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67-412: Built in the 1950s, the jail closed in 2003 due to a declining inmate population. It reopened in 2012 after renovations with 544 staff. In 2017, New York City committed to closing the jails on Rikers Island and creating a network of modern borough-based jails instead. The Brooklyn Detention Center was designated as one of the jails that would be used to replace Rikers. In August 2018, the city released

134-512: A 2002 court settlement, and were entitled to payment for damages. The policy was kept in place despite a United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit ruling in 2001 that strip-searches of misdemeanor suspects were illegal, unless officials suspected that they were carrying contraband..." [Lead lawyer Richard D.] Emery charged in his papers that department officials "repeatedly resorted to lying to cover up deliberate indifference to

201-450: A Draft Scope of Work outlining their plan for the new jail, which would tear down the existing 162,000 sq ft. facility and replace it with a building eight times as large (1.4 million sq ft.) and up to 40 stories tall. In March 2024, plans for the new jail gained traction with the demolition of the old structure. 40°41′20″N 73°59′22″W  /  40.6890°N 73.9895°W  / 40.6890; -73.9895 This article about

268-607: A Dutch settler who moved to Long Island in 1638 and took possession of the island in 1664. Rycken's descendants, the Ricker family, owned Rikers Island until 1884, when it was sold to the city for $ 180,000. The island was used as a military training ground during the Civil War . The first regiment to use the Island was the 9th New York Infantry , also known as Hawkins' Zouaves , which arrived there on May 15, 1861. Hawkins' Zouaves

335-512: A budget of $ 860 million a year, a staff of 9,000 civilian officers and 1,500 other civilians managing 100,000 admissions per year and an average daily population of 10,000 inmates. The majority (85%) of detainees are pretrial defendants, either held on bail or remanded in custody . The rest of the population have been convicted and are serving short sentences. In a 2021 analysis by the New York City Comptroller, it costs

402-744: A building or structure in Brooklyn is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Rikers Island Rikers Island is a 413-acre (167.14-hectare) prison island in the East River in the Bronx that contains New York City 's largest jail. Named after Abraham Rycken, who took possession of the island in 1664, the island was originally under 100 acres (40 ha) in size, but has since grown to more than 400 acres (160 ha). The first stages of expansion were accomplished largely by convict labor hauling in ashes for landfill. The island

469-492: A captain who were touring the building. The officer saw her lying on her back on the floor of her cell with bedsheets wrapped around her neck, mouth, and legs. She had also been blindfolded. The incident was reported to central command at 7:30 a.m., and the woman was transported to the Elmhurst Hospital Center . Because she didn't share a cell with anyone, a major question is how the alleged assault happened in

536-430: A complex of 10 detention facilities which, along with several other jails around the city, hold about 13,000 prisoners, most of whom are pretrial detainees. None of the seven suits has gone to trial. In the three that were settled, the city admitted no liability or wrongdoing." In an alleged July 2008 rape case reported by The Village Voice on August 5, 2008, the alleged victim claimed "that someone entered her cell in

603-484: A decade and is unique to the adolescents. The inmates use it as a test for other inmates and a system of control amongst themselves. A Village Voice article lists a roll call of 2008 scandals at Rikers, including the case of officers who allegedly passed accused cop killer Lee Woods marijuana, cigarettes, and alcohol; the February indictment of correctional officer Lloyd Nicholson who used inmates as "enforcers", and

670-512: A false instrument for filing in the first degree, 16 counts of official misconduct, a class A misdemeanor and one count of attempted assault in the third degree. Lewis was charged with falsifying business records, offering a false instrument for filing and official misconduct. The investigation started when the DOI received a tip following an anti-corruption presentation at the academy in October 2006 on

737-629: A hunting party to kill them off. It was the efforts of "master builder" Robert Moses , who did not want the unsightly island to be the backdrop for his carefully landscaped 1939 World's Fair , to get the island cleaned up, and have the city's garbage sent elsewhere—ultimately to the Fresh Kills Landfill on Staten Island . During the term of David Dinkins as mayor of New York the jail filled to overflowing. The Vernon C. Bain Correctional Center (VCBC), an 800-bed barge,

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804-557: A march from Queens Plaza to the Rikers Island Bridge , calling on then-Mayor Bill de Blasio to close the complex. In the months following, there had been plans to build an additional facility on the island that consisted of 1,500 beds. In November 2016, New York City Department of Correction Commissioner Joseph Ponte said, "As we look at construction and now with the...kind of the movement to close Rikers all those things politically have to be taken into consideration. So

871-449: A move from arrests to tickets, not prosecuting misdemeanors, and a state law set to eliminate cash bail for misdemeanors would reduce the need for jails. Rikers Island has become notorious in recent years for a "culture of abuse", and has been subject to a number of investigations and rulings. In 1986, a federal appeals court ruled that strip searches could not be performed on people arrested on misdemeanor charges, like fare evasion on

938-668: A report in February 2018 citing numerous violations in the facility on the part of the city and a significant increase in violent incidents from 2016 to 2017. It suggested that the state might move to close Rikers Island before the city's 10-year deadline, which is not legally binding. On October 17, 2019, the City Council voted for an over $ 8 billion plan to close the Rikers Island prisons and other New York City jails by 2026, and replace them with four borough-based jails. New prisons are planned, but council members said that

1005-533: A sharp rebuke to the Department of Corrections, recommending that six correctional officers be fired. This group, led by Captain Budnarine Behari, had participated in the brutal beating of Robert Hinton, a mentally ill inmate, while he was hog-tied , because he had protested being moved from his cell by sitting down. Hinton's fellow inmates watched as he was dragged down the hallways while hog-tied to

1072-521: A solitary confinement cell where he was beaten. While this ruling was one of the most severe against the Department of Corrections in many years, almost two years had elapsed between the beating and the Justice Department's ruling, during which time the perpetrators in this attack were involved in more inmate beatings at Rikers Island. Francis Buono Bridge Rikers Island Bridge (officially named Francis R. Buono Memorial Bridge )

1139-460: A track, a tailor shop, a print shop, a bus depot, and a car wash . It also contains a large composting facility. Rikers Island has been referred to as the world's largest penal colony. For comparison, Europe 's largest correctional facility, Marmara Prison in European Turkey , sits on 256 acres (104 ha) and houses 10,904 prisoners. The island is named after Abraham Rycken,

1206-582: Is a girder bridge that connects Rikers Island in the borough of the Bronx with the borough of Queens in New York City . The bridge begins in the Ditmars Steinway area in Astoria, Queens , near the intersection of Hazen Street and 19th Avenue, and continues to the south side of Rikers Island. The Rikers Island Bridge is the sole route to the island for vehicular traffic. The bridge

1273-660: Is a fixed low-level span built with concrete and steel. At its center, the bridge has a 52-foot rise allowing clearance for vessels passing beneath the structure. The Q100 MTA Bus route operates across the Rikers Island Bridge and provides service to the Rikers Island Visitor Center. The bridge crosses the Rikers Island Channel of the East River and Bowery Bay . It is located near LaGuardia Airport and crosses over

1340-520: Is politically part of the Bronx, with a bridge being the only access available from Queens. It is part of Queens Community Board 1 and uses an East Elmhurst, Queens, ZIP Code of 11370 for mail. The island is the site of one of the world's largest correctional institutions and mental institutions, and has been described as New York's best-known jail. The complex, operated by the New York City Department of Correction , in 2015 had

1407-585: Is therefore not a prison by US terminology, which typically holds offenders serving longer-term sentences. It holds 10 of the New York City Department of Correction's 15 facilities, and can accommodate up to 15,000 detainees. Facilities located on the island include: The average daily inmate population on the island is about 10,000, although it can hold a maximum of 15,000. The daytime population, including prisoners, staff, and visitors, can be as high as 20,000. The only road access to

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1474-472: The subway , or marijuana smoking . The case itself was brought by Ann Weber, who was arrested for making an inflated claim on a 911 call, after her son was attacked while leaving her daughter's wedding. She was brought to jail still dressed in formal wedding attire, locked in a cell, and forced to strip and expose her cavities for search in the hour it took for her daughter to arrive and post bail. Prior to this decision, all prisoners taken to Rikers, no matter

1541-459: The "overuse" of solitary confinement in American jails, basing his arguments largely on Browder's case. He signed an executive order banning solitary confinement of juveniles in federal prisons. Since 2014, Mayor de Blasio has begun to take action against the abuse by adding surveillance cameras and improving care for mentally ill prisoners. On September 29, 2014, Judge Tynia Richard offered

1608-425: The 1,000-bed Rose M. Singer Center while she was asleep, sometime before 6 a.m. on July 3. She says the intruder (or intruders) bound and gagged her with bedsheets and then used a dildo -like object to sexually assault her. Other inmates may have acted as lookouts during the alleged assault. The woman, who was being held on grand-larceny charges for the past three months, was discovered at about 6 a.m. by an officer and

1675-507: The 1,500 bed facility on Rikers is still at...at a kind of pause right now". After a year of consideration, the Lippmann Commission released a report of recommendations for closing the jail complex. De Blasio did not specifically endorse the findings of the commission. The Lippman Commission proposed a 10-year plan to close the ten jails currently on the island and replace them with smaller jails, one in each borough closer to

1742-736: The April 27 suicide of 18-year-old Steven Morales (who allegedly killed his infant daughter) in the high-security closed-custody unit. On February 4, 2009, The New York Times reported that "the pattern of cases suggests that city correctional officials have been aware of a problem in which Rikers guards have acquiesced or encouraged violence among inmates." The Times added that "There have been at least seven lawsuits filed in Federal District Court in Manhattan accusing guards of complicity or acquiescence in inmate violence at Rikers,

1809-536: The Commissioner of Charities and Corrections, Jacob Hess, signed a contract purchasing the island from John T. Wilson, a descendant of the Ryker family, for $ 180,000. $ 179,000 went to Wilson and $ 1,000 for a title search. The city expressed a desire to open a jail for men on Rikers Island as early as 1925, in order to replace their overburdened and dilapidated jail on Welfare Island, now Roosevelt Island . The jail

1876-507: The Hudson River. In addition, there were two smaller 1950s-era Staten Island Ferry boats, both converted to house 162 inmates each. The ferry boats were sold for salvage around 2003, and the owner of the shipyard that built VCBC, Avondale Shipyard , bought the two BIBBYs. VCBC is the only vessel of its type in the world. Prior to modification for use by New York City, it cost $ 161 million to construct. The initial plan for acquiring

1943-610: The Lippman Commission since it is chaired by former Chief Judge of the State of New York Jonathan Lippman , was convened by New York City Council Speaker Melissa Mark-Viverito to review the entirety of the city's criminal justice system. In April of that year, Glenn E. Martin launched a campaign that called for the closure of the Rikers Island Jail Complex. In September 2016, the campaign organized

2010-621: The NYC Department of Juvenile Justice, while Spofford Juvenile Center was under reconstruction. VCBC was formerly known as Maritime Facility #3 (MTF3); facilities 1 and 2 were reconstructed British military transport barges, or BIBBYs (British Industries Boat Building Yard), used during the Falklands War , both of which could house 800 soldiers, but only 200 inmates after their conversion. MTFs 1 and 2 were anchored on either side of Manhattan at East River pier 17, near 20th street, in

2077-648: The Rikers population has dropped by more than 50%, when the average daily population was 21,688. The idea of closing the prison complex within 10 years was endorsed by former Mayor Bill de Blasio on March 31, after the New York Post leaked the findings of the Lippman Commission. One possible reuse proposal was to build a low-rise residential development, although the island's distance from mass transit, proximity to LaGuardia Airport , and leakage of toxic methane gas from its landfill base would pose problems for

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2144-578: The Robert N. Davoren Center (RNDC, C-74). The assault occurred in front of 15 correctional academy recruits in training. After the assault, Graham ordered the recruits to write on their Use of Force Witness Reports that Graham assaulted the inmate in self-defense after the inmate punched Graham. Lewis, who was Graham's supervisor, did not intervene to stop the attack. Lewis also submitted a false Use of Force Witness Report. Charges against Graham include 16 counts of falsifying business records, 16 counts of offering

2211-460: The ages of 16 and 18 were held in at least one period of solitary confinement while detained. The average length of time young people spent in solitary confinement at Rikers Island was 43 days. More than 48 percent of adolescents at this institution have diagnosed mental health problems. On August 28, 2014, a law was passed boosting oversight of the use of solitary confinement at Rikers Island, following intense public outcry after various abuses at

2278-421: The airport's footprint would allow for the construction of a new, longer runway and additional terminal space, resulting in an estimated 40% increase of flight capacity. On June 22, 2017, former Mayor de Blasio released his plan for a 10-year shutdown of the facility, saying that it was not a "quick fix": "This will be a long a difficult path," he wrote. The city will reduce the inmate population of Rikers through

2345-510: The approach light pier to Runway 13. Before the bridge opened, the only access to Rikers Island was by a ferry, which cost New York City $ 250,000 per year to operate. The bridge was proposed in order to provide easier access by fire, police, ambulances, and sanitation vehicles, and to reduce the commute times for employees. The New York City Planning Board approved the building of the bridge in 1962. Rikers Island Bridge opened on November 22, 1966. New York City spent $ 10   million to build

2412-463: The bridge. The city said it saved $ 410   million in construction costs for structures on the island during the five years after the bridge opened, and that the bridge would also save $ 5,000 in operating expenses per year. The bridge is supported by 260 concrete piles, each up to 124 feet (38 m) long. On May 25, 1978, the bridge was co-named for the late Supervising Warden Francis R. Buono, who directed its construction. In August 1990, during

2479-456: The capacity to house overflow inmates from conventional populations. The rest of the facilities, all built in the last 67 years, make up this city of jails, in addition to the Vernon C. Bain Correctional Center , a floating barge (described below), as well as schools, medical clinics, ball fields, chapels, gyms, drug rehab programs, grocery stores, barbershops, a bakery, a laundromat, a power plant,

2546-548: The city approximately $ 556,539 to detain one person for one year at Rikers Island. Rikers Island has had a reputation for violence, physical and mental abuse and neglect of its inmates, and has attracted press and judicial scrutiny that has resulted in numerous rulings against the New York City government. There have been numerous assaults by inmates on uniformed officers and other civilian staff, often resulting in serious injuries. In May 2013, Rikers Island ranked as one of

2613-493: The city pay up to $ 50 million to the tens of thousands of people who were illegally searched over the years. However, the practice did not die. Another suit was filed against the city in 2007 for performing strip searches on inmates taken to Rikers on misdemeanor charges. On October 4, 2007, the New York City Department of Corrections conceded that tens of thousands of nonviolent inmates taken to Rikers Island on misdemeanor charges had been wrongly strip-searched in violation of

2680-433: The continued practice of humiliating detainees by forcing them to strip naked in groups." This class action suit won $ 33 million in damages. In February 2008, correctional officer Lloyd Nicholson was indicted after he allegedly used a select group of teenage inmates as enforcers under a regime called "the program", as well as allegedly beating inmates himself. However, "the program" has been known to exist for well over

2747-414: The courthouses. The population at Rikers Island would have to decrease from current average of 10,000 to approximately 5,000. According to The Mayor's Office of Criminal Justice, key strategies in shrinking the Rikers population have included addressing causes of case delays, identifying individuals that could be granted alternatives to jail time, and improving programming and discharge services. Since 1991,

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2814-519: The crash, department personnel and inmates ran to the site to help survivors. As a result of their actions, of the 57 inmates who assisted with the rescue effort, 30 were released and 16 received a sentence reduction of six months by the N.Y.C. Parole Board. Governor Averell Harriman also granted commutation of sentence to 11 men serving definite sentences: two received a six-months' reduction; one workhouse and eight penitentiary definites became eligible for immediate release. In 1993, United Blood Nation

2881-724: The day before graduation. Graham and Lewis were found guilty on all charges by a Bronx jury on May 14, 2012. It took the jury approximately three hours to deliberate a guilty verdict. Lewis was able to retire in December 2009 with her pension. Graham was terminated from the Department of Correction following the guilty verdict. Each faced up to four years in prison, however, Graham and Lewis were both sentenced to 500 hours of community service and ordered to pay $ 1,000.00 in fines on August 7, 2012. The New York City Department of Correction reported that in fiscal year 2012 more than 14.4 percent of adolescents detained at Rikers Island between

2948-574: The first place. Officials won't talk about the investigation, and there's no word on whether any arrests have been made." On June 1, 2007, Captain Sherman Graham and Assistant Deputy Warden Gail Lewis were arrested by the New York City Department of Investigation (DOI) for covering up an assault on an inmate. The arrest came after both were indicted by a Bronx grand jury. It is alleged that on October 4, 2006, Graham assaulted an inmate after he refused to comply with strip searching procedures at

3015-412: The island for use as a work-house. Any such purchase would have to be approved by the state. In January 1884, state senator Frederick S. Gibbs introduced a bill in the state senate authorizing the commission to purchase the island. In May 1884, Governor Grover Cleveland signed a bill authorizing the Commissioner of Charities and Corrections to purchase the island for a sum no greater than $ 180,000. At

3082-562: The island is from Queens , over the 4,200-foot (1,300 m) three-lane Francis Buono Bridge , dedicated in November 1966, by Mayor John Lindsay . The street address is 15 Hazen Street, East Elmhurst, NY 11370. Before the bridge was constructed, the only access to the island was by ferry . Transportation is also provided by the Q100 MTA Regional Bus Operations route. Privately operated shuttles connect

3149-400: The jail complex, New York City Public Advocate Letitia James suggested renaming the island after Kalief Browder , an inmate who committed suicide after being jailed at Rikers. Another possibility for reuse of the island after closure of the jail complex would be to build an expansion of nearby LaGuardia Airport . According to a 2017 city-sponsored report, incorporating Rikers Island into

3216-492: The level of their accusation, were strip searched. These searches often took place in groups of 10 to 12 and involved genital and anal searches. Despite the court's ruling, the practice lived on, costing New York City a total of $ 81 million in settlements to the victims of these illegal searches. In 2001, a ruling was reached in New York reinforcing the illegality of strip searches for misdemeanor detainees, and demanding that

3283-490: The ocean. Much of it ended up on Rikers Island, even though the island already had 12 mountains of garbage 40 to 130 feet tall. Rikers took in 1.5 million cubic yards of additional refuse, more than the amount of dirt displaced by the building of the World Trade Center . Since much of the garbage was composed of ash from coal heating and incinerators, there were frequent spontaneous phosphorescent fires, even in

3350-548: The parking lot at the south end to the island. A bus service within the island for people visiting inmates is provided by the New York City Department of Correction on Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays. The North Infirmary Command, which used to be called the Rikers Island Infirmary, is used to house inmates requiring extreme protective custody , inmates with special health needs, mentally ill inmates , and inmates undergoing drug detoxification. The Infirmary has

3417-506: The prison granted early release to terminal HIV-positive inmates so that they could die peacefully in their own homes. The prison housed juvenile inmates until 2018. The move was prompted by a law passed by New York state in 2017 requiring that juvenile inmates under 18 be housed separately from adults. In February 2016, the Independent Commission on New York City Criminal Justice and Incarceration Reform, also known as

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3484-407: The prison. The law requires the prison to publish quarterly reports on their use of solitary confinement, but did not include provisions regarding the protection of prisoners against guard brutality or limiting the use of solitary confinement as a punishment. The solitary confinement unit at Rikers is commonly referred to as "Bing", the inmates kept there known as "Bing monsters". Kalief Browder

3551-436: The proposed development. It would also mean that each residential unit would cost about twice as much to construct as a normal unit in New York City. The residential development would connect the island to the mainland for the expansion of the airport, using it as a park, for solid-waste management or for manufacturing. However, the commission specifically ruled out its use for private residences. In light of possible closure of

3618-563: The raising of the Anderson Zouaves, with the Astor ladies making the zouave uniforms worn by the recruits of this regiment. Rikers Island was subsequently used by numerous other Civil War regiments, but the name "Camp Astor" was specific to the Anderson Zouaves, and did not become a general name for the military encampment on the island. In 1883, New York City's Commission of Charities and Corrections expressed an interest in purchasing

3685-712: The ten worst correctional facilities in the entire United States, based on reporting in Mother Jones magazine. A documented increase in violence on Rikers Island was reported by the 2010s. In 2015, there were 9,424 assaults, the highest number in five years. In October 2019, the New York City Council voted to close down the facility by 2026. The Rikers Island complex, which consists of ten jails, holds local offenders who are awaiting trial, serving sentences of one year or less, or are temporarily placed there pending transfer to another facility. Rikers Island

3752-515: The time, the island was within the boundaries of Long Island City, which was located in Queens County, which was not yet part of New York City. This potential transfer set off squabbling between politicians of Long Island City, Queens County, and New York City. On July 31, 1884, a compromise was agreed to by all three entities. New York City agreed to pay $ 3,000, with $ 2,500 given to Long Island City and $ 500 to Queens County. On August 4, 1884,

3819-506: The use of alternative facilities and reforms such as making the payment of bail easier and improving mental health facilities and programs. Two "diversion centers" will assist people with mental health problems and will work with police to find options other than incarceration. Smaller jail facilities will be open throughout the city, but the plan does not fully describe how, where, and when that will occur. The New York State Commission of Correction, which oversees New York City's jails, issued

3886-419: The vessel, because of the way New York City makes capital purchases, had to begin at least five years before the keel was laid, during the tenure of Ed Koch . Rikers is close to the runways of LaGuardia Airport . On February 1, 1957, Northeast Airlines Flight 823 crashed onto Rikers Island shortly after departing LaGuardia Airport, killing 20 and injuring 78 out of a total of 95 passengers and 6 crew. After

3953-423: The wintertime, in the snow. One warden described it in 1934: "At night it is like a forest of Christmas trees – first one little light ... then another, until the whole hillside is lit up with little fires. ... It was beautiful." The island was plagued with rats, which at one point were so prevalent that after "poison gas, poison bait, ferocious dogs and pigs" failed to control them, one New Yorker tried to organize

4020-524: Was accused of stealing a backpack at the age of 16. His family was unable to make his $ 3,000 bail, later being unable to post bail due to a probation violation. Browder was imprisoned without trial or conviction for three years, his trial postponed on numerous occasions. The case was eventually dismissed, and Browder was released in June 2013 by Judge Patricia DiMango after numerous postponements and 31 hearings in front of judges. For two of those years, Browder

4087-485: Was followed by the 36th New York State Volunteers on June 23, which was followed by the Anderson Zouaves on July 15, 1861. The Anderson Zouaves were commanded by John Lafayette Riker , who was related to the owners of the island. The camp of the Anderson Zouaves was named Camp Astor in compliment to millionaire John Jacob Astor Jr. . Astor provided funding for the army, and made a significant contribution to

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4154-504: Was founded by Omar Portee and Leonard McKenzie while locked up in the George Mochen Detention Center at Rikers Island. A drawing by artist Salvador Dalí , done as an apology because he was unable to attend a talk about art for the prisoners at Rikers Island, hung in the inmate dining room in J.A.T.C. (HDM) from 1965 to 1981, when it was moved to the prison lobby in E.M.T.C. (C76) for safekeeping. The drawing

4221-751: Was held in solitary confinement or punitive segregation. He was profiled in The New Yorker in October 2014 for being held for three years on Rikers Island without a trial. In June 2015, Browder died by suicide by hanging. The conditions of his detention were widely seen as having caused his mental condition. He had multiple prior suicide attempts while incarcerated. Days after his death, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Anthony Kennedy invoked Browder's experience in his opinion on Davis v. Ayala . On January 25, 2016, President Barack Obama wrote an article in The Washington Post criticizing

4288-652: Was installed on the East River at the end of Hunts Point near the Fulton Fish Market to accommodate the extra inmates. The keel for the Vernon C. Bain was laid in 1989 at the Avondale Shipyard in New Orleans . Upon completion, VCBC was towed up from Louisiana to its current mooring, and attached to two "Crandall Arms". It opened for use as a facility in 1992. Originally it had been leased to

4355-515: Was later renamed LaGuardia Airport . The net expansion of the island enabled the jail facilities to expand. The original penitentiary building, completed in 1935, was called HDM, or the House of Detention for Men. It became a maximum security facility called the James A. Thomas Center and closed due to structural issues in 2000. In 1922, New York City was banned by the courts from dumping garbage in

4422-400: Was opened in 1932. Landfill continued to be added to the island until 1943, eventually enlarging the original 90-acre (36 ha) island to 415 acres (168 ha). This required the permission of the federal government, since the expansion extended the island's pier line. 200 acres (81 ha) were also stripped from Rikers to help fill in the new North Beach Airport, which opened in 1939 and

4489-671: Was stolen in March 2003 and replaced with a fake. Three correctional officers and an assistant deputy warden were arrested and charged, and though the three later pleaded guilty and one was acquitted, the drawing has not been recovered. During the AIDS crisis in the 1980s and 1990s, at the request of the Association for Drug Abuse Prevention and Treatment (ADAPT) and the Executive Director Yolanda Serrano ,

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