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78-524: Nearby is a granite monument made by sculptor Jo Rens, displaying two men: one standing with a parrot and one sitting and writing. It is meant to symbolize the past and the future. There is also a large beach next to the Suriname river near the city centre. Demographically, the largest ethnic group of Brokopondo are the Maroons . The Brokopondo Development Plan has designated the town of Brokopondo as one of

156-516: A palenque near Jaruco was an Indian from the Yucatán . In the 1810s, Ventura Sanchez, also known as Coba, was in charge of a palenque of several hundred maroons in the mountains not far from Santiago de Cuba . Sanchez was tricked into going to Santiago de Cuba, where he committed suicide rather than be captured and returned to slavery. The leadership of the palenque then passed to Manuel Grinan, also known as Gallo. The palenque of Bumba

234-647: A prisoner exchange ; some remained in Europe while others returned to France. American marronage began in Spain's colony on the island of Hispaniola . Governor Nicolás de Ovando was already complaining of escaped slaves and their interactions with the Taíno Indians by 1503. The first slave rebellion occurred in Hispaniola on the sugar plantations owned by Admiral Diego Columbus , on 26 December 1522, and

312-1039: A few occasions, they also joined the Taíno settlements, who had escaped the Spanish in the 17th century. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, there were a large number of maroons living in the Bahoruco mountains . In 1702, a French expedition against them killed three maroons and captured 11, but over 30 evaded capture, and retreated further into the mountainous forests. Further expeditions were carried out against them with limited success, though they did succeed in capturing one of their leaders, Michel, in 1719. In subsequent expeditions, in 1728 and 1733, French forces captured 46 and 32 maroons respectively. No matter how many detachments were sent against these maroons, they continued to attract runaways. Expeditions in 1740, 1742, 1746, 1757 and 1761 had minor successes against these maroons, but failed to destroy their hideaways. In 1776–1777,

390-539: A flag in front of the settlers and proclaimed Rei Amador as king of São Tomé and Príncipe , making himself as "Rei Amador, liberator of all the black people". Between 1595 and 1596, part of the island of São Tomé was ruled by the Angolars, under the command of Rei Amador. On 4 January 1596, he was captured, sent to prison and was later executed by the Portuguese. Still today, they remember him fondly and consider him

468-591: A general uprising among slaves. Brown carried hundreds of copies of the constitution for a new republic of former slaves in the Appalachians. But they were never distributed, and the slave uprisings that were to have helped Brown did not happen. Some believe that he knew the raid was doomed but went ahead anyway, because of the support for abolition it would (and did) generate. The U.S. military, led by Lieutenant Colonel Robert E. Lee , easily overwhelmed Brown's forces. But directly following this, slave disobedience and

546-574: A gradual emancipation law to prevent future rebellions. In a close vote, however, the state decided to keep slaves. The abolitionist John Brown had already fought against pro-slavery forces in Bleeding Kansas for several years when he decided to lead a raid on a Federal arsenal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia . This raid was a joint attack by freed blacks and white men who had corresponded with slaves on plantations in order to create

624-498: A joint French–Spanish expedition ventured into the border regions of the Bahoruco mountains, with the intention of destroying the maroon settlements there. However, the maroons had been alerted of their coming, and had abandoned their villages and caves, retreating further into the mountainous forests where they could not be found. The detachment eventually returned, unsuccessful and having lost many soldiers to illness and desertion. In

702-539: A living on their own. The first slave rebellion occurred in present day Dominican Republic on the sugar plantations owned by Admiral Diego Columbus , on 26 December 1522, and was brutally crushed by the Admiral. The first maroon communities of the Americas were established following this revolt, as many of the slaves were able to escape. This was also to give rise to a wave of Dominican maroons who went on to lead

780-636: A national hero of the islands. In the first decades of the 17th century, there were frequent slave revolts in the Portuguese colony of São Tomé and Príncipe , off the African shore, which damaged the sugar crop cultivation there. The Zanj Rebellion against the slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate was the culmination of a series of small revolts. It took place near the city of Basra , in southern Iraq over fifteen years (869−883 AD). It grew to involve over 500,100 slaves, who were imported from across

858-616: A series of slave revolts within the Roman Republic . A number of slave revolts occurred in the Mediterranean area during the early modern period: Numerous slave rebellions and insurrections took place in North America during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. There is documentary evidence of more than 250 uprisings or attempted uprisings involving ten or more slaves. One of the first was at San Miguel de Gualdape ,

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936-511: A special type of serf called helots who were often treated harshly, leading them to rebel. According to Herodotus (IX, 28–29), helots were seven times as numerous as Spartans. Every autumn, according to Plutarch ( Life of Lycurgus , 28, 3–7), the Spartan ephors would pro forma declare war on the helot population so that any Spartan citizen could kill a helot without fear of blood or guilt in order to keep them in line ( crypteia ). In

1014-409: A way of fighting for their freedom. Rebellions of slaves have occurred in nearly all societies that practice slavery or have practiced slavery in the past. A desire for freedom and the dream of successful rebellion is often the greatest object of song, art, and culture amongst the enslaved population. These events, however, are often violently opposed and suppressed by slaveholders. Ancient Sparta had

1092-572: Is Saramaccan . At other times, the maroons would adopt variations of a local European language ( creolization ) as a common tongue, for members of the community frequently spoke a variety of mother tongues. The maroons created their own independent communities, which in some cases have survived for centuries, and until recently remained separate from mainstream society. In the 19th and 20th centuries, maroon communities began to disappear as forests were razed, although some countries, such as Guyana and Suriname, still have large maroon populations living in

1170-519: Is considered an example of pseudoscience , and part of the edifice of scientific racism . Slave resistance in the antebellum South did not gain the attention of academic historians until the 1940s, when historian Herbert Aptheker started publishing the first serious scholarly work on the subject. Aptheker stressed how rebellions were rooted in the exploitative conditions of the Southern slave system. He traversed libraries and archives throughout

1248-572: Is considered to be a significant event in American history. The rebellion caused the slave-holding South to go into a panic. Fifty-five men, women, and children were killed, and enslaved blacks were freed on multiple plantations in Southampton County, Virginia , as Turner and his fellow rebels attacked the white institution of plantation slavery. Turner and the other rebels were eventually stopped by state militias. The rebellion resulted in

1326-499: The Colony of Jamaica , Edward Trelawny , signed treaties promising them 2,500 acres (1,012 ha) in two locations, at Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town) in western Jamaica and Crawford's Town in eastern Jamaica, to bring an end to the warfare between the communities. In exchange, they were to agree to capture other escaped slaves. They were initially paid a bounty of two dollars for each African returned. The treaties effectively freed

1404-680: The Haitian Revolution . A statue called the Le Nègre Marron or the Nèg Mawon is an iconic bronze bust that was erected in the heart of Port-au-Prince to commemorate the role of maroons in Haitian independence. People who escaped from slavery during the Spanish occupation of the island of Jamaica fled to the interior and joined the Taíno living there, forming refugee communities. Later, many of them gained freedom during

1482-626: The Marronage ( lit.   ' running away ' ) took place along the river borders and sometimes across the borders of French Guiana . By 1740, the maroons had formed clans and felt strong enough to challenge the Dutch colonists, forcing them to sign peace treaties. On October 10, 1760, the Ndyuka signed such a treaty, drafted by Adyáko Benti Basiton of Boston , a formerly enslaved African from Jamaica who had learned to read and write and knew about

1560-643: The Roman Empire , though the heterogeneous nature of the slave population worked against a strong sense of solidarity, slave revolts did occur and were severely punished. The most famous slave rebellion in Europe was led by Spartacus in Roman Italy , the Third Servile War . This war resulted in the 6,000 surviving rebel slaves being crucified along the main roads leading into Rome. This

1638-804: The Semana de la Cultura (Week of Culture) celebrate the town's founding in 1607. Similar maroon communities developed on islands across the Caribbean, such as those of the Garifuna people on Saint Vincent . Many of the Garifuna were deported to the American mainland, where some eventually settled along the Mosquito Coast or in Belize . From their original landing place in Roatan Island off

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1716-575: The Slave Trade Act of 1807, and slavery itself a generation later with the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 , it took until 1850 to be halted in the territories which were to become South Africa . On 9 July 1595, Rei Amador , and his people, the Angolars, allied with other enslaved Africans of its plantations, marched into the interior woods and battled against the Portuguese. It is said that day, Rei Amador and his followers raised

1794-830: The Third Servile War , was led by the slave Spartacus . In the 9th century, the poet Ali bin Muhammad led imported East African slaves against the Abbasid Caliphate in Iraq during the Zanj Rebellion . Nanny of the Maroons was an 18th-century leader of the Jamaican Maroons who led them to victory in the First Maroon War . The Quilombo dos Palmares of Brazil flourished under Ganga Zumba . In

1872-709: The United States , the 1811 German Coast Uprising in the Territory of Orleans was the largest rebellion in the continental United States; Denmark Vesey and Madison Washington both launched slave rebellions in the U.S. as well. In 1808 and 1825, there were slave rebellions in the Cape Colony , newly acquired by the British. Although the slave trade was officially abolished in the British Empire by

1950-630: The Viñales Valley related to runaway African slaves or maroons of the early 19th century; the material evidence of their presence is found in caves of the region, where groups settled for various lengths of time. Oral tradition tells that maroons took refuge on the slopes of the mogotes and in the caves; the Viñales Municipal Museum has archaeological exhibits that depict the life of runaway slaves, as deduced through archeological research. Cultural traditions reenacted during

2028-624: The southern United States ; in deep canyons with sinkholes but little water or fertile soil in Jamaica; and in deep jungles of the Guianas . Maroon communities turned the severity of their environments to their advantage to hide and defend their communities. Disguised pathways, false trails, booby traps, underwater paths, quagmires and quicksand, and natural features were all used to conceal maroon villages. Maroons utilised exemplary guerrilla warfare skills to fight their European enemies. Nanny ,

2106-639: The 1790s, about 600 Jamaican Maroons were deported to British settlements in Nova Scotia , where American slaves who had escaped from the United States were also resettled. Being unhappy with conditions, in 1800, a majority emigrated to Freetown, West Africa where they identified as the Sierra Leone Creoles . In Cuba , escaped slaves joined refugee Taínos in the mountains to form maroon communities. In 1538, runaways helped

2184-547: The 18th century, Nanny Town and other Jamaican maroon villages began to fight for independent recognition. When runaway slaves and Amerindians banded together and subsisted independently they were called "maroons". On the Caribbean islands , they formed bands and on some islands, armed camps. Maroon communities faced great odds against their surviving the attacks by hostile colonists, obtaining food for subsistence living, as well as reproducing and increasing their numbers. As

2262-523: The Americas and Islands of the Indian Ocean who escaped from slavery , through flight or manumission , and formed their own settlements. They often mixed with Indigenous peoples , eventually evolving into separate creole cultures such as the Garifuna and the Mascogos . Maroon , which can have a more general sense of being abandoned without resources, entered English around the 1590s, from

2340-609: The Capture of Maroons reported that between 1797 and 1846, there were thousands of runaways living in these palenques . However, the eastern mountains harboured the longer lasting palenques , in particular those of Moa and Maluala, where the maroons thrived until the First War of Independence in 1868, when large numbers of maroons joined the Cuban Liberation Army. There are 28 identified archaeological sites in

2418-478: The Dutch settlers' Fort Frederick Hendryk ( Vieux Grand Port ) in an attempt to take over control of the island. They were all caught and decapitated. In February 1706 another revolt was organised by the remaining maroons as well as disgruntled slaves. When the Dutch abandoned Dutch Mauritius in 1710 the maroons stayed behind. When representatives of the French East India Company landed on

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2496-652: The French adjective marron , meaning 'feral' or 'fugitive'. Despite the same spelling, the meaning of 'reddish brown' for maroon did not appear until the late 1700s, perhaps influenced by the idea of maroon peoples. The American Spanish word cimarrón is also often given as the source of the English word maroon , used to describe the runaway slave communities in Florida, in the Great Dismal Swamp on

2574-575: The French colony of Saint Lucia , maroons and fugitive French Revolutionary Army soldiers formed the so-called [Armée Française dans les bois] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |translation= ( help ) , which comprised about 6,000 men who fought the First Brigand War against the British who had recently occupied the island. Led by the French Commissioner, Gaspard Goyrand, they succeeded in taking back control of most of

2652-457: The French to sack the city of Havana . In 1731, slaves rose up in revolt at the Cobre mines, and set up an independent community at Sierra del Cobre, which existed untroubled until 1781, when the self-freed population had increased to over 1,000. In 1781, the Spanish colonial authorities agreed to recognise the freedom of the people of this community. In 1797, one of the captured leaders of

2730-596: The Jamaican treaty. Remnants of Maroon communities in the former Spanish Caribbean remain as of 2006, for example in Viñales , Cuba, and Adjuntas , Puerto Rico. To this day, the Jamaican Maroons are to a significant extent autonomous and separate from Jamaican society. The physical isolation used to their advantage by their ancestors has today led to their communities remaining among the most inaccessible on

2808-653: The Khan returned to his capital after the Russian conquest, the Russian General Kaufmann presented him with a demand to abolish the Khivan slave trade and slavery, which he did. In the 3rd century BCE, Drimakos (or Drimachus) led a slave revolt on the slave entrepot of Chios , took to the hills and directed a band of runaways in operations against their ex-masters. The Servile Wars (135 to 71 BCE) were

2886-603: The Maroons a century before the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 , which came into effect in 1838. In the plantation colony of Suriname , which England ceded to the Netherlands in the Treaty of Breda (1667) , escaped slaves revolted and started to build their villages from the end of the 17th century. As most of the plantations existed in the eastern part of the country, near the Commewijne River and Marowijne River ,

2964-727: The Muslim empire. The Mamluk Sultanate reigned for centuries out of a slave rebellion in Egypt. It gave birth to both the Bahri dynasty and Burji dynasty and their countless artistic and scientific achievements. Among many accomplishments, the Mamluks were responsible for turning back the Mongol conquest. When the Russian general Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufmann and his army approached

3042-491: The Ndyuka and the modern Surinamese government, as it defines the territorial rights of the Maroons in the gold -rich inlands of Suriname. Slaves escaped frequently within the first generation of their arrival from Africa and often preserved their African languages and much of their culture and religion . African traditions included such things as the use of certain medicinal herbs together with special drums and dances when

3120-525: The South, managing to uncover roughly 250 similar instances. The 1811 German Coast Uprising , which took place in rural southeast Louisiana , at that time the Territory of Orleans , early in 1811, involved up to 500 insurgent slaves . It was suppressed by local militias and a detachment of the United States Army . In retaliation for the deaths of two white men and the destruction of property,

3198-402: The Spaniards, and liberate the slaves. Roadways had become so open to attack, the Spaniards felt it was necessary to only navigate in groups. Dominican maroons would be present throughout the island until the mid 17th century. Sir Francis Drake enlisted several cimarrones during his raids on the Spanish. As early as 1655, escaped Africans had formed communities in inland Jamaica , and by

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3276-567: The authorities killed at least 40 black men in a violent confrontation (the numbers cited are inconsistent); at least 29 more were executed (combined figures from two jurisdictions, St. Charles Parish and Orleans Parish ). There was a third jurisdiction for a tribunal and what amounted to summary judgments against the accused, St. John the Baptist Parish . Fewer than 20 men are said to have escaped; some of those were later caught and killed, on their way to freedom. Although only involving about seventy slaves and free blacks, Turner's 1831 rebellion

3354-425: The beginning of the 19th century, there were hundreds of outbreaks across Russia. One of the most successful slave rebellions in history was the Haitian Revolution , which saw self-emancipated slaves in the French colony of Saint-Domingue overthrow the colonial government and repulse invasion attempts by the French, Spanish and British to establish the independent state of Haiti . Another famous slave rebellion,

3432-408: The border of Virginia and North Carolina, on colonial islands of the Caribbean, and in other parts of the New World . Linguist Lyle Campbell says the Spanish word cimarrón means 'wild, unruly' or 'runaway slave'. In the early 1570s, Sir Francis Drake 's raids on the Spanish in Panama were aided by " Symerons ," a likely misspelling of cimarrón . The linguist Leo Spitzer , writing in

3510-468: The city of Khiva during the Khivan campaign of 1873 , the Khan Muhammad Rahim Khan II of Khiva fled to hide among the Yomuts, and the slaves in Khiva rebelled, informed about the imminent downfall of the city, resulting in the Khivan slave uprising . When Kaufmann's Russian army entered Khiva on 28 March, he was approached by Khivans who begged him to put down the ongoing slave uprising, during which slaves avenged themselves on their former enslavers. When

3588-400: The coast of Honduras , the maroons moved to Trujillo . Gradually groups migrated south into the Miskito Kingdom and north into Belize. In Dominica , escaped slaves joined indigenous Kalinago in the island's densely forested interior to create maroon communities, which were constantly in conflict with the British colonial authorities throughout the period of formal chattel slavery. In

3666-413: The coastal plantations of Ponce . Maroon communities emerged in many places in the Caribbean ( St Vincent and Dominica , for example), but none were seen as such a great threat to the British as the Jamaican Maroons . Beginning in the late 17th century, Jamaican Maroons consistently fought British colonists, leading to the First Maroon War (1728–1740). In 1739 and 1740, the British governor of

3744-751: The colonial system traded goods and services with them. Maroons also traded with isolated white settlers and Native American communities. Maroon communities played interest groups off of one another. At the same time, maroon communities were also used as pawns when colonial powers clashed. Absolute secrecy and loyalty of members were crucial to the survival of maroon communities. To ensure this loyalty, maroon communities used severe methods to protect against desertion and spies. New members were brought to communities by way of detours so they could not find their way back and served probationary periods, often as slaves. Crimes such as desertion and adultery were punishable by death. Under governor Adriaan van der Stel in 1642,

3822-429: The community as desertion and therefore punishable by death. They also originally raided plantations. During these attacks, the maroons would burn crops, steal livestock and tools, kill slavemasters, and invite other slaves to join their communities. Individual groups of maroons often allied themselves with the local indigenous tribes and occasionally assimilated into these populations. Maroons played an important role in

3900-419: The confusion surrounding the 1655 English Invasion of Jamaica . Some refugee slaves continued to join them through the decades until the abolition of slavery in 1838, but in the main, after the signing of the treaties of 1739 and 1740, the Maroons hunted runaway slaves in return for payment from the British colonial authorities. Slave rebellion A slave rebellion is an armed uprising by slaves , as

3978-494: The early Dutch settlers of the Dutch East India Company brought 105 slaves from Madagascar and parts of Asia to work for them in Dutch Mauritius . However, 52 of these first slaves, including women, escaped in the wilderness of Dutch Mauritius . Only 18 of these escapees were caught. On 18 June 1695, a gang of maroons of Indonesian and Chinese origins, including Aaron d'Amboine, Antoni (Bamboes) and Paul de Batavia, as well as female escapees Anna du Bengale and Espérance, set fire to

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4056-430: The end of 1785, terms were agreed, and the more than 100 maroons under Santiago's command stopped making incursions into French colonial territory. Other slave resistance efforts against the French plantation system were more direct. The maroon leader Mackandal led a movement to poison the drinking water of the plantation owners in the 1750s. Boukman declared war on the French plantation owners in 1791, setting off

4134-404: The famous Jamaican maroon, used guerrilla warfare tactics that are also used today by many militaries around the world. European troops used strict and established strategies while maroons attacked and retracted quickly, used ambush tactics, and fought when and where they wanted to. Even though colonial governments were in a perpetual state of conflict with the maroon communities, individuals in

4212-507: The first European settlement in what would become the United States . Three of the best known in the United States during the 19th century are the revolts by Gabriel Prosser in Virginia in 1800, Denmark Vesey in Charleston, South Carolina in 1822, and Nat Turner's Rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia , in 1831. Drapetomania was a supposed mental illness invented by American physician Samuel A. Cartwright in 1851 that allegedly caused black slaves to run away. Today, drapetomania

4290-399: The first maroon activities of the Americas. Sebastián Lemba , born in Africa, successfully rebelled against the Spaniards in 1532, and banded together with other Africans in his 15-year struggle against the Spanish colonists. Lemba was eventually joined by other maroons such as Juan Vaquero, Diego del Guzmán, Fernando Montoro, Juan Criollo and Diego del Campo in the struggle against slavery. As

4368-581: The forests. Recently, many of them moved to cities and towns as the process of urbanization accelerates. A typical maroon community in the early stage usually consists of three types of people. Maroonage was a constant threat to New World slavocracies . Punishments for recaptured maroons were severe, like removing the Achilles tendon , amputating a leg, castration , and being roasted to death. Maroon communities had to be inaccessible and located in inhospitable environments to be sustainable. For example, maroon communities were established in remote swamps in

4446-411: The hanging of about 56 slaves, including Nat Turner himself. Up to 200 other blacks were killed during the hysteria that followed, few of whom likely had anything to do with the uprising. White fear led to new legislation passed by Southern states prohibiting the movement, assembly, and education of slaves, and reducing the rights of free people of color . In 1831–32, the Virginia legislature considered

4524-476: The herbs are administered to a sick person. Other African healing traditions and rites have survived through the centuries. The jungles around the Caribbean Sea offered food, shelter, and isolation for the escaped slaves. Maroons sustained themselves by growing vegetables and hunting. Their survival depended upon their cultures, and their military abilities, using guerrilla tactics and heavily fortified dwellings involving traps and diversions. Some defined leaving

4602-415: The hills, and by the early 1530s to African slaves who did the same. He proposes that the American Spanish word derives ultimately from the Arawakan root word simarabo , construed as 'fugitive', in the Arawakan language spoken by the Taíno people native to the island. In the New World , as early as 1512, African slaves escaped from Spanish captors and either joined indigenous peoples or eked out

4680-529: The histories of Brazil , Suriname , Puerto Rico , Haiti , Dominican Republic , Cuba , and Jamaica . There is much variety among maroon cultural groups because of differences in history, geography, African nationality, and the culture of indigenous people throughout the Western Hemisphere . Maroon settlements often possessed a clannish, outsider identity. They sometimes developed Creole languages by mixing European tongues with their original African languages. One such maroon creole language , in Suriname,

4758-410: The island from the British, but on 26 May 1796, their forces defending the fort at Morne Fortune , about 2,000 men surrendered to a British division under the command of General John Moore. After the capitulation, over 2,500 French and Afro-Caribbean prisoners of war as well as ninety-nine women and children, were transported from St. Lucia to Portchester Castle . They were eventually sent to France in

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4836-428: The island in 1715 they also had to face attacks by the Mauritian maroons. Significant events were the 1724 assault on a military outpost in Savannah district, as well as the attack on a military barrack in 1732 at Poste de Flacq. Several deaths resulted from such attacks. Soon after his arrival in 1735, Mahé de La Bourdonnais assembled and equipped French militia groups made of both civilians and soldiers to fight against

4914-400: The island. In their largest town, Accompong , in the parish of St Elizabeth , the Leeward Maroons still possess a vibrant community of about 600. Tours of the village are offered to foreigners and a large festival is put on every January 6 to commemorate the signing of the peace treaty with the British after the First Maroon War. The Ndyuka treaty remains important to relations between

4992-450: The journal Language , says, "If there is a connection between Eng. maroon , Fr. marron , and Sp. cimarrón , Spain (or Spanish America) probably gave the word directly to England (or English America)." Alternatively, the Cuban philologist José Juan Arrom has traced the origins of the word maroon further than the Spanish cimarrón , used first in Hispaniola to refer to feral cattle, then to Indian slaves who escaped to

5070-457: The maroons threatened Spanish commerce and trade, Spanish officials began to fear a maroon takeover of the island. By the 1540s, maroons had already controlled the interior portions of the island, although areas in the east, north, and western parts of the island were also to fall under maroon control. Maroon bands would venture out throughout the island, usually in large groups, attack villages they encountered, burn down plantations, kill and ransack

5148-399: The maroons. In 1739, maroon leader Sans Souci was captured near Flacq and was burnt alive by the French settlers. A few years later, a group of French settlers gave chase to Barbe Blanche, another maroon leader, but lost track of him at Le Morne . Other maroons included Diamamouve and Madame Françoise. The most important maroons on Réunion were Cimendef, Cotte, Dimitile and Maffate. In

5226-443: The number of runaways increased markedly in Virginia. The historian Steven Hahn proposes that the self-organized involvement of slaves in the Union Army during the American Civil War composed a slave rebellion that dwarfed all others. Similarly, tens of thousands of slaves joined British forces or escaped to British lines during the American Revolution , sometimes using the disruption of war to gain freedom. For instance, when

5304-406: The planters began to fear a massive revolt of the black slaves. The early maroon communities were usually displaced. By 1700, maroons had disappeared from the smaller islands. Survival was always difficult, as the maroons had to fight off attackers as well as grow food. One of the most influential maroons was François Mackandal , a houngan or voodoo priest, who led a six-year rebellion against

5382-473: The planters took over more land for crops, the maroons began to lose ground on the small islands. Only on some of the larger islands were organised maroon communities able to thrive by growing crops and hunting. Here they grew in number as more slaves escaped from plantations and joined their bands. Seeking to separate themselves from colonisers, the maroons gained in power amid increasing hostilities. They raided and pillaged plantations and harassed planters until

5460-445: The slaves were usually classified as kholops . A kholop's master had unlimited power over his life. Slavery remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter the Great converted the household slaves into house serfs . Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679. During the 16th and 17th centuries, runaway serfs and kholops known as Cossacks , ("outlaws") formed autonomous communities in

5538-399: The southern steppes. There were numerous rebellions against slavery and serfdom , most often in conjunction with Cossack uprisings, such as the uprisings of Ivan Bolotnikov (1606–1607), Stenka Razin (1667–1671), Kondraty Bulavin (1707–1709), and Yemelyan Pugachev (1773–1775), often involving hundreds of thousands and sometimes millions. Between the end of the Pugachev rebellion and

5616-457: The two major centres in the region - the other being Brownsweg - with a focus on tourism. There is a large beach next to the Suriname river near the city centre called Anani Beach. Additional developments will be a proper city centre, a bus station, a large hotel with at least 200 beds, and a centre for cultural studies. Brokopondo is home to a Medische Zending healthcare centre, hotel, school, and police station. In 2014, multi functional centre

5694-493: The white plantation owners in Haiti that preceded the Haitian Revolution . In Cuba , there were maroon communities in the mountains, where African refugees had escaped the brutality of slavery and joined Taínos . Before roads were built into the mountains of Puerto Rico , heavy brush kept many escaped maroons hidden in the southwestern hills where many also intermarried with the natives. Escaped slaves sought refuge away from

5772-523: The years that followed, the maroons attacked a number of settlements, including Fond-Parisien, for food, weapons, gunpowder and women. It was on one of these excursions that one of the maroon leaders, Kebinda, who had been born in freedom in the mountains, was captured. He later died in captivity. In 1782, de Saint-Larry decided to offer peace terms to one of the maroon leaders, Santiago, granting them freedom in return for which they would hunt all further runaways and return them to their owners. Eventually, at

5850-967: Was brutally crushed by the Admiral. Maroons joined the natives in their wars against the Spanish and hid with the rebel chieftain Enriquillo in the Bahoruco Mountains . When Archdeacon Alonso de Castro toured Hispaniola in 1542, he estimated the maroon population at 2,000–3,000 persons. The French encountered many forms of slave resistance during the 17th and 18th centuries, in Saint Domingue , which later came to be called Haiti . Formerly enslaved Africans who fled to remote mountainous areas were called marron ( French ) or mawon ( Haitian Creole ), meaning 'escaped slave'. The maroons formed close-knit communities that practised small-scale agriculture and hunting. They were known to return to plantations to free family members and friends. On

5928-441: Was opened. On 10 January 2020, a waste incinerator was installed. A growing concern is the activity of gold prospectors who not only poison the rivers with mercury , but are digging away the edge of the town. Maroon (people) Black Seminoles , Bushinengue , Jamaican Maroons , Mauritian Maroons , Kalungas , Machapunga , Palenqueros , Quilombola Historical groups Maroons are descendants of Africans in

6006-447: Was so well organised that they even sent maroons in small boats to Jamaica and Santo Domingo to trade. In 1830, the Spanish colonial authorities carried out military expeditions against the palenques of Bumba and Maluala. Antonio de Leon eventually succeeded in destroying the palenque of Bumba. In the 1830s, palenques of maroon communities thrived in western Cuba, in particular the areas surrounding San Diego de Nunez. The Office of

6084-460: Was the third in a series of unrelated Servile Wars fought by slaves against the Romans . The Mamluk Sultanate reigned for centuries out of a slave rebellion in Egypt. It gave birth to both the Bahri dynasty and Burji dynasty and their countless artistic and scientific achievements. Among many accomplishments, the Mamluks were responsible for turning back the Mongol conquest. In Russia ,

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