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104-609: Jean de Brébeuf SJ ( French: [ʒɑ̃ də bʁe.bœf] ) (25 March 1593 – 16 March 1649) was a French Jesuit missionary who travelled to New France (Canada) in 1625. There he worked primarily with the Huron for the rest of his life, except for a few years in France from 1629 to 1633. He learned their language and culture, writing extensively about each to aid other missionaries. In 1649, Brébeuf and another missionary were captured when an Iroquois raid took over

208-585: A Huron village (referred to in French as St. Louis). Together with Huron captives, the missionaries were ritually tortured and killed on 16 March 1649. Afterwards, his heart was eaten by Iroquois tribesmen. Brébeuf was beatified in 1925 and with eight Jesuit missionaries was canonized in the Catholic Church in 1930. Brébeuf was born 25 March 1593 in Condé-sur-Vire , Normandy , France (He

312-457: A centralised organization and stressed acceptance of any mission to which the pope might call them. His main principle became the unofficial Jesuit motto: Ad Maiorem Dei Gloriam ("For the greater glory of God"). This phrase is designed to reflect the idea that any work that is not evil can be meritorious for the spiritual life if it is performed with this intention, even things normally considered of little importance. The Society of Jesus

416-550: A drink to a heretical and mortally ill man. It is said that the man was cured of his disease. In another instance, in 1660–61, a possessed woman was exorcised by the aid of one of Brébeuf's ribs, again while under the care of Catherine de Saint-Augustin. The exact circumstances of this event are disputed. Brébeuf's relics were also used by nuns who were treating wounded Huguenot (Protestant) soldiers, and they "reported that his assistance [bone slivers put in soldiers' drinks] helped rescue these patients from heresy ". Jean de Brébeuf

520-540: A few key activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were trained in both classical studies and theology , and their schools reflected this. These schools taught with a balance of Aristotelian methods with mathematics. Second, they sent out missionaries across the globe to evangelize those peoples who had not yet heard the Gospel , founding missions in widely diverse regions such as modern-day Paraguay , Japan, Ontario , and Ethiopia . One of

624-631: A long and very detailed account of the country and its religion as well as treatises in Tibetan that attempted to refute key Buddhist ideas and establish the truth of Catholic Christianity. Jesuit missions in the Americas became controversial in Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal where they were seen as interfering with the proper colonial enterprises of the royal governments. The Jesuits were often

728-707: A novice in the Society of Jesus in 1626. From 1628 to 1632 he taught at the Collège in Bourges after which he furthered his religious training at the College of La Flèche . From there, he went to Quebec in 1636. Upon arriving in Quebec, he was almost immediately sent to the Huron mission where he worked under the instruction of Fathers Jean de Brébeuf and Jérôme Lalemant for eight years. In 1645 he became superior of

832-504: A partner or comrade. From this came "Society of Jesus" (SJ) by which they would be known more widely. Religious orders established in the medieval era were named after particular men: Francis of Assisi (Franciscans); Domingo de Guzmán , later canonized as Saint Dominic (Dominicans); and Augustine of Hippo (Augustinians). Ignatius of Loyola and his followers appropriated the name of Jesus for their new order, provoking resentment by other orders who considered it presumptuous. The resentment

936-656: A place of study in Louvain (1614). This was the earliest foundation of what would later be called Heythrop College . Campion Hall , founded in 1896, has been a presence within Oxford University since then. 16th and 17th-century Jesuit institutions intended to train priests were hotbeds for the persecution of Catholics in Britain, where men suspected of being Catholic priests were routinely imprisoned, tortured, and executed. Jesuits were among those killed, including

1040-580: A similar Iroquois raid in 1648. Charles Garnier was killed by Iroquois in December 1649 in a Petun (Tobacco People) village, and Noel Chabanel was also martyred that year in the conflict between the Mohawk and other tribes. The Jesuits considered the priests' martyrdom as proof that the mission to the Native Americans was blessed by God and would be successful. Throughout the torture, Brébeuf

1144-643: A sound footing, introducing the Tridentine Reforms and finding suitable men to fill vacant sees. He established a house of religious women in Limerick known as the Menabochta ("poor women" ) and in 1565 preparations began for establishing a school at Limerick. At his instigation, Richard Creagh , a priest of the Diocese of Limerick, was persuaded to accept the vacant Archdiocese of Armagh , and

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1248-404: A special obedience to the sovereign pontiff in regard to the missions" to the effect that a Jesuit is expected to be directed by the pope " perinde ac cadaver " ("as if he was a lifeless body") and to accept orders to go anywhere in the world, even if required to live in extreme conditions. This was so because Ignatius, its leading founder, was a nobleman who had a military background. Accordingly,

1352-651: A thief or noted evildoer". After being court-martialled by the Lord President of Munster, Sir John Perrot , he was sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered for treason and refused pardon in return for swearing the Act of Supremacy . His execution was carried out on 25 October 1572 and a report of it was sent by Fitzmaurice to the Jesuit Superior General in 1576, where he said that Daniel was "cruelly killed because of me". Paul Ragueneau He

1456-564: A time been predominantly Protestant, notably Poland and Lithuania . Today, Jesuit colleges and universities are located in over one hundred nations around the world. Under the notion that God can be encountered through created things and especially art, they encouraged the use of ceremony and decoration in Catholic ritual and devotion. Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of "finding God in all things", many early Jesuits distinguished themselves in

1560-649: Is a member of a Society founded chiefly for this purpose: to strive especially for the defence and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine, by means of public preaching, lectures and any other ministration whatsoever of the Word of God, and further by means of retreats, the education of children and unlettered persons in Christianity, and the spiritual consolation of Christ's faithful through hearing confessions and administering

1664-418: Is classified among institutes as an order of clerks regular , that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, and following a religious rule. The term Jesuit (of 15th-century origin, meaning "one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus") was first applied to the society in reproach (1544–1552). The term was never used by Ignatius of Loyola, but over time, members and friends of

1768-842: Is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna della Strada , a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary , and it is led by a superior general . The headquarters of the society, its general curia , is in Rome. The historic curia of Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù , the Jesuit mother church . Members of the Society of Jesus make profession of "perpetual poverty, chastity, and obedience" and "promise

1872-409: Is credited with composing the " Huron Carol ", Canada's oldest Christmas song, written around 1642. He wrote the lyrics in the native language of the Huron / Wendat people. The song's melody is based on a traditional French folk song, " Une Jeune Pucelle " (A Young Maid). The educational rigour of the Jesuit seminaries prepared missionaries to acquire native languages. But, as they had learned

1976-735: Is named for all of the North American Martyrs and those who helped them. The parish municipality of Brébeuf, Quebec , is named after him, as is rue de Brébeuf on the Plateau Mont-Royal in Montreal. Parc Brébeuf in the Hull region of Gatineau, Quebec is named in his honour and features a statue. The character of Christophe in The Orenda , a 2013 novel by Joseph Boyden, is based on Jean de Brebeuf. The novel won

2080-584: Is the founding document of the Society of Jesus as an official Catholic religious order. Ignatius was chosen as the first Superior General . Paul III's bull had limited the number of its members to sixty. This limitation was removed through the bull Exposcit debitum of Julius III in 1550. In 1543, Peter Canisius entered the Company. Ignatius sent him to Messina, where he founded the first Jesuit college in Sicily . Ignatius laid out his original vision for

2184-979: The Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ . On 15 August 1534, Ignatius of Loyola (born Íñigo López de Loyola), a Spaniard from the Basque city of Loyola , and six others mostly of Castilian origin, all students at the University of Paris , met in Montmartre outside Paris, in a crypt beneath the church of Saint Denis , now Saint Pierre de Montmartre , to pronounce promises of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Ignatius' six companions were: Francisco Xavier from Navarre ( modern Spain ), Alfonso Salmeron , Diego Laínez , Nicolás Bobadilla from Castile ( modern Spain ), Peter Faber from Savoy , and Simão Rodrigues from Portugal . The meeting has been commemorated in

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2288-696: The Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council . Jesuit missionaries established missions around the world from the 16th to the 18th century and had both successes and failures in Christianizing the native peoples. The Jesuits have always been controversial within the Catholic Church and have frequently clashed with secular governments and institutions. Beginning in 1759,

2392-728: The First Nations and Native American languages they had learned. For instance, before his death in 1708, Jacques Gravier , vicar general of the Illinois Mission in the Mississippi River valley, compiled a Miami–Illinois –French dictionary , considered the most extensive among works of the missionaries. Extensive documentation was left in the form of The Jesuit Relations , published annually from 1632 until 1673. Whereas Jesuits were active in Britain in

2496-589: The Iroquois destroyed the Huron mission village at Saint-Louis. The Iroquois took the priests to the occupied village of Taenhatenteron (also known as St. Ignace), where they subjected the missionaries and native converts to ritual torture before killing them. The Iroquois then cannibalized his body. Three priests had been killed in Mohawk country at Ossernenon in 1642 and 1646. Antoine Daniel had been killed in

2600-802: The Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( / ˈ dʒ ɛ ʒ u ɪ t s , ˈ dʒ ɛ zj u -/ JEZH -oo-its, JEZ -ew- ; Latin: Iesuitae ), is a religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rome. It was founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola and six companions, with the approval of Pope Paul III . The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations. Jesuits work in education, research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also conduct retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, sponsor direct social and humanitarian ministries, and promote ecumenical dialogue . The Society of Jesus

2704-519: The Kangxi Emperor and many Jesuit converts that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius was a nonreligious token of respect, Pope Clement XI 's papal decree Cum Deus Optimus ruled that such behavior constituted impermissible forms of idolatry and superstition in 1704; his legate Tournon and Bishop Charles Maigrot of Fujian, tasked with presenting this finding to the Kangxi Emperor , displayed such extreme ignorance that

2808-670: The Liturgy of Hours in common) allowed them to be flexible and meet diverse needs arising at the time. After much training and experience in theology, Jesuits went across the globe in search of converts to Christianity. Despite their dedication, they had little success in Asia, except in the Philippines . For instance, early missions in Japan resulted in the government granting the Jesuits

2912-754: The Manuscript of 1652. The religious communities in New France considered the Jesuit martyrs as imitators of previous saints in the Catholic Church. In this sense, Brébeuf in particular, and others like him, reinforced the notion that "...Canada was a land of saints". Catherine de Saint-Augustin said that Brébeuf appeared to her in a vision at the Québec Hôtel-Dieu while she was in a state of "mystical ecstasy", and he acted as her spiritual advisor. According to one account, Catherine de Saint-Augustin ground up part of Brébeuf's relic bone and gave it in

3016-691: The Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre . They called themselves the Compañía de Jesús , and also Amigos en El Señor or "Friends in the Lord", because they felt "they were placed together by Christ." The name "company" had echoes of the military (reflecting perhaps Ignatius' background as Captain in the Spanish army) as well as of discipleship (the "companions" of Jesus). The Spanish "company" would be translated into Latin as societas like in socius ,

3120-621: The Petrine primacy and the priority of the Mass amongst the sacraments with his students and congregation, and that his sermons should emphasize obedience to secular princes if he wished to avoid arrest. The number of scholars in their care was very small. An early example of a school play in Ireland is sent in one of Good's reports, which was performed on the Feast of St. John in 1566. The school

3224-494: The Protestant Reformation throughout Catholic Europe. Ignatius and the early Jesuits did recognize, though, that the hierarchical church was in dire need of reform. Some of their greatest struggles were against corruption, venality , and spiritual lassitude within the Catholic Church. Ignatius insisted on a high level of academic preparation for the clergy in contrast to the relatively poor education of much of

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3328-629: The Scholastic structure of Catholic thought. This method of teaching was important in the context of the Scientific Revolution, as these universities were open to teaching new scientific and mathematical methodology. Further, many important thinkers of the Scientific Revolution were educated by Jesuit universities. In addition to the teachings of faith , the Jesuit Ratio Studiorum (1599) would standardize

3432-485: The Spiritual Exercises . During a four-week period of silence, individuals undergo a series of directed meditations on the purpose of life and contemplations on the life of Christ. They meet regularly with a spiritual director who guides their choice of exercises and helps them to develop a more discerning love for Christ. The retreat follows a "Purgative-Illuminative-Unitive" pattern in the tradition of

3536-732: The classical and Romance languages , they likely had difficulty with the very different conventions of the New World indigenous languages. Brébeuf's study of the languages was also shaped by his religious training. Current Catholic theology tried to reconcile knowledge of world languages with accounts in the Bible of the tower of Babel , as this was the basis of European history. This influence can be seen in his discussion of language in his accounts collected in The Jesuit Relations. Jean de Brébeuf's remarkable facility with language

3640-522: The 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution , to China. The scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when scientific innovation had declined in China: [The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out

3744-594: The 16th century, due to the persecution of Catholics in the Elizabethan times, an English province was only established in 1623. The first pressing issue for early Jesuits in what today is the United Kingdom was to establish places for training priests. After an English College was opened in Rome (1579), a Jesuit seminary was opened at Valladolid (1589), then one in Seville (1592), which culminated in

3848-494: The 2014 Canada Reads competition, a reality show with elimination-style voting on CBC Radio. Jean de Brébeuf is the subject of Brébeuf and his Brethren , a blank-verse epic poem by the Canadian poet E. J. Pratt , FRSC , for which Pratt was awarded one of his three Governor General's Awards for Poetry in 1940. Society of Jesus The Society of Jesus ( Latin : Societas Iesu ; abbreviation: SJ ), also known as

3952-589: The Catholic Church expelled Jesuits from most countries in Europe and from European colonies. Pope Clement XIV officially suppressed the order in 1773. In 1814, the Church lifted the suppression. Ignatius of Loyola , a Basque nobleman from the Pyrenees area of northern Spain, founded the society after discerning his spiritual vocation while recovering from a wound sustained in the Battle of Pamplona . He composed

4056-603: The College of Quebec, and superior of the Canadian mission. In 1656, Ragueneau was assigned to the residence at Trois-Rivières. In 1657, he left for Sainte-Marie-de-Ganentaa . He was part of the times that saw the departure of Fathers Chaumonot , Le Moyne , and other missionaries. This first attempt at an organized apostolate among the Iroquois had failed. In 1662 he returned to France and remained there as procurator of

4160-585: The Huron mission. During his time as superior, a number of his missionaries met their deaths, the first being Father Antoine Daniel (4 July, 1648). They became known as the Canadian Martyrs . He remained at his post on St. Mary's on the Wye until 1649, when persuaded by the Huron leaders to join the fugitives on St. Joseph's island (1649). After a bloody defeat, followed by the massacres of Fathers Noël Chabanel and Charles Garnier , Ragueneau, yielding to

4264-427: The Huron religion and Christianity, so as to facilitate the conversion of the Huron to the European religion. Brébeuf was known by the Huron for his apparent shamanistic skills, especially in rainmaking. Despite his efforts to learn their ways, he considered Huron spiritual beliefs to be undeveloped and "foolish delusions"; he was determined to convert them to Christianity. Brébeuf did not enjoy universal popularity with

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4368-410: The Huron, as many believed he was a sorcerer. By 1640, nearly half the Huron had died of smallpox and the losses disrupted their society. Many children and elders died. With their loved ones dying before their eyes, many Huron began to listen to the words of Jesuit missionaries who, unaffected by the disease, appeared to be men of great power. Brébeuf's progress as a missionary in achieving conversions

4472-532: The Japanese Language", a Japanese–Portuguese dictionary written 1603); Vietnamese (Portuguese missionaries created the Vietnamese alphabet , which was later formalized by Avignon missionary Alexandre de Rhodes with his 1651 trilingual dictionary ); Tupi (the main language of Brazil); and the pioneering study of Sanskrit in the West by Jean François Pons in the 1740s. Jesuit missionaries were active among indigenous peoples in New France in North America, many of them compiling dictionaries or glossaries of

4576-452: The Jesuit missions, but noted that it was so difficult a task that it consumed most of the priest's time. Brébeuf felt his primary goal in his early years in New France was to learn the language. With increasing proficiency in the Wyandot language, Brébeuf became optimistic about advancing his missionary goals. By understanding Huron religious beliefs and communicating Christian fundamentals, he could secure converts to Christianity. He realized

4680-412: The Pope, and the Ottoman Empire , had rendered any journey to Jerusalem impossible. Again in 1540, they presented the project to Paul III. After months of dispute, a congregation of cardinals reported favourably upon the Constitution presented, and Paul III confirmed the order through the bull Regimini militantis ecclesiae ("To the Government of the Church Militant"), on 27 September 1540. This

4784-436: The Portuguese Province to agree a surety for the ransom of Wolfe, who was quickly banished on release. Daniel returned to Ireland the following year, but was immediately captured and incriminating documents were found on his person, which were taken as proof of his involvement with the rebellious cousin of the Earl of Desmond , James Fitzmaurice and a Spanish plot. He was removed from Limerick, taken to Cork "just as if he were

4888-410: The Provincial of France, Father Pierre Coton , to embark on the missions to New France . In June 1625, Brébeuf arrived in Québec with Fathers Charles Lalemant and Énemond Massé , together with the lay brothers Francois Charton and Gilbert Burel. He worked at the Sainte-Marie among the Hurons . For about five months Brébeuf lived with a tribe of Montagnais , who spoke an Algonquian language . He

4992-407: The United States announced a tour of Brébeuf's relics throughout both countries in 2024. It is said that the modern name of the Native North American sport of lacrosse was first coined by Brébeuf who thought that the sticks used in the game reminded him of a bishop's crosier ( crosse in French , and with the feminine definite article, la crosse ). He is buried in the Church of St. Joseph at

5096-400: The call for the society's suppression. Jesuit priests such as Manuel da Nóbrega and José de Anchieta founded several towns in Brazil in the 16th century, including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro , and were very influential in the pacification, religious conversion , and education of indigenous nations. They also built schools, organized people into villages, and created a writing system for

5200-407: The centre for missionary activity with the Huron. At the time, the Huron suffered epidemics of new Eurasian diseases contracted from the Europeans. Their death rates were high, as they had no immunity to the diseases long endemic in Europe. They, with our hindsight, rightly blamed the Europeans for the deaths, with none of the parties understanding the causes. Called Échon by the Hurons, Brébeuf

5304-430: The city for eight months, before moving to Kilmallock in December 1565 under the protection of the Earl of Desmond, where they lived in more comfort than the primitive conditions they experienced in the city. However they were unable to support themselves at Kilmallock and three months later they returned to the city in Easter 1566, and strangely set up their house in accommodation owned by the Lord Deputy of Ireland, which

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5408-436: The city in very bad health, but had recovered due to the kindness of the people. They established contact with Wolfe, but were only able to meet with him at night, as the English authorities were attempting to arrest the legate. Wolfe charged them initially with teaching to the boys of Limerick, with an emphasis on religious instruction, and Good translated the catechism from Latin into English for this purpose. They remained in

5512-410: The clergy of his time. The Jesuit vow against "ambitioning prelacies" can be seen as an effort to counteract another problem evidenced in the preceding century. Ignatius and the Jesuits who followed him believed that the reform of the church had to begin with the conversion of an individual's heart. One of the main tools the Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion is the Ignatian retreat, called

5616-488: The direction of the mission at Saint-Joseph I to Jérôme Lalemant ; he was called to become Superior at his newly founded Saint-Joseph II. In 1640, after an unsuccessful mission into Neutral Nation territory, Brébeuf broke his collarbone. He was sent to Québec to recover and worked there as a mission procurator. He taught the Huron, acting as confessor and advisor to the Ursulines and Religious Hospitallers . On Sundays and feast days, he preached to French colonists. Brébeuf

5720-440: The emperor mandated the expulsion of Christian missionaries unable to abide by the terms of Ricci's Chinese catechism. Tournon's summary and automatic excommunication for any violators of Clement's decree  – upheld by the 1715 bull Ex Illa Die  – led to the swift collapse of all the missions in China; the last Jesuits were finally expelled after 1721. The first Jesuit school in Ireland

5824-449: The end of 1568 the Anglican Bishop of Meath, Hugh Brady , was sent to Limerick charged with a Royal Commission to seek out and expel the Jesuits. Daniel was immediately ordered to quit the city and went to Lisbon, where he resumed his studies with the Portuguese Jesuits. Good moved on to Clonmel , before establishing himself at Youghal until 1577. In 1571, after Wolfe had been captured and imprisoned at Dublin Castle , Daniel persuaded

5928-411: The entreaties of the few whom famine, pestilence, and the fury of the Iroquois had spared, led the small band of 400 survivors, the remnants of a nation of ten thousand, to their final refuge, Quebec, after a long and perilous journey. Ragueneau wrote the Relations of the Hurons of 1648–49, 1649–50, 1650–51, and 1651–52 which describes the destruction of the mission. In 1650, he became vice- rector of

6032-428: The feudal fiefdom of Nagasaki in 1580. This was removed in 1587 due to fears over their growing influence. Jesuits did, however, have much success in Latin America. Their ascendancy in societies in the Americas accelerated during the seventeenth century, wherein Jesuits created new missions in Peru , Colombia , and Bolivia ; as early as 1603, there were 345 Jesuit priests in Mexico alone. Francis Xavier , one of

6136-440: The first Roman-style academic institution in the East, St. Paul Jesuit College in Macau , China. Founded by Alessandro Valignano , it had a great influence on the learning of Eastern languages (Chinese and Japanese) and culture by missionary Jesuits, becoming home to the first western sinologists such as Matteo Ricci . Jesuit efforts in Goa were interrupted by the expulsion of the Jesuits from Portuguese territories in 1759 by

6240-553: The first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence, European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture. For over a century, Jesuits such as Michele Ruggieri , Matteo Ricci , Diego de Pantoja , Philippe Couplet , Michal Boym , and François Noël refined translations and disseminated Chinese knowledge , culture , history , and philosophy to Europe. Their Latin works popularized

6344-474: The foundation for all subsequent Jesuit linguistic work. He translated Ledesma's catechism from French into Huron, and arranged to have it printed. It was the first printed text in that language (with French orthography). He also compiled a dictionary of Huron words, emphasizing translation of religious phrases such as from prayers and the Bible. Brébeuf was killed at St. Ignace in Huronia on 16 March 1649. He had been taken captive with Gabriel Lalemant when

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6448-452: The grounds of the nearby Martyrs' Shrine. The service was attended by an estimated 75,000 and mixed pre-Christian first-nation ritual with Catholic liturgy. Numerous schools are named in his honour: There is the Église St-Jean de Brebeuf in Sudbury, Ontario , and a St. John Brebeuf Catholic Parish in Niles, Illinois, USA . There is also a unit at Camp Ondessonk in the Shawnee National Forest named after Jean de Brébeuf. The Catholic camp

6552-411: The language was still onerous, and he wrote to warn other missionaries of the difficulties. To explain the low number of converts, Brébeuf noted that missionaries first had to master the Huron language. His commitment to this work demonstrates he understood that mutual intelligibility was vital for communicating complex and abstract religious ideas. He believed learning native languages was imperative for

6656-442: The late Renaissance were significant in their roles both as a missionary order and as the first religious order to operate colleges and universities as a principal and distinct ministry. By the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, the Jesuits were already operating a network of 74 colleges on three continents. A precursor to liberal education , the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism into

6760-415: The local languages of Brazil. José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega were the first Jesuits that Ignacio de Loyola sent to the Americas. Jesuit scholars working in foreign missions were very dedicated in studying the local languages and strove to produce Latinized grammars and dictionaries . This included: Japanese (see Nippo jisho , also known as Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam , "Vocabulary of

6864-453: The missionaries returned to France. In Rouen, Brébeuf served as a preacher and confessor , taking his final Jesuit vows in 1630. Between 1631 and 1633, Brébeuf worked at the College of Eu, Seine-Maritime in northern France as a steward, minister and confessor. He returned to New France in 1633, where he lived and worked for the rest of his life. Along with Antoine Daniel and Ambroise Davost, Brébeuf chose Ihonatiria (Saint-Joseph I) as

6968-419: The name " Confucius " and had considerable influence on the Deists and other Enlightenment thinkers, some of whom were intrigued by the Jesuits' attempts to reconcile Confucian morality with Catholicism . Upon the arrival of the Franciscans and other monastic orders, Jesuit accommodation of Chinese culture and rituals led to the long-running Chinese Rites controversy . Despite the personal testimony of

7072-505: The namesake of Campion Hall, as well as Brian Cansfield, Ralph Corbington , and many others. A number of them were canonized among the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales . Four Jesuit churches remain today in London alone, with three other places of worship remaining extant in England and two in Scotland . The Jesuits first entered China through the Portuguese settlement on Macau , where they settled on Green Island and founded St. Paul's College . The Jesuit China missions of

7176-428: The new order in the "Formula of the Institute of the Society of Jesus", which is "the fundamental charter of the order, of which all subsequent official documents were elaborations and to which they had to conform". He ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life, and apostolate of

7280-455: The new religious order. Its famous opening statement echoed Ignatius' military background: Whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God beneath the banner of the Cross in our Society, which we desire to be designated by the Name of Jesus, and to serve the Lord alone and the Church, his spouse, under the Roman Pontiff, the Vicar of Christ on earth, should, after a solemn vow of perpetual chastity, poverty and obedience, keep what follows in mind. He

7384-446: The only force standing between the Indigenous and slavery . Together throughout South America but especially in present-day Brazil and Paraguay , they formed Indigenous Christian city-states, called " reductions ". These were societies set up according to an idealized theocratic model. The efforts of Jesuits like Antonio Ruiz de Montoya to protect the natives from enslavement by Spanish and Portuguese colonizers would contribute to

7488-402: The opening lines of the founding document declared that the society was founded for "whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God, to strive especially for the defense and propagation of the faith, and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine". Jesuits are thus sometimes referred to colloquially as "God's soldiers", "God's marines", or "the Company". The society participated in

7592-705: The opposition; there were already congregations named after the Trinity and as "God's daughters". In 1537, the seven travelled to Italy to seek papal approval for their order . Pope Paul III gave them a commendation, and permitted them to be ordained priests. These initial steps led to the official founding in 1540. They were ordained in Venice by the bishop of Arbe (24 June). They devoted themselves to preaching and charitable work in Italy . The Italian War of 1536–1538 renewed between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , Venice,

7696-595: The original companions of Loyola , arrived in Goa ( Portuguese India ) in 1541 to carry out evangelical service in the Indies. In a 1545 letter to John III of Portugal, he requested an Inquisition to be installed in Goa to combat heresies like crypto-Judaism and crypto-Islam. Under Portuguese royal patronage , Jesuits thrived in Goa and until 1759 successfully expanded their activities to education and healthcare. In 1594 they founded

7800-614: The original seven arrived in India already in 1541. Finally, though not initially formed for the purpose, they aimed to stop Protestantism from spreading and to preserve communion with Rome and the pope . The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the movement toward Protestantism in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and southern Germany . Ignatius wrote the Jesuit Constitutions , adopted in 1553, which created

7904-460: The other sacraments. Moreover, he should show himself ready to reconcile the estranged, compassionately assist and serve those who are in prisons or hospitals, and indeed, to perform any other works of charity, according to what will seem expedient for the glory of God and the common good. In fulfilling the mission of the "Formula of the Institute of the Society", the first Jesuits concentrated on

8008-477: The people would not give up all their traditional beliefs. Brébeuf worked tirelessly to record his findings for the benefit of other missionaries. He built on the work of Recollects priests but significantly advanced the study, particularly in his representations of sounds. He discovered and reported the feature of compound words in Huron, which may have been his major linguistic contribution. This breakthrough had enormous consequences for further study, becoming

8112-709: The powerful Marquis of Pombal , Secretary of State in Portugal. The Portuguese Jesuit António de Andrade founded a mission in Western Tibet in 1624 (see also " Catholic Church in Tibet "). Two Jesuit missionaries, Johann Grueber and Albert Dorville , reached Lhasa , in Tibet, in 1661. The Italian Jesuit Ippolito Desideri established a new Jesuit mission in Lhasa and Central Tibet (1716–21) and gained an exceptional mastery of Tibetan language and culture, writing

8216-498: The profile of a perfect martyr's end" and was preceded by what were considered religious signs pointing to correspondences with the Passion of Christ , which added to the significance of Brébeuf. On 21 March 1649, Jesuit inspectors found the bodies of Brébeuf and Lalement. In the late spring of 1649, Christophe Regnault prepared the skeletal remains of Brébeuf and Lalemant for transportation to Québec for safekeeping. Regnault boiled away

8320-660: The reconstructed Jesuit mission of Sainte-Marie among the Hurons across Highway 12 from the Martyrs' Shrine Catholic Church near Midland, Ontario . A plaque near the grave of Jean de Brébeuf and Gabriel Lalemant was unearthed during excavations at Ste Marie in 1954. The letters read "P. Jean de Brébeuf /brusle par les Iroquois /le 17 de mars l'an/1649" (Father Jean de Brébeuf, burned by the Iroquois, 17 March 1649). In September 1984, Pope John Paul II prayed over Brébeuf's skull before fully joining in an outdoor ecumenical service on

8424-634: The relics were moved to the Québec Seminary for a ceremony to celebrate Brébeuf's beatification . According to Catholic belief, these relics provide physical access to the influence of the saint of whom they are a part. In 1652 Paul Raguenau went through the Relations and pulled out material relating to the martyrs of New France. He formalized this material in a document, to be used as the foundation of canonization proceedings, entitled Memoires touchant la mort et les vertus (des Pères Jesuits), or

8528-582: The remaining flesh and reburied it in the mission church, scraped the bones and dried them in an oven, wrapped each relic in separate silk, deposited them in two small chests, and sent them to Québec. Brébeuf's family later donated his skull in a silver reliquary to the Catholic church orders in Québec. It was held by the women of the Hôtel-Dieu de Québec and the Ursuline convent from 1650 until 1925 when

8632-564: The sacraments to the public. In late 1568 the Castle Lane School, in the presence of Daniel and Good, was attacked and looted by government agents sent by Sir Thomas Cusack during the pacification of Munster. The political and religious climate had become more uncertain in the lead up to Pope Pius V 's formal excommunication of Queen Elizabeth I , which resulted in a new wave of repression of Catholicism in England and Ireland. At

8736-468: The society adopted the name with a positive meaning. While the order is limited to men, Joanna of Austria, Princess of Portugal , favored the order and she is reputed to have been admitted surreptitiously under a male pseudonym. The Jesuits were founded just before the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and ensuing Counter-Reformation that would introduce reforms within the Catholic Church, and so counter

8840-528: The spirituality of John Cassian and the Desert Fathers . Ignatius' innovation was to make this style of contemplative mysticism available to all people in active life. Further, he used it as a means of rebuilding the spiritual life of the church. The Exercises became both the basis for the training of Jesuits and one of the essential ministries of the order: giving the exercises to others in what became known as "retreats". The Jesuits' contributions to

8944-435: The study of Latin , Greek , classical literature, poetry, and philosophy as well as non-European languages, sciences, and the arts. Furthermore, Jesuit schools encouraged the study of vernacular literature and rhetoric , and thereby became important centres for the training of lawyers and public officials. The Jesuit schools played an important part in winning back to Catholicism a number of European countries which had for

9048-467: The third class learned Donatus by heart, though translated into English rather than through Latin. Young boys in the fourth class were taught to read. Progress was slow because there were too few teachers to conduct classes simultaneously. In the spirit of Ignatius' Roman College founded 14 years before, no fee was requested from pupils, though as a result the two Jesuits lived in very poor conditions and were very overworked with teaching and administering

9152-466: The traditional periods. His record as a student was not particularly distinguished, but Brébeuf was already beginning to show an aptitude for languages. Later in New France, he would teach Native American languages to missionaries and French traders. Brébeuf was ordained as a priest at Pontoise Cathedral in February 1622. After three years as Steward at the College of Rouen, Brébeuf was chosen by

9256-539: The two accounts of the deaths of Jean de Brébeuf and Gabriel Lalemant. According to Regnault, they learned of the tortures and deaths from Huron refugee witnesses who had escaped from Saint-Ignace. Regnault went to see the bodies to verify the accounts, and his superior Ragueneau's account was based on his report. The main accounts of Brébeuf's death come from The Jesuit Relations. Jesuit accounts of his torture emphasize his stoic nature and acceptance, claiming that he suffered silently without complaining. Potential martyrdom

9360-480: The visual and performing arts as well as in music. The theater was a form of expression especially prominent in Jesuit schools. Jesuit priests often acted as confessors to kings during the early modern period . They were an important force in the Counter-Reformation and in the Catholic missions, in part because their relatively loose structure (without the requirements of living and celebration of

9464-620: Was a central component of the Jesuit missionary identity. Missionaries going to Canada knew they were at risk from harsh conditions, as well as from confronting alien cultures. They expected to die in the name of God; they believed the missionary life and its risks were a chance to save converts and be saved. Fathers Brébeuf and Lalement were recovered and buried together in a Sainte Marie cemetery. Brébeuf's relics later became important religious objects within Catholic New France. Historian Allan Greer notes that "his death seemed to fit

9568-544: Was born in Paris and died in the same city. He is sometimes confused with his elder brother François, also a Jesuit. Father François Ragueneau accompanied Father Charles Lalemant who was returning to Canada in 1628. Their vessel was captured by Kirke who was then blockading the St. Lawrence and he was sent as a prisoner to England. It cannot be determined whether Francois ever did visit the Canadian missions. Paul Ragueneau became

9672-499: Was canonized by Pope Pius XI on 29 June 1930, and proclaimed one of the patron saints of Canada by Pope Pius XII on 16 October 1940. A contemporary newspaper account of the canonization declares: "Brébeuf, the ' Ajax of the mission', stands out among them [others made saints with him] because of his giant frame, a man of noble birth, of vigorous passions tamed by religion," describing both the man and his defining drive according to formal terms of hagiography. The Jesuits of Canada and

9776-516: Was conducted in one large aula, but the students were divided into distinct classes. Good gives a highly detailed report of the curriculum taught and the top class studied the first and second parts of Johannes Despauterius 's Commentarli grammatici, and read a few letters of Cicero or the dialogues of Frusius (André des Freux, SJ). The second class committed Donatus' texts in Latin to memory and read dialogues as well as works by Ēvaldus Gallus. Students in

9880-476: Was consecrated at Rome in 1564. This early Limerick school, Crescent College , operated in difficult circumstances. In April 1566, William Good sent a detailed report to Rome of his activities via the Portuguese Jesuits. He informed the Jesuit superior general that he and Edmund Daniel had arrived at Limerick city two years beforehand and their situation there had been perilous. Both had arrived in

9984-420: Was conveyed to them by certain influential friends. They recommenced teaching at Castle Lane, and imparting the sacraments, though their activities were restricted by the arrival of Royal Commissioners. Good reported that as he was an Englishman, English officials in the city cultivated him and he was invited to dine with them on a number of occasions, though he was warned to exercise prudence and avoid promoting

10088-471: Was established at Limerick by the apostolic visitor of the Holy See , David Wolfe . Wolfe had been sent to Ireland by Pope Pius IV with the concurrence of the third Jesuit superior general, Diego Laynez . He was charged with setting up grammar schools "as a remedy against the profound ignorance of the people". Wolfe's mission in Ireland initially concentrated on setting the sclerotic Irish Church on

10192-643: Was later assigned in 1626 to the Huron with Father Anne Nouée. From then on Brébeuf worked mostly as a missionary to the Huron, who spoke an Iroquoian language. Brébeuf briefly took up residence with the Bear Tribe at Toanché , but met with no success in trying to convert them to Catholicism. He was summoned to Québec because of the danger to which the entire colony was then exposed by the English . He reached Québec on 17 July 1628 after an absence of two years. On 19 July 1629, Samuel de Champlain surrendered, and

10296-453: Was one of the reasons he was chosen for the Huron mission in 1626. He is distinguished for his commitment to learning the Huron (Wyandot) language . People with a strong positive attitude towards the language often learn the language much more easily. Brébeuf was widely acknowledged to have best mastered the Native oratory style, which used metaphor , circumlocution and repetition . Learning

10400-558: Was personally involved with teaching. His lengthy conversations with Huron friends left him with a good knowledge of their culture and spirituality. He learned their language and taught it to other missionaries and colonists. Fellow Jesuits such as Paul Ragueneau describe his ease and adaptability to the Huron way of life. His efforts to develop a complete ethnographic record of the Huron has been described as "the longest and most ambitious piece of ethnographic description in all The Jesuit Relations ". Brébeuf tried to find parallels between

10504-541: Was recorded by Jesuit José de Acosta of a conversation with the Archbishop of Santo Domingo. In the words of one historian: "The use of the name Jesus gave great offense. Both on the Continent and in England, it was denounced as blasphemous; petitions were sent to kings and to civil and ecclesiastical tribunals to have it changed; and even Pope Sixtus V had signed a Brief to do away with it." But nothing came of all

10608-423: Was reported to have been more concerned for the fate of the other Jesuits and of the captive Native converts than for himself. As part of the ritual, the Iroquois drank his blood and ate his heart, as they wanted to absorb Brébeuf's courage in enduring the pain. The Iroquois mocked baptism by pouring boiling water over his head. Then they cannibalized him. The Jesuits Christophe Regnault and Paul Ragueneau provided

10712-465: Was slow. Not until 1635 did some Huron agree to be baptized as Christians. He claimed to have made 14 converts as of 1635 and, by the next year, he claimed 86. He wrote a detailed account in 1636 of The Huron Feast of the Dead , a mass reburial of remains of loved ones after a community moved the location of its village. It was accompanied by elaborate rituals and gift-giving. In 1638, Brébeuf turned over

10816-405: Was the uncle of poet Georges de Brébeuf .). He joined the Society of Jesus in 1617 at the age of 24, spending the next two years under the direction of Lancelot Marin. Between 1619 and 1621, he was a teacher at the college of Rouen . Brébeuf was nearly expelled from the Society when he contracted tuberculosis in 1620—a severe and usually fatal illness that prevented his studying and teaching for

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