "university", this inspired calls in 1827 for the foundation of a 'true and genuine "London University"' by royal charter, to be known (in the same manner as Edinburgh was officially known as
384-481: A "College, with the style and privileges of an University", in 1827. The college was reconstituted as the University of New Brunswick by an act of the provincial parliament in 1859. The University of Toronto was founded by royal charter in 1827, under the name of King's College , as a "College, with the style and privileges of an University", but did not open until 1843. The charter was subsequently revoked and
512-470: A Master's degree typically range from £10,000 to £35,000, with the subject and the university's ranking being the main determinants. In the academic year 2022/23, tuition fees from non-UK students amounted to a total of £11.8 billion across all universities, equal to 46% of all higher education course fees, and nearly 23% of total university income, with some universities earning as much as three quarters of their fees from international students. Universities in
640-639: A charter in 1446, although this was not recorded in the rolls of chancery and was lost in the 18th century. A later charter united the barbers with the (previously unincorporated) surgeons in 1577. The Royal College of Physicians of Ireland was established by royal charter in 1667 and the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland , which evolved from the Barbers' Guild in Dublin, in 1784. The Royal Society
768-574: A charter was to be granted to the London University, officially recognising it as a university and thus enabling it to award degrees. Cambridge voted to petition the King not to allow the awarding of degrees with the same name as theirs or Oxford's. The charter was blocked. Then, later in 1831, a plan was announced to found a university in Durham. Grey's government supported the bill to establish
896-548: A college of the University of London. In 2018, The Guardian reported that hundreds of academics has been accused of bullying students and colleagues, leading to calls from Venki Ramakrishnan , president of the Royal Society , for an overhaul of workplace practices in universities and from Fiona Watt , chair of the Medical Research Council , for an annual national audit of bullying incidents. In
1024-457: A confederal structure in 2007 before being essentially dissolved following a series of scandals in 2011. In 2007, Imperial College left the University of London, raising fears about the future of that federal institution. However, it has survived and attracted new members, although many of the larger colleges now award their own degrees. In 2016, City University , London was the first institute to voluntarily surrender university status when it became
1152-427: A constituent institution of a university (although the University of Wales, Lampeter held degree awarding powers, these were granted prior to it joining the federal university). Over the next decade, all of the constituent institutions of the University of Wales and many of those of the University of London gained their own degree awarding powers. In 2005, Cardiff University left the University of Wales, which shifted to
1280-579: A few years later, as did Dartmouth's charter. The charter of Rutger uses quite different words, specifying that it may "confer all such honorary degrees as usually are granted and conferred in any of our colleges in any of our colonies in America". Of the other colleges founded prior to the American Revolution, Harvard College was established in 1636 by Act of the Great and General Court of
1408-592: A growing mindset among senior administrators that is preoccupied with marketing and corporate-like measures of "success." In 2010, the government voted to raise the amount universities can charge for undergraduate tuition fees (for England only) to between £6,000 – £9,000 per year though most charge the maximum. In 2016, the government raised the cap on tuition fees to £9,250 from 2017, with tuition fees expected to continue rising in increments. In recent years, tuition fees charged from foreign students have become an important source of university income. International fees for
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#17327659227081536-603: A large expansion in the number of universities in the UK with eight universities, known as the plateglass universities , established as new institutions rather than from earlier university colleges, a number of other institutions that had not been university colleges promoted directly to university status following the Robbins Report in 1963, and the Open University founded as a distance-learning University. In 1973,
1664-501: A mark of distinction". The use of royal charters to incorporate organisations gave rise to the concept of the "corporation by prescription". This enabled corporations that had existed from time immemorial to be recognised as incorporated via the legal fiction of a "lost charter". Examples of corporations by prescription include Oxford and Cambridge universities. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , of
1792-566: A mission to London by college representatives, these were either provincial charters granted by local governors (acting in the name of the king) or charters granted by legislative acts from local assemblies. The first charters to be issued by a colonial governor on the consent of their council (rather than by an act of legislation) were those granted to Princeton University (as the College of New Jersey) in 1746 (from acting governor John Hamilton ) and 1748 (from Governor Jonathan Belcher ). There
1920-526: A new building was completed to the design of William Butterfield , to provide two large lecture rooms. This still stands to the south of the priory and is known as the New College Halls. Ainger was principal until 1871, when he moved to be vicar of Rothbury . The new principal was Canon E H Knowles, who had been a mathematics and classics master at St Bees School from 1843 to 1864, then headmaster of Kenilworth Grammar School. He had close ties with
2048-403: A number of supplemental charters, London was reconstituted by Act of Parliament in 1898. The Queen's Colleges in Ireland, at Belfast , Cork , and Galway , were established by royal charter in 1845, as colleges without degree awarding powers. The Queens University of Ireland received its royal charter in 1850, stating "We do will, order, constitute, ordain and found an University ... and
2176-633: A right or power to an individual or a body corporate . They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as boroughs (with municipal charters ), universities and learned societies . Charters should be distinguished from royal warrants of appointment , grants of arms and other forms of letters patent, such as those granting an organisation the right to use the word "royal" in their name or granting city status , which do not have legislative effect. The British monarchy has issued over 1,000 royal charters . Of these about 750 remain in existence. The earliest charter recorded on
2304-566: A royal charter in 1802, naming it, like Trinity College, Dublin, "the Mother of an University" and granting it the power to award degrees. The charter remains in force. McGill University was established under the name of McGill College in 1821, by a provincial royal charter issued by Governor General of British North America the Earl of Dalhousie ; the charter stating that the "College shall be deemed and taken to be an University" and should have
2432-475: A say in how the University of London was run, alongside a campaign for a "teaching university" for London. Royal commissions were held and a charter was drawn up for the "Albert University" that would have seen the two colleges leave the University of London and form a federal body, like the colleges of the Victoria University. In the end it was decided to reform the University of London itself, this
2560-478: A severe problem with the shortage of new good clergy in his large and growing diocese. He had local connections with West Cumbria, and on a visit in 1816 saw an opportunity to found a college for training of ordinands at St Bees. The Lowthers had become very rich through their extensive coal mines in Whitehaven , but were now in a difficult position. They had manipulated the governors of St Bees School to lease
2688-700: A subsequent charter in 1408. Royal charters gave the first regulation of medicine in Great Britain and Ireland. The Barbers Company of London in 1462, received the earliest recorded charters concerning medicine or surgery, charging them with the superintendence, scrutiny, correction and governance of surgery. A further charter in 1540 to the London Guild – renamed the Company of Barber-Surgeons – specified separate classes of surgeons, barber-surgeons, and barbers. The London Company of Surgeons separated from
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#17327659227082816-486: A subsidised student loan of £1,685 (£2,085 in London) was available. Instead of following Dearing's suggestions, the grant was replaced by the present loan scheme, introduced for students starting in 1998. There was a transition year when about half the previous means-tested grant was available, though they still had to pay the new £1,000 tuition fee. From 1999, the grant was abolished altogether. The abolition of tuition fees
2944-569: A system of student loans was introduced to provide for additional funding. Initially loans of up to £420 were available, and could be taken out by all students. The costs of tuition continued to be met in full for all domestic students. Following an investigation into the future of universities, the July 1997 report of the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education , chaired by the then Sir Ronald (later Lord) Dearing recommended
3072-457: A theological institution. However, the college prospered immediately, with numbers rising to 36 admissions in 1822. Ainger had to work alone until 1826, when the increasing scope of the training course obliged him to take on an assistant, the Rev. Richard Parkinson, and to double the fees to £10 a term. Although Ainger also carried out all the duties of a parish priest, he had the time and energy to make
3200-480: A university (St David's College, Lampeter, held limited degree awarding power from the mid 19th century, but could only award BA and BD degrees). Between 1948 ( Nottingham ) and 1967 ( Dundee ) all of the university colleges (except those that had become colleges of the University of London) achieved independent university status. Newcastle University is notable for having been made a university in 1963 by Act of Parliament rather than by royal charter. The 1960s saw
3328-585: A university between the wars. New university colleges were set up in Swansea (1920), Leicester (1921), Exeter (1922) and Hull (1927). After the Second World War, there was an enormous expansion in the demand for higher education. A final public university college was set up in Keele in 1949; this was the first university college to receive full degree awarding powers as a college rather than on becoming
3456-639: A university or to purport to offer UK degrees without authorisation. Higher education is a devolved power, so the rules for degree awarding powers and university title differ between the four countries of the United Kingdom. In Scotland and Northern Ireland the last UK national standards (from 1999) still apply. Institutions may hold taught degree awarding powers, allowing them to award ordinary and honours bachelor's degrees and taught master's degrees, and research degree awarding powers, allowing them additionally to award master's degrees by research and doctoral degrees. Institutions with taught degree powers may be awarded
3584-476: A university. Standards were rising, and in 1893 the bishops of the Church of England agreed that a common entrance exam must be taken before non-graduates could enter a theological college. This dramatically affected the numbers at St Bees as it channelled theological candidates down the graduate route, which St Bees was unable to support. In addition it was still a private institution, and was run at financial risk by
3712-577: Is also humbly submitted that although our Royal Assent to the Act of Legislature of New South Wales hereinbefore recited fully satisfies the principle of our law that the power of granting degrees should flow from the Crown, yet that as that assent was conveyed through an Act which has effect only in the territory of New South Wales, the Memorialists believe that the degrees granted by the said University under
3840-509: Is hereby constituted and founded a University" and granted an explicit power of awarding degrees (except in medicine, added by supplemental charter in 1883). From then until 1992, all universities in the United Kingdom were created by royal charter except for Newcastle University , which was separated from Durham via an Act of Parliament. Following the independence of the Republic of Ireland , new universities there have been created by Acts of
3968-950: The Department for Education is the Minister of State for Skills, Apprenticeships and Higher Education , currently Robert Halfon . Universities in Britain date back to the dawn of mediaeval studium generale , with Oxford and Cambridge taking their place among the world's oldest universities . No other universities were successfully founded in England during this period; opposition from Oxford and Cambridge blocked attempts to establish universities in Northampton and Stamford . Medical schools in London (i.e., Barts and St Thomas's ), though not universities in their own right, were among
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4096-573: The Jagiellonian University (1364; papal confirmation the same year) by Casimir III of Poland ; the University of Vienna (1365; Papal confirmation the same year) by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria ; the University of Caen (1432; Papal confirmation 1437) by Henry VI of England ; the University of Girona (1446; no confirmation) and the University of Barcelona (1450; papal confirmation the same year), both by Alfonso V of Aragon ;
4224-745: The Oireachtas (Irish Parliament). Since 1992, most new universities in the UK have been created by Orders of Council as secondary legislation under the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 , although granting degree-awarding powers and university status to colleges incorporated by royal charter is done via an amendment to their charter. Several of the colonial colleges that predate the American Revolution are described as having been established by royal charter. Except for The College of William & Mary , which received its charter from King William III and Queen Mary II in 1693 following
4352-896: The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O), the British South Africa Company , and some of the former British colonies on the North American mainland , City livery companies , the Bank of England and the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC; see BBC Charter ). Between the 14th and 19th centuries, royal charters were used to create chartered companies – for-profit ventures with shareholders, used for exploration, trade and colonisation. Early charters to such companies often granted trade monopolies, but this power
4480-484: The Royal Irish Academy was established in 1785 and received its royal charter in 1786. St Bees Theological College St Bees Theological College , close to the coast of Cumberland , was the first independent theological college to be established for the training of Church of England ordinands . It was founded in 1816 by George Henry Law , Bishop of Chester , in what was during those years
4608-681: The University of Aberdeen ) in 1494. Following the Reformation, establishment of universities and colleges by royal charter became the norm. The University of Edinburgh was founded under the authority of a royal charter granted to the Edinburgh town council in 1582 by James VI as the "town's college". Trinity College Dublin was established by a royal charter of Elizabeth I (as Queen of Ireland ) in 1593. Both of these charters were given in Latin . The Edinburgh charter gave permission for
4736-461: The University of Buckingham . A major change to UK higher education occurred in 1992 with the abolition of the "binary divide" between universities and polytechnics . By the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 , the polytechnics and the Scottish central institutions all became universities. These post-1992 (or "new") institutions nearly doubled the number of universities in the UK. In 1993,
4864-472: The University of Valence (1452; papal confirmation 1459) by the Dauphin Louis (later Louis XI of France ); and the University of Palma (1483; no confirmation) by Ferdinand II of Aragon . Both Oxford and Cambridge received royal charters during the 13th century. However, these charters were not concerned with academic matters or their status as universities but rather about the exclusive right of
4992-512: The University of Westminster ) opened at 309 Regent Street, London, in August 1838, to provide "practical knowledge of the various arts and branches of science connected with manufacturers, mining operations and rural economy". Very soon after news of the York scheme broke, Thomas Campbell wrote to The Times proposing a university be founded in London. This would become UCL , founded in 1826 as
5120-476: The 81 universities established in pre-Reformation Europe, 13 were established ex consuetudine without any form of charter, 33 by Papal bull alone, 20 by both Papal bull and imperial or royal charter, and 15 by imperial or royal charter alone. Universities established solely by royal (as distinct from imperial) charter did not have the same international recognition – their degrees were only valid within that kingdom. The first university to be founded by charter
5248-622: The British Empire. The University of Sydney obtained a royal charter in 1858. This stated that (emphasis in the original): the Memorialists confidently hope that the Graduates of the University of Sydney will not be inferior in scholastic requirements to the majority of Graduates of British Universities, and that it is desirable to have the degrees of the University of Sydney generally recognised throughout our dominions; and it
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5376-573: The British Isles until the 19th century. The 1820s saw two colleges receive royal charters: St David's College, Lampeter in 1828 and King's College London in 1829. Neither of these were granted degree-awarding powers or university status in their original charters. The 1830s saw an attempt by University College London to gain a charter as a university and the creation by Act of Parliament of Durham University , but without incorporating it or granting any specific powers. These led to debate about
5504-523: The Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors , in 2014. Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to grant rights and privileges to towns, boroughs and cities. During the 14th and 15th century the concept of incorporation of a municipality by royal charter evolved. Royal charters were used in England to make the most formal grants of various rights, titles, etc. until
5632-459: The College of King James VI) as "The College of King George IV in London". This became King's College London , granted a royal charter in 1829 – but as a college rather than a university. UCL was revolutionary not just in admitting non-Anglicans (indeed non-Anglicans were allowed to study at Cambridge, but not to take degrees, and UCL could not grant them degrees); it also pioneered the study of modern languages and of geography, as well as appointing
5760-558: The Commonwealth was successfully opposed by Oxford and Cambridge. Gresham College was, however, established in London in the late 16th century, despite concerns expressed by Cambridge. In Ireland, Trinity College Dublin was founded as "the mother of a University" by a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth. The 18th century saw the establishment of medical schools at Edinburgh and Glasgow universities and at hospitals in London. A number of dissenting academies were also established. But
5888-563: The First World War to open up the London medical schools. By the end of the 19th century, the only British universities not granting degrees to women were Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin. Non-Anglicans were admitted to degrees at Oxford in 1854, Cambridge in 1856 and Durham in 1865. The remaining tests were (except in theology) removed by the Universities Tests Act 1871 , allowing non-Anglicans to become full members of
6016-643: The Massachusetts Bay Colony and incorporated in 1650 by a charter from the same body, Yale University was established in 1701 by Act of the General Assembly of Connecticut, the University of Pennsylvania received a charter from the proprietors of the colony in 1753, Brown University was established in 1764 (as the College of Rhode Island) by an Act of the Governor and General Assembly of Rhode Island, and Hampden-Sydney College
6144-705: The Royal University of Ireland, an examining board after the pattern of the University of London. The first women's college was Bedford College in London, which opened in 1849. It was followed by Royal Holloway (with which it merged in the 1980s) and the London School of Medicine for Women in London and colleges in Oxford and Cambridge. After London opened its degrees to women in 1878, UCL opened its courses in Arts, Law and Science to women, although it took
6272-682: The UK government's list was granted to the University of Cambridge by Henry III of England in 1231, although older charters are known to have existed including to the Worshipful Company of Weavers in England in 1150 and to the town of Tain in Scotland in 1066. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown , a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute of Legal Executives (CILEX), and
6400-442: The United Kingdom do not have a coherent system of funding or governance, and both remain heavily debated. A growing body of other legal rights, for instance, for staff in reasonable expectations of fair procedure, or for students in fairness over the awarding of degrees, has grown through judicial review . Both degree awarding powers and university title are controlled under UK law, and it is illegal for an institution to call itself
6528-694: The United Kingdom under a Royal Charter or an Imperial enactment. The charter went on to (emphasis in the original): will, grant and declare that the Degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Master of Arts, Bachelor of Laws, Doctor of Laws, Bachelor of Medicine, and Doctor of Medicine, already granted or conferred or hereafter to be granted or conferred by the Senate of the said University of Sydney shall be recognised as Academic distinctions and rewards of merit and be entitled to rank, precedence, and consideration in our United Kingdom and in our Colonies and possessions throughout
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#17327659227086656-505: The United Kingdom. Institutions that hold degree awarding powers are termed recognised bodies , this list includes all universities, university colleges and colleges of the University of London , some higher education colleges, and the Archbishop of Canterbury . Degree courses may also be provided at listed bodies , leading to degrees validated by a recognised body. Undergraduate applications to almost all UK universities are managed by
6784-610: The Universities and Colleges Admissions Service ( UCAS ). While legally, 'university' refers to an institution that has been granted the right to use the title, in common usage it now normally includes colleges of the University of London, including in official documents such as the Dearing Report . The representative bodies for higher education providers in the United Kingdom are Universities UK , GuildHE and Independent Higher Education . The responsible minister within
6912-480: The University College at Buckingham was established as a private sector, non-profit college, opening in 1976. It awarded "licences" that were externally examined in the same manner as degrees, rather than being associated with the University of London or another parent university like the earlier university colleges. In 1983, it became the UK's first private university after being granted a royal charter as
7040-445: The University of London underwent a major shake-up, with the larger colleges being granted direct access to government funding and the right to confer University of London degrees themselves. This was a major step towards their being recognised generally as de facto universities. In 1997, Cardiff University (then the University of Wales, Cardiff) was granted degree awarding powers. This was the first time such powers had been granted to
7168-414: The University of Toronto, Trinity College , was incorporated by an act of the legislature in 1851 and received a royal charter in 1852, stating that it, "shall be a University and shall have and enjoy all such and the like privileges as are enjoyed by our Universities of our United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". Queen's University was established by royal charter in 1841. This remains in force as
7296-602: The advice of the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA). Royal charter Philosophers Works A royal charter is a formal grant issued by a monarch under royal prerogative as letters patent . Historically, they have been used to promulgate public laws , the most famous example being the English Magna Carta (great charter) of 1215, but since the 14th century have only been used in place of private acts to grant
7424-543: The assembly rather than risking it rejecting the charter. Rutgers University received its (as Queen's College) in 1766 (and a second charter in 1770) from Governor William Franklin of New Jersey, and Dartmouth College received its in 1769 from Governor John Wentworth of New Hampshire. The case of Dartmouth College v. Woodward , heard before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1818, centred on
7552-447: The authorities in London did not wish to allow this. A further petition for the power to award degrees to women was rejected in 1878 – the same year that London was granted that authority. A charter was finally granted – admitting women to degrees – in 1881. The last of Australia's 19th century universities, the University of Tasmania , was established in 1890 and obtained a royal charter in 1915. Guilds and livery companies are among
7680-469: The authority of the said Act, are not legally entitled to recognition beyond the limits of New South Wales ; and the Memorialists are in consequence most desirous to obtain a grant from us of Letters Patent requiring all our subjects to recognise the degrees given under the Act of the Local Legislature in the same manner as if the said University of Sydney had been an University established within
7808-510: The barbers in 1745, eventually leading to the establishment of the Royal College of Surgeons by royal charter in 1800. The Royal College of Physicians of London was established by royal charter in 1518 and charged with regulating the practice of medicine in the City of London and within seven miles of the city. The Barbers Guild (the Gild of St Mary Magdalen ) in Dublin is said to have received
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#17327659227087936-399: The building of a college at St Bees. The Lowthers offered to restore the ruined chancel of the monastic church to house the college, and donated land for a vicarage. They offered to Bishop Law the patronage of the living, which they held, so that the principal of the new college would also be the vicar of St Bees. Law grasped this opportunity, and so was born St Bees Theological College. This
8064-465: The college and buildings. He proposed to incorporate the college with a charter, so it could confer degrees, and to build residential accommodation. Parkinson offered to donate £5,000 personally. However, he would not surrender power to a proposed governing council of clergy and laity, and consequently the scheme failed. Had the college progressed in this way, it may well have survived into the 20th century. Instead, Parkinson applied his energies to extending
8192-508: The college, also named it as "mother of a University", and rather than granting the college degree-awarding powers stated that "the students on this College ... shall have liberty and power to obtain degrees of Bachelor, Master, and Doctor, at a suitable time, in all arts and faculties". Thus the University of Dublin was also brought into existence by this charter, as the body that awards the degrees earned by students at Trinity College. Following this, no surviving universities were created in
8320-486: The college, having married Revd. G. H. Ainger's sister. College numbers initially dropped during the 1870s but picked up again in the 1880s, with a maximum yearly intake of 47 in 1883. However, although St Bees College had been a pioneering institution, the rest of the country had caught up. There were now numerous theological colleges modelled on the St Bees example, but mainly in large cities and affiliated in some way to
8448-485: The duties of the vicar, the college was effectively a private business. Perhaps surprisingly, the college offered no accommodation, and students lodged in the village. Students had a very good chance of employment in the Diocese of Chester , and the cost of living and fees were much lower than at the two universities. The first principal, William Ainger, was only 31 when appointed, and had no previous experience of running
8576-713: The earliest organisations recorded as receiving royal charters. The Privy Council list has the Saddlers Company in 1272 as the earliest, followed by the Merchant Taylors Company in 1326 and the Skinners Company in 1327. The earliest charter to the Saddlers Company gave them authority over the saddlers trade; it was not until 1395 that they received a charter of incorporation. The Merchant Taylors were similarly incorporated by
8704-478: The ending of universal free higher education, and that students should pay £1,000 towards the cost of their tuition fees, which would be recovered in the form of a graduate tax. Tuition fees were introduced in 1998, raised to £3,000 a year in 2006, and passed £9,000 a year by 2012. At the time of the Dearing Report, tuition fees were still paid in full by the local education authorities, student grants of up to £1,755 (£2,160 in London) were linked to family income, and
8832-425: The establishment of the Queen's University of Ireland in 1850 as a federal university encompassing the three colleges. In response, the Catholic University of Ireland (never recognised as a university by the British state, although granted degree awarding power by the Pope) was established in Dublin by the Catholic Church. This eventually led to the dissolution of the Queen's University in 1879 and its replacement by
8960-404: The existing loan. In fact, there is very little variation in the tuition fees charged by universities—nearly all charge the maximum tuition fee on all courses. Instead, the differences appear in the nature and value of various 'access' bursaries that are on offer. There has been considerable debate since the 1980s about the tendency toward vocationalism and the decline in the humanities, as well as
9088-425: The first Professor of English Language and Literature, although the study of English Literature as a distinct subject was pioneered by King's College London. Neither of the colleges was residential – a break from the two ancient English universities, although non-residential universities were the norm in Scotland. In 1830, a Whig government was elected with Earl Grey as Prime Minister, and in early 1831 news broke that
9216-429: The first to provide medical teaching in England. In Scotland, St Andrew's , Glasgow and King's College, Aberdeen were founded by papal bull . Post-Reformation, these were joined by Edinburgh , Marischal College, Aberdeen , and the short-lived Fraserburgh University . In England, meanwhile, Henry VIII's plan to found a university in Durham came to nothing and a later attempt to found a university at Durham during
9344-513: The institution replaced by the University of Toronto in 1849, under provincial legislation. Victoria University , a college of the University of Toronto, opened in 1832 under the name of the Upper Canada Academy , giving "pre-university" classes. and received a royal charter in 1836. In 1841. a provincial act replaced the charter, reconstituted the academy as Victoria College, and granted it degree-awarding powers. Another college of
9472-714: The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw the arrival of Catholic seminaries driven from the continent by the French Revolution and the establishment of the St Bees Theological College to train Anglican priests in 1816. The first Anglican college to move beyond specialist training to provide a more general university education in Arts was in Wales: St David's College, Lampeter (now part of the University of Wales, Trinity Saint David )
9600-498: The lucrative mineral rights of Whitehaven from St Bees School for a derisory amount by means of a forged document. This was now coming to light, mainly through the efforts of the Rev W Wilson, headmaster of St Bees School, who whistle-blew, but was sacked for his pains in 1816. But the story was out, and the Lowthers were anxious for an opportunity to restore their reputation. They were receptive to Bishop Law's suggestion that they fund
9728-631: The next attempt to found a university did not come until the Andersonian Institute (now Strathclyde University ) was established in Glasgow in 1798. The French Revolution and the ensuing Napoleonic wars led to over 40% of universities in Europe closing. From 153 universities in 1789, numbers fell to only 83 in 1815. The next quarter century saw a rebound, with 15 new universities founded, bringing numbers back to 98 by 1840. In England,
9856-428: The northern extremity of his diocese . For many subsequent years the vicar of St Bees was effectively both the principal of the college and also its proprietor. The college drew students both from England and from Wales. It catered particularly for those prospective ordinands for whom the cost of a traditional university degree course would have been prohibitive. They attended lectures and had their library within
9984-587: The other colleges formed the National University of Ireland , replacing the Royal University. The First World War caused financial crises in many British universities and university colleges. This led to the formation of the University Grants Committee after the war, with Oxford, Cambridge and the Durham division of Durham University finally accepting government funding. Only one institution, Reading University (1926), became
10112-479: The papacy an explicit grant of the ius ubique docendi , but it is generally considered that the right is implied in the terms of John XXII's letter of 1318 concerning Cambridge's status as a studium generale." UCL was incorporated by royal charter in 1836, but without university status or degree-awarding powers, which went instead to the University of London , created by royal charter with the explicit power to grant degrees in Arts, Law and Medicine. Durham University
10240-503: The possibility of degrees for many students who would not previously have attended a university. Another big step came in 1858 when the system of affiliated colleges was abandoned and London degrees were opened to any man who passed the examination. From 1878, University of London degrees were opened to women – the first in the United Kingdom. In 1845, Queen's Colleges were established across Ireland: in Belfast, Cork and Galway, followed by
10368-441: The power of universities, including the power to award specific degrees, had always been explicitly granted historically, thus creating a university did not implicitly grant degree-awarding powers. Other historians, however, disagree with Hamilton on the point of whether implicit grants of privileges were made, particularly with regard to the ius ubique docendi – the important privilege of granting universally-recognised degrees that
10496-630: The power to award degrees in theology due to the secular nature of the institute. Sir Charles Wetherell , arguing against the grant of a royal charter to UCL before the Privy Council in 1835, argued for degree-awarding powers being an essential part of a university that could not be limited by charter. Sir William Hamilton , wrote a response to Wetherell in the Edinburgh Review , drawing in Durham University and arguing that
10624-482: The power to grant degrees. It was reconstituted by a royal charter issued in 1852 by Queen Victoria , which remains in force. The University of New Brunswick was founded in 1785 as the Academy of Liberal Arts and Sciences and received a provincial charter as the College of New Brunswick in 1800. In the 1820s, it began giving university-level instruction and received a royal charter under the name King's College as
10752-412: The powers of royal charters and what was implicit to a university. The essence of the debate was firstly whether the power to award degrees was incidental to the creation of a university or needed to be explicitly granted and secondly whether a royal charter could, if the power to award degrees was incidental, limit that power – UCL wishing to be granted a royal charter as "London University" but excluding
10880-484: The principal. Consequently, Knowles, who was now 75, decided to give notice to close the college in December 1895. St Bees Theological College had an productive and influential life in the history of the Church of England. It trained over 2,600 clergy for the ministry, and had been the model for the new breed of theological colleges. However, the seeds of failure were sown because of its remote geographical position, and
11008-465: The rebuilt chancel of St Bees Priory , whilst living in lodgings throughout the parish. Over 2,600 clergy are believed to have trained at the college during the course of its history. Lacking an adequate corporate administrative and financial basis, and also suffering from a loss of much individual interest from subsequent bishops of Chester and bishops of Carlisle , the theological college finally closed in 1895. Bishop George Henry Law of Chester had
11136-488: The refusal of Parkinson to allow it to come fully under Church management. The closure of the college resulted in three substantial halls becoming available for parochial use. The original lecture room, in the re-roofed monastic chancel, known as the Old College Hall, has had various uses, including as a music room by St Bees School , with which the college has sometimes been confused. It was restored in 2012 and
11264-839: The reign of Henry VIII , with letters patent being used for less solemn grants. After the eighth year of Henry VIII, all grants under the Great Seal were issued as letters patent. Among the past and present groups formed by royal charter are the Company of Merchants of the Staple of England (13th century), the British East India Company (1600), the Hudson's Bay Company , the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China (since merged into Standard Chartered ),
11392-402: The reputation of the college grow. Shortly before Ainger's death in 1840 at the age of 55, St Bees College was mentioned specifically in national legislation along with Oxford and Cambridge, Durham and St David's College, Lampeter . Ainger's successor was the Rev. Richard Buddicom, aged 60, who had quite a different theological standpoint and came from the evangelical wing of the church. He
11520-745: The right to award degrees. However, the Latin text of the charter uses studium generale – the technical term used in the Middle Ages for a university –where the English text has "place of universal study"; it has been argued that this granted William and Mary the rights and status of a university. The Princeton charter, however, specified that the college could "give and grant any such degree and degrees ... as are usually granted in either of our universities or any other college in our realm of Great Britain". Columbia's charter used very similar language
11648-589: The same shall possess and exercise the full powers of granting all such Degrees as are granted by other Universities or Colleges in the faculties of Arts, Medicine and Law". This served as the degree awarding body for the Queen's Colleges until it was replaced by the Royal University of Ireland . The royal charter of the Victoria University in 1880 started explicitly that "There shall be and
11776-486: The start, Aberystwyth (1872), Leeds (1874), Bristol (1876), Sheffield (1879), Mason College, Birmingham (1880), Dundee (1881), Liverpool (1881), Nottingham (1881), Cardiff (1883), and Bangor (1884). With the exceptions of Newcastle (associated with Durham) and Dundee (associated with St Andrews), all of the university colleges prepared their students for London degrees. In the late 1870s, Owens College applied for university status. After objections by other civic colleges, it
11904-609: The status of the college's royal charter. The court found in 1819 that the charter was a contract under the Contract Clause of the US Constitution, meaning that it could not be impaired by state legislation, and that it had not been dissolved by the revolution. The charter for the College of William and Mary specified it to be a "place of universal study, or perpetual college, for divinity, philosophy, languages and other good arts and sciences", but made no mention of
12032-473: The title of "university college", but for university title an institution must hold research degree awarding powers, as well as having over 4,000 full-time equivalent (FTE) students, with over 3,000 on degree -level courses and at least 500 higher education students in each of five broad subject areas. For both degree awarding powers and university title, the final decision is made by the Privy Council on
12160-478: The town council "to build and to repair sufficient houses and places for the reception, habitation and teaching of professors of the schools of grammar, the humanities and languages, philosophy, theology, medicine and law, or whichever liberal arts which we declare detract in no way from the aforesaid mortification" and granted them the right to appoint and remove professors. But, as concluded by Edinburgh's principal, Sir Alexander Grant , in his tercentenary history of
12288-583: The universities of Manchester , Leeds , and Liverpool , and the colleges in Sheffield and Bristol also gained university status as the University of Sheffield and the University of Bristol . The last of the original provincial university colleges, in Newcastle, remained connected to the University of Durham, but moved to a federal structure with equal Newcastle and Durham divisions. In Ireland, Queen's College Belfast became Queen's University Belfast , and
12416-493: The universities to teach, the powers of the chancellors' courts to rule on disputes involving students, and fixing rents and interest rates. The University of Cambridge was confirmed by a papal bull in 1317 or 1318, but despite repeated attempts, the University of Oxford never received such confirmation. The three pre-Reformation Scottish universities were all established by papal bulls: St Andrews in 1413; Glasgow in 1451; and King's College, Aberdeen (which later became
12544-480: The university (membership of Convocation at Oxford and Durham or the Senate at Cambridge) and to hold teaching positions. An Act of Parliament was passed in 1858 that modernised the constitutions of all of the Scottish universities. Under this Act, the two universities in Aberdeen were united into the University of Aberdeen (explicitly preserving the foundation date of King's College) and the University of Edinburgh
12672-450: The university population rose during the 1980s the sums paid to universities became linked to their performance and efficiency, and by the mid-1990s funding per student had dropped by 40% since the mid-1970s, while numbers of full-time students had reached around 2,000,000 (around a third of the age group), up from around 1,300,000. In 1989, the levels of maintenance grants were frozen at £2,265 – which since 1985 had been means tested – but
12800-459: The university's primary constitutional document and was last amended, through the Canadian federal parliament, in 2011. Université Laval was founded by royal charter in 1852, which granted it degree awarding powers and started that it would, "have, possess, and enjoy all such and the like privileges as are enjoyed by our Universities of our United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". This
12928-498: The university, "Obviously this is no charter founding a university". Instead, he proposed, citing multiple pieces of evidence, that the surviving charter was original granted alongside a second charter founding the college, which was subsequently lost (possibly deliberately). This would also explain the source of Edinburgh's degree awarding powers, which were used from the foundation of the college. The royal charter of Trinity College Dublin, while being straightforward in incorporating
13056-612: The university, despite it limiting its degrees to Anglicans. Thus the University of Durham was established by Act of Parliament in 1832, and opened in 1833. In 1836 it pioneered the system of external examiners for its final degree examinations, bringing in Oxford academics to ensure the same standards. It was incorporated by royal charter in 1837 and awarded its first degrees the same year. In 1838 it opened Britain's first course in engineering, and in 1846 pioneered "halls" accommodation, where students let rooms ready-furnished and serviced by shared staff, and took all their meals together. This
13184-461: The vicarage and improving the church. Canon Parkinson died in 1858, and his successor, and was succeeded by Rev. G. H. Ainger, the son of the first principal, William Ainger. He was to be known as the great builder of the college and restorer of the priory. The college continued to prosper, and during the 1860s annual admissions were frequently over 40. College life seems to have been particularly lively at this time, with many grand celebrations. There
13312-399: The world as fully as if the said Degree had been granted by any University of our said United Kingdom . The University of Melbourne's charter, issued the following year, similarly granted its degrees equivalence with those from British universities. The act that established the University of Adelaide in 1874 included women undergraduates, causing a delay in the granting of its charter as
13440-524: The years following the end of the Second World War, local education authorities (LEAs) paid some student tuition fees and provided some non-mature students with a maintenance grant. Under the Education Act 1962 a national mandatory award of student maintenance grant was established, payable by the LEAs to students on most full-time courses. In 1980, the level of grant increased from £380 to £1,430. As
13568-577: Was a gala day at the Priory when Ainger was presented with a handsome portrait costing £100. The Militia band played, and a special train was put on from Whitehaven. On another occasion, the anniversary dinner of the college in 1862, no fewer than 25 toasts were proposed, which attracted the criticism of the Whitehaven Temperance Society. The popularity of the college meant there had to be additional teaching facilities, and in 1863
13696-567: Was a major issue in the 1999 Scottish parliamentary elections, and subsequently was part of the agreement that led to the Labour / Liberal Democrats coalition that governed Scotland from 1999 to 2003. From the academic year 2006/7, a new system of tuition fees was introduced in England. These variable tuition fees of up to £3,000 per year are paid up-front as previously, but new student loans are available that may only be used to pay for tuition fees, and must be repaid after graduation, in addition to
13824-610: Was already being provided to the ancient Scottish universities, the University of London, and to the Welsh and Irish colleges. Bedford College in London (1894), Reading (1901) and Southampton (1902) were later added to the grant to university colleges. In 1893, the University of Wales was established as another federal body, uniting the colleges in Aberystwyth, Cardiff and Bangor, but not St David's College, Lampeter. The late 19th century saw UCL and King's College London campaigning for
13952-586: Was an early supporter of the Church Missionary Society , and was elected to the newly built chapel of St George's, Everton, in 1813, where he remained until coming to St Bees. He had published a large body of sermons and had a huge reputation as a preacher. When he preached for the first time in Whitehaven, over 3,000 people came to hear him. Although principal, he took very seriously his responsibility for Whitehaven with 20,000 people, which
14080-604: Was concern as to whether a royal charter given by a governor in the King's name was valid without royal approval. An attempt to resolve this in London in 1754 ended inconclusively when Henry Pelham , the prime minister, died. However, Princeton's charter was never challenged in court prior to its ratification by the state legislature in 1780, following the US Declaration of Independence. Columbia University received its royal charter (as King's College) in 1754 from Lieutenant Governor James DeLancey of New York, who bypassed
14208-427: Was considered sufficient for it to award "degrees in all the faculties", but all future university royal charters explicitly stated that they were creating a university and explicitly granted degree-awarding power. Both London (1878) and Durham (1895) later received supplemental charters allowing the granting of degrees to women, which was considered to require explicit authorisation. After going through four charters and
14336-409: Was decided instead to erect the Victoria University as a federal body, with Owens College as, initially, its only college. It was joined by Liverpool in 1884 and Leeds in 1887. In 1889, government funding was provided to the English provincial university colleges (with the exception of Queen's College, Birmingham), along with Dundee in Scotland, and UCL and King's College in London. Government funding
14464-467: Was done in 1836, with the old London University accepting a charter as a college under the name of University College, London. The new University of London achieved one of the principal goals of the founders of UCL: it would award degrees without any religious test, the first university in England to do so. The first degrees were conferred in 1839 to students from UCL and King's College London. But from 1840 it affiliated other colleges and schools, opening up
14592-427: Was established in 1660 as Britain's first learned society and received its first royal charter in 1662. It was reincorporated by a second royal charter in 1663, which was then amended by a third royal charter in 1669. These were all in Latin, but a supplemental charter in 2012 gave an English translation to take precedence over the Latin text. The Royal Society of Edinburgh was established by royal charter in 1783 and
14720-479: Was established in 1848 as the College of Bytown. It received a royal charter under the name College of Ottawa , raising it to university status in 1866. The older Australian universities of Sydney (1850) and Melbourne (1853) were founded by acts of the legislatures of the colonies. This gave rise to doubts about whether their degrees would be recognised outside of those colonies, leading to them seeking royal charters from London, which would grant legitimacy across
14848-424: Was established privately in 1775 but not incorporated until 1783. Eight Canadian universities and colleges were founded or reconstituted under royal charters in the 19th century, prior to Confederation in 1867. Most Canadian universities originally established by royal charter were subsequently reincorporated by acts of the relevant parliaments. The University of King's College was founded in 1789 and received
14976-504: Was founded in 1822, opened in 1827, and gained a royal charter in 1828. By then, the higher education revolution was well under way. Between 1824 and 1834 ten medical schools were established in provincial cities; many of these went on to form the nuclei of the redbrick universities, and in 1825 there was serious talk of founding a third English university in York. This would, however, have required government support. The opinion of Robert Peel – cabinet minister and MP for Oxford University –
15104-529: Was in contrast to the system at Oxford and Cambridge (and in Durham's original college) where students had to furnish their own rooms, supply their own servants, and provide their own food. In 1834, the House of Commons backed the granting of a charter to the London University. In 1835, the government responded by announcing its intention to establish the University of London as an examining board that would grant degrees to affiliated colleges and medical schools. This
15232-412: Was incorporated by royal charter in 1837 (explicitly not founding the university, which it describes as having been "established under our Royal sanction, and the authority of our Parliament") but although this confirmed that it had "all the property, rights, and privileges which ... are incident to a University established by our Royal Charter" it contained no explicit grant of degree-awarding powers. This
15360-581: Was made independent from the town corporation. The first of the civic university colleges was the Anglican Queen's College, Birmingham , built on the nucleus of the Birmingham Medical School, which gained its royal charter in 1843 but did not ultimately prove a success. This was followed in 1851 by Owens College , Manchester. Further university colleges followed in Newcastle (1871), notable for admitting women to its courses from
15488-511: Was put into effect by an Act of Parliament in 1898, leading to completely new statutes establishing the federal University of London in 1900. 1900 also saw Mason College, Birmingham (which had absorbed the Medical School from Queen's College in 1892) become the University of Birmingham . This was the first of the redbrick universities to gain university status. Over the next decade the Victoria University dissolved, its colleges becoming
15616-710: Was replaced by a new charter from the National Assembly of Quebec in 1971. Bishop's University was founded, as Bishop's College, by an act of the Parliament of the Province of Canada in 1843 and received a royal charter in 1853, granting it the power to award degrees and stating that, "said College shall be deemed and taken to be a University, and shall have and enjoy all such and the like privileges as are enjoyed by our Universities of our United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". The University of Ottawa
15744-504: Was restricted to Parliament from the end of the 17th century. Until the 19th century, royal charters were the only means other than an act of parliament by which a company could be incorporated ; in the UK, the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844 opened up a route to incorporation by registration, since when incorporation by royal charter has been, according to the Privy Council , "a special token of Royal favour or ...
15872-641: Was sought, and (after consulting with his constituents) he advised against proceeding. This period also saw the establishment of Mechanics Institutes in a number of cities. The first of these, established in Edinburgh in 1821, would eventually become Heriot-Watt University , while the London Mechanics Institute, established in 1823, developed into Birkbeck, University of London . Many others would eventually become polytechnics and then, in 1992, universities. The Polytechnic Institution (now
16000-428: Was still part of the ecclesiastical parish of St Bees. Whitehaven had three chapels of ease; Trinity, St James and St Nicholas, each with a curate. Buddicom died in 1846. His successor was Richard Parkinson , who had been a lecturer at the college until 1833, when he was appointed a Fellow of Manchester Collegiate church (now the cathedral). Under Parkinson College admissions rose, and he set about schemes for improving
16128-460: Was the University of Naples in 1224, founded by an imperial charter of Frederick II . The first university founded by royal charter was the University of Coimbra in 1290, by King Denis of Portugal , which received papal confirmation the same year. Other early universities founded by royal charter include the University of Perpignan (1349; papal confirmation 1379) and the University of Huesca (1354; no confirmation), both by Peter IV of Aragon ;
16256-603: Was the defining mark of the studium generale . Hastings Rashdall states that "the special privilege of the jus ubique docendi ... was usually, but not quite invariably, conferred in express terms by the original foundation-bulls; and was apparently understood to be involved in the mere act of erection even in the rare cases where it is not expressly conceded". Similarly, Patrick Zutshi, Keeper of Manuscripts and University Archives in Cambridge University Library, writes that "Cambridge never received from
16384-429: Was to be a pioneering institution; the first Church of England College for the training of clergy outside the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. By 1817 the repair work was complete. The roofless monastic chancel had been restored, and became the main lecture room for the college. News of the college soon spread, and it first opened to admit 20 students, who paid £5 a term. Although the principal would also perform all
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