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131-572: Bugang is a Daoist ritual dance or walk, based upon the Yubu "Steps of Yu" tradition, in which a Taoist priest paces through a supernatural pattern, such as stars in the Big Dipper or numbers in the Loshu magic square . Texts from the (4th century) Shangqing School revelations contain the earliest descriptions of bugang , frequently with the practitioner pacing among constellations, especially

262-548: A " liturgical framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the scholar and Taoist initiate Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body (1986). Taoshi are comparable to the non-Taoist ritual masters ( 法師 ) of vernacular traditions (the so-called Faism ) within Chinese religion. The term dàojiàotú ( 道教徒 ; 'follower of Dao'), with

393-503: A Western or Japanese background, who often use distinct interpretive models and techniques. This point of view characterizes the religious and philosophical characteristics of the Taoist tradition as being inseparable. Sinologists such as Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn state that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations." The distinction

524-481: A bifurcated 'philosophy' versus 'religion' model. Daojia was a taxonomical category for Taoist texts, that was eventually applied to Taoist movements and priests in the early medieval period. Meanwhile, daojiao was originally used to specifically distinguish Taoist tradition from Buddhism. Thus, daojiao included daojia . Komjathy notes that the earliest Taoist texts also "reveal a religious community composed of master-disciple lineages", and therefore, that "Taoism

655-515: A contentless and nonconceptual apophatic meditation as a way of achieving union with the Tao. According to Louis Komjathy, their worldview "emphasized the Dao as sacred, and the universe and each individual being as a manifestation of the Dao." These communities were also closely related to and intermixed with the fangshi (method master) communities. Other scholars, like Russell Kirkland, argue that before

786-581: A form of massage, clearly intends to establish an inner circulation in accordance with the patterns of the universe. This text gives a series of sexually implicit incantations for neidan "inner circulations" uniting the couple's yin and yang , in order to reach the Shengmen 生門 "Gate of Life". The man says, "I wish to mount the Guideline of Heaven and enter the Sequence of Earth. The four seasons and

917-729: A foundational element of Taoist ritual. A similar view is expressed in many historical texts, such as in the Taishang zhuguo jiumin zongzhen biyao ([太上助國救民總真必要] Secret Essentials of the Totality of Perfected, of the Most High, for Assisting the Country and Saving the People...), by Yuan Miaozong, who says: "The Paces of Yu along the guideline of the Dipper, and the instructions for practices in

1048-815: A key Taoist work on inner cultivation, the Baopuzi ( Master Embracing Simplicity ). The Six Dynasties (316–589) era saw the rise of two new Taoist traditions, the Shangqing and Lingbao schools. Shangqing was based on a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi between 364 and 370. As Livia Kohn writes, these revelations included detailed descriptions of the heavens as well as "specific methods of shamanic travels or ecstatic excursions, visualizations, and alchemical concoctions." The Shangqing revelations also introduced many new Taoist scriptures. Similarly, between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled

1179-557: A more important aspect. Some members of the school during the time of its apocalypticism believed those who would be saved would only be elite Daoists who previously used cultivation techniques or studied them in attempts to become xian . Members of the school in the afterlife were thought to be able to aid their living counterparts. The main god of the Shangqing School is known as the Venerable Sovereign,

1310-587: A new set of liturgies, which continue to influence Taoist practice to the present day." This period also saw the development of the Three Pure Ones , which merged the high deities from different Taoist traditions into a common trinity that has remained influential until today. The new Integrated Taoism, now with a united Taoist identity, gained official status in China during the Tang dynasty . This tradition

1441-435: A positive philosophy aims for the holistic unification of an individual's reality with everything that is not only real but also valuable, encompassing both the natural world and society. But the earliest references to 'the Tao' per se are largely devoid of liturgical or explicitly supernatural character, used in contexts either of abstract metaphysics or of the ordinary conditions required for human flourishing. This distinction

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1572-458: A range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', 'path', or 'technique', generally understood in the Taoist sense as an enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying reality . Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Taoist tradition and beyond, including forms of meditation , astrology , qigong , feng shui , and internal alchemy . A common goal of Taoist practice

1703-400: A rite of sexual union. In any case, sexual union takes place as a part of the ritual, which also includes certain dances performed by the couple." This text uses the word nie 躡 "walk on tiptoe; walk quietly; tread" in nieji 躡紀 "treading the sequence" or nieshi 躡時 "treading the [pattern of] time" – instead of bugang , which later became the standard term – describing a ritual dance in which

1834-481: A separate examination system based on Taoism. Another important Taoist figure of the Tang dynasty was Lu Dongbin , who is considered the founder of the jindan meditation tradition and an influential figure in the development of neidan (internal alchemy) practice. Likewise, several Song dynasty emperors, most notably Huizong , were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts, and publishing updated editions of

1965-573: A series of scriptures that later served as the foundation of the Lingbao school , which was most influential during the later Song dynasty (960–1279) and focused on scriptural recitation and the use of talismans for harmony and longevity. The Lingbao school practiced purification rituals called "purgations" in which talismans were empowered. Lingbao also adopted Mahayana Buddhist elements. According to Kohn, they "integrated aspects of Buddhist cosmology , worldview, scriptures, and practices, and created

2096-505: A similar nature to all other life. Roughly contemporaneously to the Tao Te Ching , some believed the Tao was a force that was the "basis of all existence" and more powerful than the gods, while being a god-like being that was an ancestor and a mother goddess . Early Taoists studied the natural world in attempts to find what they thought were supernatural laws that governed existence. Taoists created scientific principles that were

2227-540: A theoretical foundation for politics, warfare, and Taoist organizations. Taoist secret societies precipitated the Yellow Turban Rebellion during the late Han dynasty , attempting to create what has been characterized as a Taoist theocracy . Today, Taoism is one of five religious doctrines officially recognized by the Chinese government, also having official status in Hong Kong and Macau . It

2358-596: A vast new collection of Taoist texts in close imitation of Buddhist sutras ." Louis Komjathy also notes that they adopted the Mahayana Buddhist universalism in its promotion of "universal salvation" (pudu). During this period, Louguan , the first Taoist monastic institution (influenced by Buddhist monasticism ) was established in the Zhongnan mountains by a local Taoist master named Yin Tong. This tradition

2489-413: Is self-cultivation , a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and more harmonious existence. Taoist ethics vary, but generally emphasize such virtues as effortless action , naturalness , simplicity , and the three treasures of compassion, frugality, and humility. The core of Taoist thought crystallized during the early Warring States period ( c.  450  – c.  300 BCE ), during which

2620-453: Is a modern Chinese construction largely rooted in earlier Chinese literati, European colonialist, and Protestant missionary interpretations. Contemporaneous Neo-Confucianists, for example, often self-identify as Taoist without partaking in any rituals. In contrast, Komjathy characterizes Taoism as "a unified religious tradition characterized by complexity and diversity", arguing that historically, none of these terms were understood according to

2751-518: Is compared with walking the Yijing Hexagram 63 , Jiji 既濟 "Already Fording", which is composed of the trigrams li 離 (☲) Fire and kan 坎 (☵) Water. This hexagram comparison "is based on the equivalence of an isolated step with an unbroken line and two juxtaposed steps with a broken line", with a bottom-center first step and top-left ninth step. Du Guangting 's (891) Taishang huanglu zhaiyi 太上黃籙齋儀 "Protocols for Yellow Register Rites of

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2882-562: Is considered a major religion in Taiwan , and also has significant populations of adherents throughout the Sinosphere and Southeast Asia. In the West, Taoism has taken on various forms , both those hewing to historical practice, as well as highly synthesized practices variously characterized as new religious movements . "Taoism" and "Daoism" are alternate spellings of the same word. "Tao"

3013-489: Is fraught with hermeneutic difficulties when attempting to categorize different schools, sects, and movements. Russell Kirkland writes that "most scholars who have seriously studied Taoism, both in Asia and in the West" have abandoned this "simplistic dichotomy". Louis Komjathy writes that this is an untenable misconception because "the association of daojia with "thought" ( sixiang ) and of daojiao with "religion" ( zongjiao )

3144-475: Is generally not understood as a variant of Chinese folk religion per se: while the two umbrella terms have considerable cultural overlap, core themes of both also diverge considerably from one another. Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. Taoist, in Western sinology ,

3275-598: Is in the Wade-Giles romanization system, which was predominant in English-speaking countries until the late 20th century, and remains in use for certain terms with strongly established spellings. "Dao" is the spelling in the Hanyu Pinyin system, officially adopted in China in the 1950s, which has largely replaced Wade–Giles. The Standard Chinese pronunciation of both romanizations of the character "Dao"

3406-577: Is referred to as Taiyi bu jiugong 太一步九宫, "The walk of Taiyi through the Nine Palaces" (8 trigrams plus center in the Luoshu magic square), which represents Taiyi travelling though the Nine Heavens. The couple creates a ritual area by bu "distributing" the Nine Palaces, by joining fingers or toes so as to give a total number corresponding to each position, and calling out the name and number of

3537-548: Is still practiced by Zhengyi priests under the name Tianhuang dou 天皇斗, "Dipper of the Celestial Sovereign [i.e., Taiyi]". The Jiuling gang is based on the Daoist celestial stem -based "magic invisibility" system of Qimen Dunjia "Irregular Gate, Hidden Stem", which the (4th century) Baopuzi "Into Mountains: Over Streams" chapter first mentioned in context with Yubu . The Dunjia 遁甲 "Hidden Stem" calculates

3668-470: Is still understood in everyday contexts among Chinese people, echoed by early modern scholars of Chinese history and philosophy such as Feng Youlan and Wing-tsit Chan . Use of the term daojia dates to the Western Han c.  100 BCE , referring to the purported authors of the emerging Taoist canon, such as Lao Dan and Zhuang Zhou . Neither the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi themselves, or

3799-488: Is syncretic and deeply rooted in Chinese culture for millennia, it is often unclear which denominations should be considered "Taoist". The status of daoshi , or 'Taoist master', is traditionally attributed only to clergy in Taoist organizations, who distinguish between their traditions and others in Chinese folk religion . Though generally lacking motivation for strong hierarchies, Taoist philosophy has often served as

3930-449: Is the circle, and their original meanings were semantically extended in gangji 綱紀 "social order and law", the norms of conduct directed by the emperor. Gang and Ji connect in the constellation Jiao 角 " Horn ", which is one of the 28 xiu 宿 " lunar mansions " at which the Dipper points during the year. The Hanshu calendrical treatise calls the Dipper tian zhi gang 天之綱 "Heaven's gang ", and associates ji 紀 (or ji 記 "record) with

4061-486: Is the same; that is, /daʊ/ , much like the English "dow". One authority calls the pronunciation with a <t> as in "tie" to be a "mispronunciation" originally caused by the "clumsy Wade-Giles system," which misled most readers. The word Taoism is used to translate two related but distinct Chinese terms. The distinction between Taoism in philosophy and Taoist religion is an ancient, deeply-rooted one. Taoism as

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4192-478: Is traditionally used to translate daoshi /taoshih ( 道士 ; 'master of the Tao';), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism, ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skill for the benefit of a community. This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as

4323-545: Is united with Perfection ( zhen 真). The method of bugang arises from this. To perform bugang is to fly along the essences of heaven, to tread the numinae of earth, and to set the perfection of man in motion. Through it the Three Powers ( Sancai 三才, i.e., the three cosmic planes) unite their virtues, the nine breaths are aligned, and demons and spirits spin. ( Wushang xuanyuan santian yutang dafa , DZ 220). Daoists have conceived Taiyi's movements as occurring either along

4454-446: The I Ching and Spring and Autumn Annals . Although Taoism and Confucianism developed significant differences, they are not seen as mutually incompatible or exclusive. The relationship between Taoism and Buddhism upon the latter's introduction to China is characterized as one of mutual influence, with long-running discourses shared between Taoists and Buddhists; the distinct Mahayana tradition of Zen that emerged during

4585-599: The Daozang . The Song era saw new scriptures and new movements of ritualists and Taoist rites, the most popular of which were the Thunder Rites (leifa). The Thunder rites were protection and exorcism rites that evoked the celestial department of thunder, and they became central to the new Heavenly Heart (Tianxin) tradition as well as for the Youthful Incipience (Tongchu) school. In the 12th century ,

4716-522: The Zhuangzi , and the Tao Te Ching . The Tao Te Ching , attributed to Laozi , is dated by scholars to sometime between the 4th and 6th century BCE. A common tradition holds that Laozi founded Taoism. Laozi's historicity is disputed, with many scholars seeing him as a legendary founding figure. While Taoism is often regarded in the West as arising from Laozi, many Chinese Taoists claim that

4847-402: The Luoshu 洛書 magic square. In both variants of the practice, each step is accompanied by three actions coordinated with the movements of the feet: the inwardly pronounced line of incantation when the priest reaches the star or trigram in question, the visualization of a journey through heaven, and shoujue 手訣 "hand practices" in which the thumb of the left hand represents movement in parallel to

4978-591: The Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) School was founded in Shandong by the sage Wang Chongyang (1113–1170) to compete with religious Taoist traditions that worshipped " ghosts and gods " and largely displaced them. The school focused on inner transformation, mystical experience , monasticism , and asceticism . Quanzhen flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries and during the Yuan dynasty . The Quanzhen school

5109-747: The School of Naturalists (from which Taoism draws its main cosmological ideas, yin and yang and the five phases ), and the Chinese classics , especially the I Ching and the Lüshi Chunqiu . Meanwhile, Isabelle Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism: the teachings found in the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi , techniques for achieving ecstasy, practices for achieving longevity and becoming an immortal ( xian ), and practices for exorcism . Robinet states that some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China. In particular, many Taoist practices drew from

5240-445: The Tang dynasty (607–917) incorporates many ideas from Taoism. Many Taoist denominations recognize deities , often ones shared with other traditions, which are venerated as superhuman figures exemplifying Taoist virtues. They can be roughly divided into two categories of "gods" and xian (or "immortals"). Xian were immortal beings with vast supernatural powers, also describing a principled, moral person. Since Taoist thought

5371-819: The Tao Te Ching was to be a topic in the imperial examinations. During the reign of the 7th century Emperor Taizong , the Five Dragons Temple (the first temple at the Wudang Mountains ) was constructed. Wudang would eventually become a major center for Taoism and a home for Taoist martial arts ( Wudang quan ). Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–755) was also a devoted Taoist who wrote various Taoist works, and according to Livia Kohn , "had frequent meetings with senior masters, ritual specialists, Taoist poets, and official patriarchs, such as Sima Chengzhen." He reorganized imperial rituals based on Taoist forms, sponsored Taoist shrines and monasteries, and introduced

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5502-753: The Tao Te Ching were written: the Heshang Gong commentary and the Xiang'er commentary. The first organized form of Taoism was the Way of the Celestial Masters , which developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE. The latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling , who was said to have had a vision of Laozi in 142 CE and claimed that the world was coming to an end. Zhang sought to teach people to repent and prepare for

5633-614: The Yellow Emperor formulated many of their precepts, including the quest for "long life". Traditionally, the Yellow Emperor's founding of Taoism was said to have been because he "dreamed of an ideal kingdom whose tranquil inhabitants lived in harmonious accord with the natural law and possessed virtues remarkably like those espoused by early Taoism. On waking from his dream, Huangdi sought to" bring about "these virtues in his own kingdom, to ensure order and prosperity among

5764-455: The bugang "Pacing the Dipper" rite continues to be practiced. Poul Andersen says, The forms of bugang used in present-day liturgy mostly derive from the ritual compilations of the Song dynasty. They are typically performed by the high priest alone and are described in his "secret manual" ( mijue [秘訣]). The practice is highly valued by the present-day priesthood, and it is commonly conceived as

5895-608: The " three vehicles " of Buddhism. The three caverns were: Perfection (Dongzhen), associated with the Three Sovereigns ; Mystery (Dongxuan), associated with Lingbao; and Spirit (Dongshen), associated with the Supreme Clarity tradition. Lu Xiujing also used this schema to arrange the Taoist scriptures and Taoist deities. Lu Xiujing worked to compile the first edition of the Daozang (the Taoist Canon), which

6026-460: The 12-year cycle of Jupiter around the sun, which is related to various calendrical sequences and cycles of time. Daoist technical vocabulary for bugang contrasts Tiangang 天綱 "Guideline of Heaven" with Diji 地紀 "Sequence of Earth", referring to the seasonal changes on Earth, activated by the movements in heaven, and conceived as a spatial flow on the circumference of the Earth. "Thus it represents

6157-581: The Big Dipper" – and are the second of the 108 Stars of Destiny in the Water Margin . The Tang dynasty poet Lu Guimeng (d. 881) coined the expression bugangtan 步罡壇 "pacing the guideline (around the) altar". Bugang is practiced in two basic forms: the Shangqing School walk along the seven stars of the Big Dipper and the Zhengyi School walk through the eight trigrams arranged in

6288-467: The Big Dipper's stars. When religious Daoism began during the Six Dynasties period (220–589 CE), the expression bugang tadou 步罡踏斗 "pacing the guideline and treading on (the stars of) the Dipper" became popular. Bugang "pacing the stars of the Big Dipper" combines two Chinese words, bu 步 "step; tread; pace (off)" and gang 罡 "Big Dipper; (esp.) stars in the handle of the Big Dipper", and

6419-482: The Country and Saving the People" (DZ 1227), compiled by Yuan Miaozong 元妙宗, has a section on bugang that contains Tang dynasty altar purification techniques, which are still used by Zhengyi Daoist priests. The Huitan gang 回壇罡, "Guideline for Returning to the Altar", for example, gives a diagram with an incantation for each star. The Gate of Heaven is opened above. The wheel of the method of flying to heaven moves with

6550-638: The Dipper). I obey the law of the six combinations and abide by jia and yi [甲乙] (DZ 220). This is followed by the walk through the stars, accompanied by sentences enumerating of the names of the stars, with the walk starting in Tianying and ending through an exit in Tianpeng . The incantation concludes: The way of the Dipper is accomplished, the hard and soft (i.e., yang and yin ) reach their full capacity. The ten thousand evil influences are exterminated,

6681-456: The Dipper, the twelve chronograms ( chen 辰). I mount the numinous light, and the majestic martial forces are deployed. The breaths appear like floating clouds. Their seven movements correspond to heaven above. I know that the transformations have auspicious and inauspicious times. I enter the constellation of the Dipper and cross the Threshold of Heaven ( Tianguan 天關, i.e., the seventh star of

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6812-630: The Gate of Heaven, the hand reaches the Gate of Heaven. When the foot reaches the Door of Earth, the hand reaches the Door of Earth. The secret instructions of Taoism embrace heaven and earth". The Song dynasty Zhengyi master Lu Shizhong 路時中, who founded the Yutang dafa 玉堂大法 tradition in the 1120s, explained the efficacy of bugang : Between heaven and earth man is the most numinous of all things. Therefore, whenever he points in his hand or walks with his feet, he

6943-679: The Golden Flower . The Longmen school synthesized the Quanzhen and neidan teachings with the Chan Buddhist and Neo-Confucian elements that the Jingming tradition had developed, making it widely appealing to the literati class. Shangqing School Shangqing practice values meditation techniques of visualization and breathing, as well as physical exercises, as opposed to the use of alchemy and talismans . The recitation of

7074-555: The Han dynasty, there were no real "Taoists" or "Taoism". Instead, there were various sets of behaviors, practices, and interpretative frameworks (like the ideas of the Yijing , yin-yang thought , as well as Mohist , " Legalist ", and " Confucian " ideas), which were eventually synthesized into the first organized forms of "Taoism". Some of the main early Taoist sources include: the Neiye ,

7205-527: The Han. As such, they grew and became an influential religion during the Three Kingdoms period, focusing on ritual confession and petition, as well as developing a well-organized religious structure. The Celestial Masters school was officially recognized by the warlord Cao Cao in 215 CE, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return. Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE. Another important early Taoist movement

7336-592: The Ming, the legends of the Eight Immortals (the most important of which is Lü Dongbin ) rose to prominence, being part of local plays and folk culture. Ming emperors like the Hongwu Emperor continued to invite Taoists to court and hold Taoist rituals that were believed to enhance the power of the throne. The most important of these were connected with the Taoist deity Xuanwu ("Perfect Warrior"), which

7467-601: The Most High" (DZ 507) describes using bugang during presentation of the memorial in the general liturgy. This practice originated with the Song dynasty Zhengyi tradition of the Tianxin zhengfa 天心正法 "Orthodox Method of the Celestial Heart", founded by Tan Zixiao . The (1116) Taishang zhuguo jiumin zongzhen biyao 太上助国救民总真秘要 "Secret Essentials of the Perfected Totality, of the Most High, for Assisting

7598-417: The Perfected Scripture of the Great Cavern of Highest Clarity (Shangqing dadong zhenjing 上清大洞真經), was edited by the twenty-third patriarch, Zhu Ziying, and collated in the 13th century by the thirty-eighth patriarch, Jiang Zongying (d. 1281). Later versions introduced “dramatic changes.” Recitation and veneration of the texts was extremely important. The transmission of texts was strictly controlled, and only

7729-503: The Shangqing practice of bugang from an individual walk through the stars into a liturgical walk through the jiugong 九宫 "Nine Palaces" with the 8 trigrams arranged around the Luoshu . Zhengyi forms of bugang were incorporated into the general liturgy for purposes of exorcism and purification, an essential part of the zhu jinfa 诸禁法 "many methods of restriction", particularly during the initial and final parts of ceremonies. The Shangqing huangshu guodu yi 上清黄書過度儀 "Liturgy of Passage of

7860-512: The Six Heavens in English and during the apocalypse which would come in the year 392 , "the earth was to be cleansed of evildoers by a cataclysm of fire and flood." The good people of the world would be safe from this because of the power of the "luminous caverns of the perfected" beneath divine mountains like Maoshan, and Lord Li Hung would descend from heaven to rule the world afterwards. The revelation began to spread in aristocratic circles of South China, and eventually Tao Hongjing, advisor to

7991-555: The Warring States era phenomena of the wu ( Chinese shamans ) and the fangshi ("method masters", which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity"). Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "...magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism. The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists and relied greatly on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities. Female shamans played an important role in

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8122-421: The Yellow Writ of Highest Clarity" (DZ 1294) is the earliest preserved Zhengyi text to record bugang -type dancing following the magic-square pattern. Mark Csikszentmihalyi says, "This text may date from the second to fifth centuries CE, and reflects the integration of ritualized visualization, invocation, and sexual techniques." According to Andersen "It presents a wedding ritual, or perhaps one should rather say

8253-563: The actual history of bugang , Andersen says this story "also gives ample cause for suspicion.". The emphasis on the usurpant emperor Wang Mang may well be a reflection of the Hanshu (99) story – which does not refer to any walking – that Wang Mang used the Dipper as a cosmic weapon to protect himself against his enemies. "We find ample information in Han dynasty texts on the use of the Dipper as an exorcistic weapon, but I have found no trace of bugang in any of these accounts." The Bu tiangang jing describes bugang as an ecstatic flight through

8384-399: The adept standing in the star and which evokes the image of the deity of the star in question. The deity Taiyi 太一, translated as the Great One, Great Oneness, Great Monad, and Great Unity, has been viewed as the supreme god of heaven since the late Warring States period . According to Chinese mythology and astronomical tradition, Taiyi, the Emperor of Heaven, resides in the brightest star in

8515-409: The ascent to heaven. In the Shangqing texts, where this practice has not yet reached the great complexity that it would acquire later, the adept draws the stars of Ursa Major on a silk ribbon, and, after constructing a sacred enclosure by commanding the planets to take their places around him, he "clothes himself" in the stars of the Dipper and then rises into the constellation. First, he walks around

8646-429: The body and could provide good health if meditated upon. Each deity inhabited a different part of the body. Through studying the descriptions of deities in the canon, adepts would contemplate the inside of their body and maintain the deities in their proper place. This would ensure the body’s durability. While it began as a school centered on the individual, the school changed progressively until talismans and rituals became

8777-415: The body is paralleled by the Zhengyi liturgy of present-day south Taiwan, wherein the priest performs bugang simultaneously as a walk with his feet on the ground and a walk with his thumb on his left hand. For example, the Zeng family's secret manual says, "With the foot one treads the Dipper, while in the hand one points to the fingers. There must be absolutely no disorderly movement. When the foot reaches

8908-399: The body of the priest. Indeed, the basic patterns followed in the practice of bugang are associated with the concept of the movement through heaven of the high god Taiyi, the Great One, or the Supreme Unity, and the accompanying incantations often make it clear that as the priest performs the walk, he impersonates Taiyi. A powerful theme underlying the practice is that of world-creation and

9039-402: The bowl of the "Little Dipper", the large, reddish Kochab or Beta Ursae Minoris (β UMi) near the northern Pole star . Traditional Chinese astronomy calls β UMi the beijier 北極二 "North Pole second [star]", and locates Ursa Minor within the Ziweiyuan 紫微垣 Purple Forbidden enclosure . Beta Ursae Minoris is described variously as the ladle by which Taiyi pours out the primordial breath and as

9170-409: The center). Bugang 布剛 "distribution of strength" occurs in the Chunqiu yundou shu 春秋運斗樞describing the Sanhuang 三皇 "Three Sovereigns", "They contained all vastness and walked in the centre; they opened up yin and yang and distributed strength". The Jiuling gang 九靈罡 "Guideline of the Nine Spirits" bugang practice has been one of the most widespread in Daoist texts since the Song dynasty, and

9301-433: The chariot in which he moves through the heavens. "The underlying cosmographic concept is that of the Dipper as a pointer — and a conductor — stretching out from the pole of heaven to the belt of the celestial equator and, by its annual movement, like the outer leg of a compass, describing a circle which is the circumference of heaven". In Chinese terms, gang 綱 "guiding rope of a net" is the Dipper and ji 紀 "leading thread"

9432-527: The coming cataclysm, after which they would become the seeds of a new era of great peace. It was a mass movement in which men and women could act as libationers and tend to the commoners. A related movement arose in Shandong called the " Way of Great Peace ", seeking to create a new world by replacing the Han dynasty. This movement led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion , and after years of bloody war, they were crushed. The Celestial Masters movement survived this period and did not take part in attempting to replace

9563-426: The couple each puts one foot in opposing earthly branches and joins their other two feet in the center, then shifting to the next earthly branch, and so on until they have gone through the whole circle. Nieji refers specifically to the practice, performed repeatedly during the ritual and in turns by both participants, of "toeing" with one foot the body of the other while lying side by side. The movement starts from

9694-436: The early Taoist tradition, which was particularly strong in the southern state of Chu . Early Taoist movements developed their own tradition in contrast to shamanism while also absorbing shamanic elements. During the early period, some Taoists lived as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life, while others sought to establish a harmonious society based on Taoist principles. Zhuang Zhou (c. 370–290 BCE)

9825-588: The early secondary sources written about them, put forward any particular supernatural ontology. Nonetheless, that religious Taoism emerged from a synthesis of folk religion with philosophical Taoist precepts is clear. The earlier, naturalistic was employed by pre-Han and Han thinkers, and continued to be used well into the Song, including among those who explicitly rejected cults, both private and state-sanctioned, that were often either labeled or self-identified as Taoist. However, this distinction has been challenged or rejected by some scholars of religion, often those from

9956-607: The epigrammatic Tao Te Ching and the anecdotal Zhuangzi —widely regarded as the fundamental texts of Taoist philosophy—were largely composed. They form the core of a body of Taoist writings accrued over the following centuries, which was assembled by monks into the Daozang canon starting in the 5th century CE. Early Taoism drew upon diverse influences, including the Shang and Zhou state religions, Naturalism , Mohism , Confucianism , various Legalist theories, as well as

10087-424: The establishment of order, frequently associated with the construction of the sacred area in the initial part of a ritual. Within the liturgy, however, the characteristic specific functions of bugang are, first, to serve as elements of the purification of the ritual area, and second, to structure the movement of the high priest ( gaogong 高功), as he approaches the point of the transmission of a document to heaven, and

10218-640: The first of the Three Pure Ones . The pantheon included gods that could be turned to for help, ones that could be revered and others that could be commanded. As described by Tao Hongjing, the pantheon occupied twenty-eight pages in Shangqing texts, but the most important deities are scarcely mentioned. The canon mostly contains information about the gods that lived within the body. There are at least eight heavens in Shangqing Daoism, although six of them are evil and demonic. One of them gives its name to

10349-477: The first of their kind in China, and the belief system has been known to merge scientific, philosophical, and religious conceits from close to its beginning. By the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the various sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of ritualists in the state of Shu (modern Sichuan ). One of the earliest forms of Taoism was the Han era ( 2nd century BCE ) Huang–Lao movement, which

10480-466: The five elements are each of themselves apposite." The woman says, "I wish to lie on earth and receive heaven, uniting yin and yang . The four seasons and the five elements are each of themselves apposite." They both say, "The five breaths — both the dark and the yellow — adhere of their own [to my body]. They return to my five organs, which glow with light." The basis of ritual dances in the Huangshu

10611-471: The gods to arrive, you command the spiritual forces. You ride a chariot yoked with flying dragons. The heaven of the Supreme Pole ( Taiji 太極) presents you with the fungus of immortality. The Jade Emperor ( Yudi 玉帝) gives you immortal lads [to escort you]. If you practice it for two times seven years, you will become a Perfected of the heaven of Superior Purity (DZ 1316). This Shangqing form of bugang

10742-400: The heart and describes a circle in eleven steps, the man moving his left foot clockwise to an end point on the right side of the woman and the woman moving her right foot counter-clockwise to an end point on the left side of the man. In both cases it is clear from the accompanying incantation that the notion of the movement of the four seasons is involved. The practice, which is described also as

10873-521: The hundred devils destroyed. Happiness and blessing are increased and passed on to following generations. I enter the region of obscurity and live forever. (DZ 566). The Zhengyi (1201) Daomen tongjiao ji 道門通教集 "Collected Works for All Daoists Penetrating the Teaching" text records bugang purification of the altar at the end of the rite, following the "three steps and nine traces" from the Baopuzi . It

11004-409: The inhabitants". Afterwards, Taoism developed and grew into two sects; One is Zhengyi Taoism, which mainly focuses on spells, and the other is Quanzhen Taoism, which mainly focuses on practicing inner alchemy. Overall, traditional Taoist thought, content, and sects are varied, reflecting the ideal of "absorbing everything inside and mixing everything outside". Early Taoism drew on the ideas found in

11135-476: The meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century, but it has no significance for most of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger body of Chinese religion. Scholars like Harold Roth argue that early Taoism was a series of "inner-cultivation lineages" of master-disciple communities, emphasizing

11266-535: The mind's original purity and clarity (which could become obscured by desires and emotions). Key figures of this school include Xu Xun, Liu Yu, Huang Yuanji, Xu Yi, and Liu Yuanran. Some of these figures taught at the imperial capital and were awarded titles. Their emphasis on practical ethics and self-cultivation in everyday life (rather than ritual or monasticism) made it very popular among the literati class. The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) mainly promoted Buddhism as well as Neo-Confucianism . Thus, during this period,

11397-496: The most important figure of the Tang was the court Taoist and writer Du Guangting (850–933). Du wrote numerous works about Taoist rituals, history, myth, and biography. He also reorganized and edited the Taotsang after a period of war and loss. During the Tang, several emperors became patrons of Taoism, inviting priests to court to conduct rituals and enhance the prestige of the sovereign. The Gaozong Emperor even decreed that

11528-565: The movement to the north, and did little to weaken the schools organization in the south. The Daoist encyclopedia published under the patronage of the Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou (561-578) placed a great deal of importance on the Shangqing texts. The Shangqing School dominated the Daoist movements under the Tang. During this period, all of its leaders received a title from the emperor. Emperor Taizong personally visited three of

11659-533: The notions of "walking the guideline, spreading out the guideline, and distributing strength are subtly blended." The phrase bugang tadou 步罡踏斗 "pacing the guideline and treading on (the stars of) the Dipper" adds the words ta 踏 "step on; tread; trample" and dou 斗 "dipper; Big Dipper". Beidou 北斗 (lit. "Northern Dipper) is the common Chinese name for the Big Dipper . Tiangang 天罡 and Tiangangxing 天罡星 (with tian 天 "sky; h/Heaven" and xing 星 "star; heavenly body") both mean "Big Dipper; (esp.) handle of

11790-403: The origins and practice of bugang . It states than in 24 BCE, Wang Feng 王鳳, uncle of Wang Mang who overthrew the Han and founded the brief Xin dynasty , obtained a summary of bugang methods from "practitioner of the Dao" Liu Jing 劉京, who in turn had studied them with "teacher in transcendence" Lord Zhang of Handan 邯鄲張君. Although this Bu tiangang jing time scheme may prove to correspond to

11921-551: The outer circle of "dark stars", invoking the goddesses who live in them. Only then can he proceed to the male gods of the Dipper, making the resident god appear as he steps on each star in turn, following a strict order. For instance, the Bu tiangang jing 步天綱經 "Scripture on Walking the Celestial Mainstay" (DZ 1316), which explains itself as the full revelation mentioned in an earlier "excerpted and abbreviated" text, describes

12052-570: The palace in question. The trigrams and gates of the Nine Palaces are further associated with the "nine" stars of the Big Dipper, which has seven visible stars. The number of nine is reached by the addition of two "assistant" stars: Fuxing 輔星 ( Alcor , 80 Ursae Majoris) and Bixing 弼星, an invisible star near the handle of the Dipper. These nine stars have a special Daoist nomenclature of: Tianpeng 天蓬, Tiannei 天内, Tianchong 天衝, Tianfu 天輔, Tianqin 天禽, Tianxin 天心, Tianzhu 天柱, Tianren 天任, and Tianying 天英. The Shangqing huangshu guodu yi pattern of "walking" on

12183-529: The palm of the hand, are the great essentials of the Way, the primordial leading thread of (all other) methods.". Footnotes Daoist Taoism or Daoism ( / ˈ t aʊ . ɪ z əm / , / ˈ d aʊ . ɪ z əm / ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China , emphasizing harmony with the Tao 道 ( pinyin : dào ; Wade–Giles : tao ). With

12314-482: The point of his ascent in order to deliver the document to the Most High. The Daoist Lingbao School also performed the Yubu ritual. Shangqing "Supreme/Highest Clarity" School texts, supposedly revealed to Yang Xi from 364 to 370 CE, contain the earliest extant references to bugang along the stars of the Dipper. Early Shangqing texts emphasize that the purpose of bugang is to achieve individual immortality through

12445-505: The position within the space-time structure of the liuding 六丁 ("six ding ") "spirits that define the place of the Qimen 奇門 "Irregular Gate", going through which one may obtain invisibility and thus protection from all dangers. Irregular Gate divination is associated with Eight Gates, namely the Gate of Rest, of Life, of Injury, of Closing, of Brilliance, of Death, of Fright, and Gate of Opening. The incantation begins: The essential wonder of

12576-455: The princes of Qi, joined the group. He commented upon, and compiled the Shangqing texts, and developed a well-structured system consisting of a pantheon and new ways to reach immortality that depended upon meditation. More interested in Daoism and Buddhism than in public administration, in 492 he received authorization to leave the court. He moved to Maoshan, which had by now become the center of

12707-401: The properties of plants and geology , diviners , early environmentalists , tribal chieftains, court scribes and commoner members of governments, members of the nobility in Chinese states, and the descendants of refugee communities. Significant movements in early Taoism disregarded the existence of gods, and many who believed in gods thought they were subject to the natural law of the Tao, in

12838-624: The religion of the Shang dynasty and the Zhou dynasty , such as their use of divination , ancestor worship , and the idea of Heaven ( Tian ) and its relationship to humanity. According to modern scholars of Taoism, such as Kirkland and Livia Kohn , Taoist philosophy also developed by drawing on numerous schools of thought from the Warring States period (4th to 3rd centuries BCE), including Mohism , Confucianism , Legalist theorists (like Shen Buhai and Han Fei , which speak of wu wei ),

12969-454: The rise of the Xuanxue (Mysterious Learning or Deep Wisdom) tradition, which focused on philosophical inquiry and integrated Confucian teachings with Taoist thought. The movement included scholars like Wang Bi (226–249), He Yan (d. 249), Xiang Xiu (223?–300), Guo Xiang (d. 312), and Pei Wei (267–300). Another later influential figure was the 4th century alchemist Ge Hong , who wrote

13100-559: The sacred canon plays an equally important role. The practice was essentially individualistic, contrary to the collective practices in the Celestial Master school or in the Lingbao School . Recruiting from high social classes, during the Tang dynasty , Shangqing was the dominant school of Daoism, and its influence is found in literature of the time period. The importance of the school only began to diminish beginning from

13231-462: The school and has many immortals within it. The principal text of the Shangqing School is known as The True Text of the Great Dong (Dadong Zhenjing, 大洞真經). Dong can be translated as cave or grotto, but also has other meanings such as ‘to communicate.’ When the texts were dictated to Yang Xi, the immortals told him that they were the condensed form of primordial qi , and existed before the world

13362-543: The school. There, with the help of the Emperor Wudi of the Liang dynasty , he built the temple of Huayang, the first Shangqing temple. After his death, the school continued to prosper, and recruited many people from the aristocracy. From its beginning near Nanjing, the school expanded to the north after laws passed in 504 and 517 forced several masters of the school to go into exile. Ironically this expulsion helped spread

13493-400: The school’s beliefs. The immortals and spirits that appeared to him were from "the heaven of Shang-ch'ing" and stated that Imperial China and all other governments in the world would end and be replaced by a theocratic Taoist empire . The school at this time believed that the 4th century was a time of sin and divine trials brought on by six evil and demonic tiān realms called

13624-502: The second half of the Song dynasty . Under the Yuan dynasty , the movement was known by the name Maoshan and the focus changed from meditation to rituals and talismans. In the 21st century, Maoshan Daoism is still practiced but its current techniques and beliefs differ from the original values of the school. Lady Wei Huacun, an aristocrat from the Jin dynasty and a Celestial Master practitioner,

13755-606: The speed of thunder and lightning and advances like wind and clouds. The yellow memorial reaches upwards and penetrates to the Court of Heaven. My body returns to the Gate of Heaven, where it merges with spontaneity and unites in Perfection with the Way. The body (of the high priest) enters the Gate of Heaven below the Golden Portal. He offers three sticks of incense and after this submits the memorial. In contemporary Daoism,

13886-643: The stars of the Dipper or through the palaces of the eight trigrams, in both cases leading eventually to a return to the point of departure. One solution to the problem of how Taiyi returns through the Dipper involves the Santai 三台 "Three Terraces", three pairs of stars in Ursa Major below the Dipper, from Iota Ursae Majoris to 61 Ursae Majoris . The Santai are described as "the staircase of heaven" and "the road along which Taiyi descends and ascends". In many variants of bugang , "the priest begins by walking along

14017-602: The stars of the Dipper — starting out from the star closest to the pole — and ends by returning to the Gate of Heaven along the Three Terraces". The two major forms of bugang are modelled on the two patterns of Taiyi moving through the stars or the trigrams, expressed by the priest's incantations that he is impersonating Taiyi. Bugang is categorized into two ritual functions, either serving purposes of exorcism (focusing on Taiyi's outward movement and distribution of strength) or purposes of ascent (focusing on his return to

14148-467: The stars. [T]he adept is required first to pace back and forth through the stars three times and then to perform a final walk from the first to the ninth star, in all cases skipping the third star, Zhenren , the Perfected, which is to be avoided, and which is instead saluted by the adept, when he is standing in the ninth star. Generally, each step is accompanied by an incantation which is pronounced by

14279-730: The status and influence of Taoism declined. During the 18th century, the Qing imperial library excluded virtually all Taoist books. The Qing era also saw the birth of the Longmen ("Dragon Gate" 龍門 ) school of Wang Kunyang (1552–1641), a branch of Quanzhen from southern China that became established at the White Cloud Temple . Longmen authors like Liu Yiming (1734–1821) and Min Yide (1758–1836) worked to promote and preserve Taoist inner alchemy practices through books like The Secret of

14410-620: The temples on Maoshan, and in 731 the Xuanzong emperor put Shangqing deities in charge of China’s sacred mountains. The Daoist section of the imperial encyclopedia was composed primarily of Shangqing texts. At the same time, the Shangqing school underwent a transformation and integrated texts from the Lingbao School as well as from the Way of the Celestial Master school. The clergy also became more important and more emphasis

14541-423: The temples on Maoshan. Two of the temples, Jiuxiaogong and Yuanfugong have been rebuilt more for tourists than for religious purposes. Shangqing Daoism has borrowed many concepts and beliefs from both the Celestial Masters as well as from Ge Hong ’s alchemical tradition. However, the absorption of elixirs and other potions aimed to attain immortality was largely replaced in the Song period by internal alchemy that

14672-503: The term feibu zhi dao 飛步之道 "the way of the flying walk". The Bu tiangang jing describes the long-term results of these practices. If you constantly tread on emptiness (i.e., the stars), then after one year you will avoid blame, after two years you will avoid weapons, after three years you will avoid death, and after four years you will become a terrestrial immortal. None of the myriad harmful and evil influences will dare act upon you. From then on your blessings will be countless. You cause

14803-418: The terrestrial pattern to which the powers emanating from the pole of heaven are transferred by the Dipper performing its annual revolution in the sky". The Feixing jiuchen yujing 九晨玉經 "Nine Monarchs' Jade Scripture on Flying" and other Shangqing revealed texts describe bugang as either walking across the stars of the Dipper as it appears in the sky or walking around the five planets. It is categorized under

14934-722: The title of ‘national master’ from the court. The 35th and 44th masters, Ren Yuanpu and Wang Daomeng, were equally distinguished for having ended a grasshopper invasion and a flood. Under the Yuan dynasty, the Shangqing school integrated itself under the Zhengyi alliance. At the end of the 20th century, the Taiping Rebellion , the Japanese army and the Cultural Revolution have resulted in the complete destruction of

15065-522: The western parts of the Yuan dynasty's land), and Tibetan Buddhism . Under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and East Asian Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes. Taoist ideas also influenced Neo-Confucian thinkers like Wang Yangming and Zhan Ruoshui . During

15196-443: Was Taiqing (Great Clarity), which was a tradition of external alchemy (weidan) that sought immortality through the concoction of elixirs, often using toxic elements like cinnabar , lead , mercury , and realgar , as well as ritual and purificatory practices. After this point, Taoism did not have nearly as significant an effect on the passing of law as the syncretic Confucian - Legalist tradition. The Three Kingdoms period saw

15327-792: Was Zhang Boduan, author of the Wuzhen pian , a classic of internal alchemy, and the founder of the southern branch of Quanzhen. During the Song era, the Zhengyi Dao tradition properly developed in Southern China among Taoists of the Chang clan. This liturgically focused tradition would continue to be supported by later emperors and survives to this day. In the Yuan dynasty, Taoism in Northern China took inspiration from Tibetan cultural practices, Chinese folk religion (often from

15458-502: Was a religious tradition from the beginning." Philosopher Chung-ying Cheng likewise views Taoism as a religion embedded into Chinese history and tradition, while also assuming many different "forms of philosophy and practical wisdom". Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Taoist view of 'heaven' mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of [the Tao] can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature". Taoism

15589-485: Was almost exclusively used for purposes of individual salvation, rather than used within the framework of a larger ritual context, as seen in the Zhengyi tradition. The Zhengyi Dao "Way of Orthodox Unity" began during the Tang dynasty as a transformation of the earlier Tianshi Dao "Way of the Celestial Masters", and became prominent during the Song dynasty under Emperor Huizong and the 30th Celestial Master Zhang Jixian 張繼先 (1092–1126). The Zhengyi tradition changed

15720-457: Was an influential school of thought at this time. The Huainanzi and the Taipingjing are important sources from this period. An unorganized form of Taoism was popular in the Han dynasty that syncretized many preexisting forms in multiple ways for different groups existed during a rough span of time throughout the 2nd century BCE. Also during the Han, the earliest extant commentaries on

15851-475: Was born. Eventually the texts congealed and were sent by heaven to be dictated to Yang. Some Buddhist elements such as reincarnation and Chinese Buddhism 's views on destiny and predestined scenarios were written into Shangqing texts. Although several sources confirm that the Dadong Zhenjing dates back to the 4th century CE, and earlier fragments exist, the oldest extant complete text, known as

15982-536: Was called the Northern Celestial masters , and their main scripture was the Xisheng jing ( Scripture of Western Ascension ). During the sixth century, Taoists attempted to unify the various traditions into one integrated Taoism that could compete with Buddhism and Confucianism. To do this they adopted the schema known as the "three caverns", first developed by the scholar Lu Xiujing (406–477) based on

16113-711: Was first recorded in the (c. 3rd century) Records of the Three Kingdoms . The variant bugang 步綱 "pacing the guideline", which uses a different gang word 綱 "headrope of a fishing net; key link; guiding principle; guideline", was first recorded in the (c. 1029) Yunji Qiqian anthology of the Daoist Canon . Several later Daoist scriptures on bugang write it 布剛 with variant Chinese characters , writing bu 步 "walk" as 布 "distribute; spread; declare", and gang 罡 "Dipper" or gang 綱 "guideline" as gang 剛 "strength; firmness". Andersen says that frequently

16244-461: Was more linked to meditation techniques (see the Zuowanglun ). An emphasis was placed on personal meditation in the Shangqing school, unlike the ritualized system of the Celestial Masters. Shangqing meditation was largely a solitary affair, and focused on mental visualization of spirits and gods. There was also no requirement to meditate at a temple; one’s own home was fine. Deities lived inside

16375-416: Was published at the behest of the Chinese emperor . Thus, according to Russell Kirkland, "in several important senses, it was really Lu Hsiu-ching who founded Taoism, for it was he who first gained community acceptance for a common canon of texts, which established the boundaries, and contents, of 'the teachings of the Tao' (Tao-chiao). Lu also reconfigured the ritual activities of the tradition, and formulated

16506-578: Was put on public rituals. During the second half of the Northern Song dynasty , the influence of Shangqing Daoism declined at the court, but still remained, changing its focus to rituals and talismans. New buildings appeared on Maoshan that survived until the Cultural Revolution of Mao Zedong . Under the Song, some of the Shangqing leaders still benefited from imperial favour such as the 23rd leader, Zhu Ziying (974–1029), who received

16637-496: Was syncretic, combining elements from Buddhism and Confucianism with Taoist tradition. According to Wang Chongyang, the " three teachings " (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism), "when investigated, prove to be but one school". Quanzhen became the largest and most important Taoist school in China when master Qiu Chuji met with Genghis Khan who ended up making him the leader of all Chinese religions as well as exempting Quanzhen institutions from taxation. Another important Quanzhen figure

16768-508: Was termed daojiao (the teaching of the Tao). The Tang was the height of Taoist influence, during which Taoism, led by the Patriarch of Supreme Clarity, was the dominant religion in China. According to Russell Kirkland, this new Taoist synthesis had its main foundation in the Lingbao school's teachings, which was appealing to all classes of society and drew on Mahayana Buddhism. Perhaps

16899-399: Was the first leader of the Shangqing School. Three decades after her death, from 364 to 370, Yang Xi (330-c. 386) was believed to have had revelations "aided almost certainly by cannabis " ( Joseph Needham 1980:213) and "received... scriptural and hagiographic literature" from zhenren xian who brought him into a visitation experience. These texts eventually formed the basis of

17030-415: Was the main dynastic protector deity of the Ming. The Ming era saw the rise of the Jingming ("Pure Illumination") school to prominence, which merged Taoism with Buddhist and Confucian teachings and focused on "purity, clarity, loyalty and filial piety ". The school derided internal and external alchemy, fasting ( bigu ), and breathwork. Instead, the school focused on using mental cultivation to return to

17161-425: Was the most influential of the Taoist hermits. Some scholars holds that since he lived in the south, he may have been influenced by Chinese shamanism . Zhuang Zhou and his followers insisted they were the heirs of ancient traditions and the ways of life of by-then legendary kingdoms. Pre-Taoist philosophers and mystics whose activities may have influenced Taoism included shamans, naturalists skilled in understanding

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