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138-611: Their main demographic presence lasted from the last quarter of the 18th century, when Bukovina was annexed by the Habsburg Empire , until 1940, when nearly all Bukovina Germans (or approximately 100,000 people) were forcefully resettled into either Nazi Germany or Nazi-occupied regions in Central-Eastern Europe as a part of the Heim ins Reich national socialist population transfer policy. Nowadays, most of

276-587: A cross-border region (centred on Carpathian Ruthenia ) inhabited by various nationalities and religious groups. The name of the region in the local languages is: Some historians speculated that the name had to do with a group of people of Thracian origin (i.e. Getae ) who during the Iron Age moved into the area after the Roman conquest of Dacia in 106 CE and may have formed the Lypytsia culture with

414-550: A Greek Orthodox Church in Istanbul, claiming itself to be the protector of the Greek Orthodox Ottoman community, as a pretext for frequent and numerous interventions in the decades to follow. Ottoman Christians started to feel more empowered as European and Christian powers demonstrated their rising influence and political power. Access to Europe's political networks, markets and educational institutions created

552-405: A ceasefire. Calls for peace, freedom and amnesty for prisoners, the return home of exiles, and the establishment of "a sincere union, and a perpetual and inviolable friendship". Article II – Addresses those who have committed capital crimes, stating that these criminals shall not be sheltered in either empire, and should be "delivered up" to the state they belong in. Article III – Russia and

690-667: A church in Constantinople later expanded into Russian claims to protect all Orthodox Christians under Ottoman rule. The Ottomans were to pay a large indemnity to the Russians and address the Russian sovereign as padisah, the title reserved for the Ottoman sultan. The treaty acknowledged a religious role for the Ottoman sultan as caliph over Muslims, whom the treaty briefly made 'independent' before they passed under Russian rule. To

828-656: A class privilege for Ottoman Christians, and scholars often regard the treaty as turning point for relations between Ottoman Christians and the European nations. The treaty was a milestone in the history of the decline of the Ottoman Empire , as for the first time a foreign power had a say in the governance of the Porte in assuming direct responsibility for the fate of the Empire's Orthodox Christian subjects. Following

966-523: A clerk as Rusograf , which was incorrectly copied as 'Dosografa' by Cevdet Pasa or the compiler of the collection of Ottoman treaties. It is unknown exactly who was responsible for the error. The English translation was made from a French translation of the treaty, which had been made in 1775 in St. Petersburg, and was printed for Parliament in 1854 with the English copy. That Russian-authorized French version of

1104-465: A divergence between the Russian and Turkish texts, the Italian text would prevail. Bernard Lewis suggests that the choice of spelling of Turkish words in the Italian version points to a Russian author. The treaty has been a continuing source of controversy for statesmen and scholars. The different reproductions of the treaty have led to divergences in the different languages, and thus they have been

1242-691: A few Romanians emigrated to the Americas, mainly to the United States (most notably to Ellis and Hays , both located in Kansas ) but also to Canada. Between 1849 and 1851, and from 1863 to 1918, the Duchy of Bukovina became an independent crown land within the Austrian Empire (see also: Cisleithania ). However, at this time, in comparison with other Austrian crown lands, Bukovina remained

1380-637: A group of medieval Walddeutsche . In the medieval town of Suceava (German: Suczawa ), one of the former capitals of the Principality of Moldavia, the Magdeburg law held sway for a certain period of time. The very same German law is also known to have been applied in Câmpulung Moldovenesc (German: Kimpolung ), Siret (German: Sereth ), Baia, and Târgu Neamț. So it is that on the current territorial extent of Suceava County ,

1518-477: A new community of this former Austrian-annexed territory, the Bukovina Germans had various regional identities, according to their initial place of origin (e.g. clear through the spoken dialect). Thus, four distinct German linguistic groups were represented across Bukovina as follows: During the 19th century, the developing German middle class comprised much of the intellectual and political elite of

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1656-824: A part of the restored Republic of Poland , which absorbed the Lemko-Rusyn Republic . The local Ukrainian population declared the independence of Eastern Galicia as the short-lived West Ukrainian People's Republic . During the Polish-Soviet War , the Soviets tried to establish the puppet-state of the Galician SSR in East Galicia , but the territory was then conquered by the Poles. The 1921 Peace of Riga confirmed Galicia's status as part of

1794-764: A peace treaty with the Kingdom of Hungary and established diplomatic relations with the Byzantine Empire . In 1205, Roman turned against his Polish allies, leading to a conflict with Leszek the White and Konrad of Masovia . Roman was killed in the Battle of Zawichost (1205), and Galicia–Volhynia entered a period of rebellion and chaos, becoming an arena of rivalry between Poland and Hungary. King Andrew II of Hungary styled himself rex Galiciæ et Lodomeriæ , Latin for "king of Galicia and Vladimir [in-Volhynia]",

1932-714: A relatively feeble number of persons) a significant German presence in Bukovina, Romania after 1940. During the post-World War II era , the Bukovina Germans, as other 'homeland refugees' (known as Volksdeutsche in German), assimilated into the Federal Republic, Austria, or the German Democratic Republic (German: Deutsche Demokratische Republik ). Nonetheless, small numbers of ethnic Germans (along with their families) returned to Romania after

2070-503: A relatively underdeveloped region on the periphery of the realm, primarily supplying raw materials. This did not prevent it from being called '[the] Switzerland of the Orient ' (i.e., of Eastern Europe) or 'Europe in miniature', due to its ethnic and cultural diversity spread over such a small territory. The Franz-Josephs-Universität (Francisco-Josephina) in Cernăuți (German: Czernowitz )

2208-476: A single province. The duchies of Auschwitz ( Oświęcim ) and Zator were small historical principalities west of Kraków , on the border with Prussian Silesia . Lodomeria , under the name Volhynia, remained under the rule of the Russian Empire – see Volhynian Governorate . In Roman times, the region was populated by various tribes of Celto-Germanic admixture, including Celtic -based tribes,

2346-566: A small but influent community of Transylvanian Saxons lived during medieval times, their main occupations being trade and craftsmanship. As it was the case of other medieval towns in which the Magdeburg law held sway, this particular German town law came hand in hand with the medieval municipal law (discernible with the foundation of Freiburg im Breisgau in the early 12th century) and the Sachsenspiegel (an important law book during

2484-657: A supplier of food products and raw materials to other Habsburg provinces. New taxes were instituted, investments were discouraged, and cities and towns were neglected. The result was significant poverty in Austrian Galicia . Galicia was the poorest province of Austro-Hungary, and according to Norman Davies , could be considered "the poorest province in Europe". Near Drohobych and Boryslav in Galicia, significant oil reserves were discovered and developed during

2622-528: A testimonial of friendship, they shall each bring gifts that will be "proportionate to the dignity of their Imperial Majesties". Article XXVIII – All hostilities shall cease. Couriers must be dispatched on the part of the Field-Marshal and the Grand Vizier to all the places where hostilities are being carried on. By the power granted to them by their Sovereigns, these couriers shall confirm all

2760-648: A title that later was adopted in the House of Habsburg . In a compromise agreement made in 1214 between Hungary and Poland, the throne of Galicia–Volhynia was given to Andrew's son, Coloman of Lodomeria . In 1352, when the principality was divided between Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , the territory became subject to the Polish Crown . With the Union of Lublin in 1569, Poland and Lithuania merged to form

2898-515: A total population of Bukovina of over 500,000 inhabitants. The 1930 Romanian census recorded c. 75,000 ethnic Germans in Bukovina. According to another source, namely an article of the Romanian Academy from 2019, there were c. 76,000 ethnic Germans in Bukovina in 1930 and 44% of them lived in urban settlements. Overall, the Bukovina Germans made up 12.46% of the total population of the interwar Suceava County at that time. As it

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3036-421: A violation of Islamic law because it called for the building of an entirely-new church, not just the replacement of an old one. The Ottoman government had allowed Greek and Latin churches built before 1453 to survive, but no new ones could be built after the conquest of Constantinople . There is a history shown here, not of faulty copying, but of faulty translation of the treaty. Rusogrek was mistakenly copied by

3174-486: A whole, the population in 1910 was estimated to be 45.4% Polish, 42.9% Ruthenian, 10.9% Jewish, and 0.8% German. This population was not evenly distributed. The Poles lived mainly in the west, with the Ruthenians predominant in the eastern region ("Ruthenia"). At the turn of the twentieth century, Poles constituted 88% of the whole population of Western Galicia and Jews 7.5%. The respective data for Eastern Galicia show

3312-527: Is a cultural association which has the seat at the local German House (German: Deutsches Haus ) in the town, being presided by Carol Alexander Mohr. Both associations are active to this day. The regional president of FDGR/DFDR Bucovina/Buchenland is Josef-Otto Exner, who is also in charge of the ACI Bukowina Stiftung, a cultural foundation/association aiming to enhance ties between Romania and Germany . Very much unlike other local chapters of

3450-548: Is a historical and geographic region spanning what is now southeastern Poland and western Ukraine , long part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . It covers much of the other historic regions of Red Ruthenia (centered on Lviv ) and Lesser Poland (centered on Kraków ). The name of the region derives from the medieval city of Halych , and was first mentioned in Hungarian historical chronicles in

3588-568: Is currently on the verge of extinction. Nowadays, according to an estimate, the German community in Suceava County represents 0.3% of the total population of the county. Most of the rural settlements inhabited by the Bukovina Germans are totally or almost totally devoid of any ethnic Germans still left there and most of their historical heritage (i.e. churches and houses) were given to the local Romanian communities free of charge after most of

3726-575: Is fictitious; the church 'of the Greek ritual' in the French text of St. Petersburg is also erroneous." In 1853, the Crimean War would break out over Russian assertion of a right to protect Orthodox Christians and the Ottoman denial that there was any such right. Russia tried to extend its right to build a church in Constantinople to intervene in domestic Ottoman affairs under the pretext of protecting

3864-400: Is not clear if Russia gained the right to act as a protector of Ottoman Christians through those articles. That question is disputed among historians, as some consider that indeed the treaty gave Russia the right to act as the protector of Christianity within the Ottoman Empire, but others think the opposite or that it was too vague either way. Because of the treaty, the Russians were accorded

4002-820: The Caucasus , unlimited sovereignty over the port of Azov , the ports of Kerch and Enikale in the Kerch peninsula in the Crimea, and part of the Yedisan region between the Bug and Dnieper rivers at the mouth of the Dnieper. This latter territory included the port of Kherson . Russia thus gained two outlets to the Black Sea, which was no longer an Ottoman lake. Restrictions imposed by the 1739 Treaty of Niš over Russian access to

4140-601: The Kingdom of Romania . At the General Congress of Bukovina held on November 28, 1918, the political representatives of the Bukovina Germans voted and supported the union of Bukovina with the Romanian kingdom , alongside the Romanian and Polish representatives. From 1933 up until 1940, some German societies and organizations opposed the propaganda of Nazi Germany and the national socialist -aligned so-called 'Reformation Movement'. Beginning in 1938 however, due to

4278-637: The Lugians , Cotini , Vandals and Goths (the Przeworsk and Púchov cultures). During the Migration Period , a variety of nomadic groups invaded the area. The East Slavic tribes White Croats and Tivertsi dominated the area since the 6th century until it was annexed to Kievan Rus' in the 10th century. In the 12th century, the Principality of Galicia was formed, which merged at

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4416-565: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , which lasted for 200 years until conquered and divided up by Russia, Prussia , and Austria in the 1772 partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . The south-eastern part of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was awarded to the Habsburg Empress Maria-Theresa , whose bureaucrats named it the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , after one of the titles of

4554-601: The Rhenish Palatinate , the Baden and Hesse principalities, as well as from impoverished regions of the Bohemian Forest (German: Böhmerwald ). Over the passing of time, these German-speaking settlers who stemmed from various regions of Central Europe became collectively known as Bukovina Germans and formed an important, middle- to upper class ethnic group in the region. While they collectively formed

4692-525: The Russian front moved closer to the Kingdom of Romania , the Bukovina Germans who were forcefully settled in Polish areas (like the remaining German population), fled westward or wherever they could manage. Some remained in what was to be East Germany while others went to Austria . In 1945, during the last year of war, the 7,500 or so remaining Germans in Bukovina were evacuated to Germany, ending (except for

4830-646: The Russo-Turkish War , in 1774–75, as per the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca , the Habsburg monarchy annexed northwestern Moldavia (or the highlands of the Principality of Moldavia) which was predominantly inhabited by Romanians (as many as 85 percent), with smaller numbers of Ukrainians (including Hutsuls and Ruthenians ), Armenians , Poles , and Jews. Since then, the region has been known as Bukovina (German: Bukowina or Buchenland ). From 1774 to 1786,

4968-746: The Ruthenian Voivodeship . In 1526, after the death of Louis II of Hungary , the Habsburgs inherited the Hungarian claims to the titles of the Kingship of Galicia and Lodomeria, together with the Hungarian crown. In 1772 the Habsburg Empress Maria Theresa , Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary, used those historical claims to justify her participation in the First Partition of Poland . In fact,

5106-571: The Sea of Azov and fortifying the area were removed. Russian merchant vessels were to be allowed passage of the Dardanelles . The treaty also granted Eastern Orthodox Christians the right to sail under the Russian flag and provided for the building of a Russian Orthodox Church in Constantinople (which was never built). The Crimean Khanate was the first Muslim territory to slip from

5244-671: The Second Polish Republic . Although never accepted as legitimate by some Ukrainian nationalists , this was ratified by the Conference of Ambassadors on 14 March 1923 and internationally recognized on 15 May 1923. The Ukrainians of Eastern Galicia and the neighbouring province of Volhynia made up about 12% of the Polish Republic's population, and were its largest minority. As Polish government policies were discriminatory towards minorities, tensions between

5382-468: The Transylvanian Saxons ) have been held thus far, with numerous members of the Bukovina German diaspora returning home on their occasion, especially in the town of Suceava (German: Suczawa ). Furthermore, Germany is also the second most important economic partner and foreign investor of Suceava County, as reported by the prefect of the county in 2021. According to the Austrian census of 1869, there were approximately 40,000 ethnic Germans recorded from

5520-473: The Venedi people who moved into the region at the end of La Tène period . The Lypytsia culture supposedly replaced the existing Thracian Hallstatt (see Thraco-Cimmerian ) and Vysotske cultures. A connection with Celtic peoples supposedly explains the relation of the name "Galicia" to many similar place names found across Europe and Asia Minor , such as ancient Gallia or Gaul (modern France, Belgium, and northern Italy), Galatia (in Asia Minor ),

5658-468: The "Polish Baku", the oil fields of Borysław and nearby Tustanowice accounted for over 90% of the national oil output of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. From 500 residents in the 1860s, Borysław had swollen to 12,000 by 1898. At the turn of the century, Galicia was ranked fourth in the world as an oil producer. This significant increase in oil production also caused a slump in oil prices. A very rapid decrease in oil production in Galicia occurred just before

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5796-428: The 'entire Muslim community'. The clause relating to the Orthodox Church opened foreign interference in the empire's relations with its Christian subjects. But the defeat also posed a basic problem in statecraft, and threatened the Ottoman's traditional self-confidence, while Russia and Tsarina Catherine would be praised immensely among the Greek Orthodox of Constantinople. The increase in Russia's influence because of

5934-483: The Bukovina Germans (and of all other German-speaking groups in contemporary Romania ) is the DFDR/FDGR (German: Demokratisches Forum der Deutschen in Rumänien , Romanian : Forumul Democrat al Germanilor din România ) which has a local branch operating in Suceava County with headquarters in the town of Suceava (German: Suczawa ). The Union of Germans in Rădăuți (German: Verein der Buchenlanddeutschen , Romanian : Uniunea Germanilor Bucovineni Rădăuți )

6072-540: The Bukovina Germans departed during World War II . Some of the towns and municipalities of Suceava County, most notably the county seat Suceava, are still home to a larger community of native ethnic Germans compared to the countryside which had been nearly completely deserted by the Bukovina Germans in the wake of World War II and after the fall of the Iron Curtain . Nevertheless, the local branches of FDGR/DFDR in Suceava County are still functional and many local German culture -based festivals (akin to Haferland week of

6210-481: The Bukovina Germans is a cultural representation of their regional identity and affiliation with Bukovina, Romania. The flag encloses the coat of arms of the historical region of Bukovina as it was conceived and official during imperial Austrian times. The regional culture and cuisine of the Bukovina Germans is very similar to other regional cultures and cuisines of the peoples of Central Europe, in particular, naturally, similar to German and Austrian cuisine. Furthermore,

6348-464: The Bukovina Germans represented an ethnic minority accounting for approximately 21.2% of the multi-ethnic population of the Duchy of Bukovina (German: Herzogtum Bukowina ). Of those 21.2%, a large proportion was represented by German-speaking Jews. Excluding the Jews from this figure, however, the Germans in Bukovina constituted a minority of approximately 73,000 people (or 9.2%). Subsequently, in absolute numbers, 75,533 ethnic Germans (or about 9% of

6486-435: The Bukovina Germans still left in Bukovina live in the bigger urban settlements of Suceava (German: Suczawa ) and Rădăuți (German: Radautz ) in Suceava County (German: Kreis Suczawa ) as well as sparsely throughout other rural settlements in the center and southwest of the county. Otherwise, a significant Bukovina German diaspora can be found in Germany and Austria as well as in North America (more specifically in

6624-484: The Bukovina Germans were Roman Catholic. As opposed to the Transylvanian Saxons in neighbouring Transylvania who have been reformed as Evangelical Lutherans since the 16th century (the vast majority of them, that is), the Bukovina Germans were Roman Catholic with Evangelical Lutherans in minority among them. When they firstly immigrated to the Midwestern United States during the 1880s, the Bukovina Germans were both Roman Catholic and Evangelical Lutheran settlers. The flag of

6762-474: The Christian religion in the area, and to observe the same tax and emigration policies as mentioned in Article XVI. Article XVIII – The Castle of Kinburn Article XIX – The fortresses of Jenicale and Kertsch shall remain under "full, perpetual, and incontestable" dominion of the Empire of Russia. Article XX – The city of Azov shall belong to the Empire of Russia. Article XXI – The Great Cabarde and Little Carbade, because of their proximity to

6900-419: The Court of Russia to reside in Ottoman territory wherever the Court deems it expedient to establish said consuls. Prescribes free and unimpeded navigation for merchant ships of both countries. Subjects of both Empires may also trade on land. Article XII – The Sublime Porte promises to use its power and influence to assist the Court of Russia when the court has the intention of making any commercial treaty with

7038-466: The FDGR/DFDR, the local chapter in Suceava hasn't ran in local elections for many years, more specifically since the 2000 Romanian local elections . It obtained its most significant electoral results at the 1996 Romanian local elections . Therefore, the FDGR/DFDR in Suceava, Suceava County has been operating for many years more in a cultural and symbolical manner for the local small German community, being otherwise politically inactive. The headquarters of

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7176-508: The Galician-Karpathian Petroleum Company ( German : Galizisch-Karpathische Petroleum Aktien-Gesellschaft ), headquartered in Vienna, with McGarvey as the chief administrator and Bergheim as a field engineer, and built a huge refinery at Maryampole near Gorlice , south of Tarnow. Considered the biggest, most efficient enterprise in Austro-Hungary, Maryampole was built in six months and employed 1,000 men. Subsequently, investors from Britain, Belgium, and Germany established companies to develop

7314-403: The German community in Bukovina (and in general in Romania for that matter), they were constantly harassed by and under the surveillance of the Securitatea (the approximate equivalent or counterpart of Stasi in East Germany ), the secret police in communist Romania , as recorded for the first time in their logs in October 1956. The documents of the Romanian communist secret police showcased

7452-403: The German minority in southern Bukovina makes up only 0.11% of the total population (including Zipsers and smaller numbers of Regat Germans in Fălticeni ). Consequently, the rural and urban settlements of Suceava County, where small German communities still live to this day, are the following ones (according to the 2011 Romanian census): Before the outbreak of World War II, the vast majority of

7590-419: The German presence in Bukovina is the fact that the historical/geographic region as a whole has been previously sometimes labeled as 'Switzerland of the East'. In one particular interpretation, it can be mentioned that the Zipser Germans (German: Zipser Deutsche or Zipser Sachsen ) in the southwest of Suceava County can also be included within the overall Bukovina German community still remaining and living in

7728-410: The Germans from Bukovina were still more present, especially in the south and south-west of the region, towards the Carpathian Mountains and the Bistrița river valley, where most Zipser Germans had previously settled. Generally, the Bukovina Germans used to be the dominant ethnic group in several towns in Bukovina throughout the 19th century and early 20th century. After the union of Bukovina with

7866-399: The Germans in Bukovina was sealed. In a secret supplementary protocol, it was agreed (among other points) that the northern part of Bukovina would be annexed by the Soviet Union under a territorial re-organization in Central -Eastern Europe, with the German sub-populations therein undergoing compulsory resettlement to other future Nazi-occupied territories. Under this military partitive accord,

8004-400: The Great formally annexed it in 1783, increasing Russia's power in the Black Sea area. The Ottoman-Russian War of 1768–74 had opened the era of European preoccupation with the Eastern Question : what would happen to the balance of power as the Ottoman Empire lost territory and collapsed? The Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji would provide some of the answer. After the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699,

8142-455: The Hungarians from Halych-Volhynia by 1221, Hungarian kings continued to add Galicia et Lodomeria to their official titles. In 1349, in the course of the Galicia–Volhynia Wars , King Casimir III the Great of Poland conquered the major part of Galicia and put an end to the independence of this territory. Upon the conquest Casimir adopted the following title: Casimir by the grace of God king of Poland and Rus (Ruthenia), lord and heir of

8280-486: The Iberian Peninsula's Galicia , and Romanian Galați . Some other scholars assert that the name Halych has Slavic origins – from halytsa , meaning "a naked (unwooded) hill", or from halka which means " jackdaw ". (The jackdaw featured as a charge in the city's coat of arms and later also in the coat of arms of Galicia-Lodomeria. The name, however, predates the coat of arms, which may represent canting or simply folk etymology ). Although Ruthenians drove out

8418-518: The Kingdom of Romania , for which both all German and Polish representatives in the parliament of the region (previously under Austrian rulership) voted for, the number of urban German dwellers slowly but steadily decreased in the towns yet still remained strong in the countryside, in many waldhufendorfs (i.e. forest villages) which they helped develop. On the verge of World War II , the vast majority Bukovina Germans were re-settled by Nazi Germany to areas occupied by it in Eastern-Central Europe. After

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8556-411: The Ottoman Empire acknowledge all of the Tartar peoples as free and independent nations, with freedom of religion and the freedom to be governed by their own ancient laws. Describes the withdrawal of troops from the lands they have ceded to the Tartars. Article V – Explains the status of an envoy from the Imperial Court of Russia to the Sublime Porte . Article VI – Addresses individuals who visit

8694-415: The Ottoman Empire ceased to be an aggressive power; it had terrified Christendom for over three hundred years. From then on, it mainly fought against the overwhelming might of Christian Europe. The Habsburgs had been one of the Ottoman Empire's chief European foes, but by the middle of the century, the tsars had taken over the Habsburgs' fight against the Turks. The Russian tsars were seeking the Black Sea ,

8832-408: The Ottoman sultan-caliph, which was the first internationally acknowledged assertion of the sultan's rights over Muslims outside the frontiers of his empire. The Crimean Tatars retained the privilege of praying publicly for the sultan that was balanced by the privilege, newly accorded to the tsar, to make representations on behalf of certain of the sultan's Orthodox subjects. Russia's right to build

8970-436: The Ottomans and Russia. It would be only one of many attempts by Russia to gain control of Ottoman territory. Russia returned Wallachia and Moldavia to Ottoman control, but was given the right to protect Christians in the Ottoman Empire and to intervene in Wallachia and Moldavia in case of Ottoman misrule. The northwestern part of Moldavia (which became known as Bukovina ) was ceded to Austria in 1775. Russia interpreted

9108-415: The Polish government and the Ukrainian population grew, eventually giving rise to the militant underground Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists . In 1773, Galicia had about 2.6 million inhabitants in 280 cities and market towns and approximately 5,500 villages. There were nearly 19,000 noble families, with 95,000 members (about 3% of the population). The serfs accounted for 1.86 million, more than 70% of

9246-451: The Polish sphere, resulting in stagnation of economic life and decline of Galician towns. Lviv lost its status as a significant trade center. After a short period of limited investments, the Austrian government started the fiscal exploitation of Galicia and drained the region of manpower through conscription to the imperial army. The Austrians decided that Galicia should not develop industrially but remain an agricultural area that would serve as

9384-425: The Russian Minister. Article VII – The Sublime Porte promises constant protection of the Christian religion and its churches. Article VIII – Subjects of the Russian Empire have the right to visit Jerusalem and other places deserving of attention in the Ottoman Empire. They will have no obligation to pay any tax or duty, and will be under the strict protection of the law. Article IX – Interpreters who work for

9522-409: The Russian Ministers work for both Empires, and must be treated with the utmost kindness and respect. Article X – If any military engagements occur between the signing of the treaty and the dispatch of orders by the military commanders of the two armies, these engagements will have no consequences nor any effect on the treaty. Article XI – The Sublime Porte will allow the residence of consuls from

9660-400: The Russian armies in Georgia and Mingrelia , Bagdadgick , Kutatis , and Scheherban shall belong to those on whom they were formerly dependent. In turn, the Sublime Porte grants amnesty to those in said countries who offended it in any manner during the course of the war. The Sublime Porte promises to treat this people fairly and grant them freedom of religion, but as they are subjects of

9798-432: The Russian government to claim protection of the whole Greek church in the Ottoman Empire. The Russian draft of the treaty presented to the Turks contained an article identical to Article 14 of the final treaty, which mentioned the right of Russia to construct a church of the "Greco-Russian" faith. The English text erroneously states that the church is to be "of the Greek ritual". The construction of this church was, in fact,

9936-593: The Soviet Union occupied northern Romania in 1940. Consequently, the Third Reich resettled nearly the entire German population of Bukovina (about 96,000 ethnic Germans) to, most notably, Nazi-occupied Poland, where the incoming evacuees were frequently compensated with expropriated farms. From 1941 to 1944, Bukovina was almost entirely Romanian-populated. Additionally, most of the Jewish population ( c. 30% of

10074-556: The Sublime Porte in service of the Russian Minister. If that visitor has committed a crime worthy of punishment and becomes Turk for the sake of avoiding the law, all the articles that he has stolen will be returned. Those who wish to become Turk may not do so in a state of intoxication, and even after their fit of drunkenness is over, they must make their final declaration of conversion in front of an interpreter sent by

10212-461: The Sublime Porte promises to treat them with fairness and respect in the taxes they impose. Article XVII – Russia returns the islands of the Archipelago to the Sublime Porte. In turn, the Sublime Porte promises to observe amnesty of all crimes committed or suspected to have been committed by these people against the interests of the Sublime Porte. The Sublime Porte also promises to not oppress

10350-574: The Sublime Porte, Russia must not meddle in their affairs in any way. Article XXIV – Details plans for a peaceful withdrawal of Russian troops from the lands the Court of Russia has ceded to the Sublime Porte , and a proper turnover of power to Turkish troops. All troops were to be out of said territories within five months of the signing of the "Treaty of Perpetual Peace" between the two empires. Article XXV – All prisoners of war and slaves in

10488-615: The Tartars, are more nearly connected with the Khans of Crimea. Thus, it remains with the Khan to consent to these countries becoming subject to the Court of Russia. Article XXII – The two Empires agree to "annihilate and leave in eternal oblivion" all the treaties and conventions they have made in the past, except the one made in 1700 between Governor Tolstoi and Hassan Bacha, governor of Atschug. Article XXIII – The fortresses conquered by

10626-592: The Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji as giving it the right to protect Orthodox Christians in the Empire, notably using this prerogative in the Danubian Principalities ( Moldavia and Wallachia ) to intervene under the last Phanariote rulers and after the Greek War of Independence . In 1787, faced with increased Russian hostility, Abdul Hamid I declared war on Russia again. Russia gained Kabardia in

10764-607: The United States and Canada) and South America (for example, in Argentina ). In addition, the smaller community of Zipser Germans (German: Zipser Deutsche ) still living in Suceava County , southern Bukovina, Romania, can be perceived as part of the Bukovina German community as well, in the greater sense that is. According to the 1910 Imperial Austrian census (which recorded inhabitants according to language),

10902-569: The articles put forth by the treaty, and sign them with the seal of their coat-of-arms, with the same force as if they had been drawn up in their presence. Defeat had come this time not at the hands of the Habsburg Empire , one of the most powerful European rulers, but by a remote and once-backward country, which only two generations earlier had itself set out on the course of autocratic Europeanizing reform. The treaty demonstrated that if France and Austria could protect churches of their particular brand of Christianity in Constantinople, Russia could do

11040-462: The bulwark of the Ottoman capital of Constantinople . Finally, after two centuries of conflict, the Russian fleet had destroyed the Ottoman navy and the Russian army had inflicted heavy defeats on the Ottoman land forces. The Ottoman Empire's frontiers would gradually shrink for another two centuries, and Russia would proceed to push her frontier westwards to the Dniester . Article I – Prescribes

11178-404: The church was most likely never built; it is never mentioned, even by Russian visitors to Constantinople. Western travellers to Constantinople and residents of Constantinople are also silent on the topic of the construction of such a church. From the mistranslations and the absence of church construction, Roderic H. Davison concludes that "the 'Dosografa' church of the published Ottoman treaty text

11316-427: The connection seemed logical because of the treaty's provision concerning the church in Constantinople being built. In Cevdet Pasa's history, he makes no mention of the church that in the English text of the treaty is to be "of the Greek ritual", but he rather states that the church was to be called the dosografa church. If the church was to be called "Russo-Greek", rather than just Greek, it would be more tenable for

11454-550: The county. Ethnic Germans known as Transylvanian Saxons (who were mainly craftsmen and merchants stemming from present-day Luxembourg and Rhine - Moselle river area of Western Europe), had sparsely settled in the western mountainous regions of the Principality of Moldavia over the course of the late medieval Ostsiedlung process (which, in this particular case, took place throughout the 13th and 14th centuries). These settlers encouraged trade and urban development. Additionally, they founded, and were also briefly in charge under

11592-413: The end of World War II and the rise of communism as well. However, after 1989, very few Bukovina Germans (including those from mixed families) remained in the county of Suceava, most of them immigrating to West Germany. Nevertheless, some of them return almost on a yearly basis in their ancestral towns of Bukovina. During the early 21st century, the German community of Bukovina had dwindled dramatically and

11730-527: The end of the century with neighbouring Volhynia into the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia . Galicia and Volhynia had originally been two separate Rurikid principalities, assigned on a rotating basis to younger members of the Kievan dynasty. The line of Prince Roman the Great of Volodymyr had held the Principality of Volhynia, while the line of Yaroslav Osmomysl held the Principality of Galicia. Galicia–Volhynia

11868-529: The end of the war, few of these Germans decided to come back. During Communism in Romania , the German community in Bukovina numbered a few thousand and most of them eventually emigrated to West Germany prior to 1989 or to unified Germany after the Romanian Revolution of 1989, leaving a very small number of ethnic Germans still living in Suceava County. According to the 2011 Romanian census ,

12006-472: The extent that the caliphal title later gained importance beyond Ottoman borders, this treaty stimulated the process. However, Ottoman loss of the Crimea and the end of the Crimean khanate caused Muslims everywhere to question the sultans' legitimacy as defenders of Islam ( ghazis ). Ottoman statesmen recognized that the European menace was not isolated on distant frontiers but threatened the 'heart of Islam' and

12144-676: The fact that Austria's claim derived from the historical Hungarian crown, "Galicia and Lodomeria" were not officially assigned to Hungary, and after the Ausgleich of 1867, the territory found itself in Cisleithania , or the Austrian-administered part of Austria-Hungary . The full official name of the new Austrian territory was the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator . After

12282-432: The fact that many remaining Bukovina Germans expressed their interest to flee the country and immigrate to West Germany . Furthermore, only a few of them had been suspected on the grounds of anti-national sentiment alongside some Ukrainians , as shown by the same reports of the communist Romanian secret police. In the meantime, mixed Romanian-German families formed in this part of Romania as well, as they have formed prior to

12420-497: The fall of communism in Romania in 1989. In addition, few resettled Germans returned as well. To this day, sparse and very small rural and urban communities of Germans (a few dozen to hundred persons) still reside in southern Bukovina (i.e., Suceava County situated in northeastern Romania ) and are politically represented by the Democratic Forum of Germans in Romania (FDGR/DFDR). Lastly, another interesting aspect on

12558-404: The following numbers: Ruthenians 64.5%, Poles 22.0%, Jews 12%. Of the 44 administrative divisions of Austrian eastern Galicia, Lviv ( Polish : Lwów , German : Lemberg ) was the only one in which Poles made up a majority of the population. Anthropologist Marianna Dushar has argued that this diversity led to a development of a distinctive food culture in the region. The Polish language

12696-661: The forces of the Russian Empire and the Central Powers , on the Eastern Front of World War I . The Russian forces overran most of the region in 1914 after defeating the Austro-Hungarian army in a chaotic frontier battle in the opening months of the war. They were in turn pushed out in the spring and summer of 1915 by a combined German/Austro-Hungarian offensive. In 1918, Western Galicia became

12834-474: The fortress of Bender , Wallachia and Moldavia . The Sublime Porte promises to in no way obstruct the free exercise of the Christian religion in these areas, and to grant to families who wish to leave the country a free emigration with all their property. And, from the day the treaty is established, the Sublime Porte will require no taxes of these people for two years. At the expiration of this two-year term,

12972-619: The incorporation of the Free City of Kraków in 1846, it was extended to Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, and the Grand Duchy of Kraków with the Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator ( German : Königreich Galizien und Lodomerien mit dem Großherzogtum Krakau und den Herzogtümern Auschwitz und Zator ). Each of those entities was formally separate; they were listed as such in the Austrian emperor's titles , each had its distinct coat-of-arms and flag. For administrative purposes, however, they formed

13110-546: The land of Kraków, Sandomierz, Sieradz, Łęczyca, Kuyavia, Pomerania (Pomerelia). Latin : Kazimirus, Dei gratia rex Polonie et Rusie, nec non-Cracovie, Sandomirie, Siradie, Lancicie, Cuiavie, et Pomeranieque Terrarum et Ducatuum Dominus et Heres . Under the Jagiellonian dynasty (Kings of Poland from 1386 to 1572), the Kingdom of Poland revived and reconstituted its territories. In place of historic Galicia there appeared

13248-672: The local branch of FDGR/DFDR in Suceava, Suceava County, Bukovina is situated on Armenească street. The president of the local branch of FDGR/DFDR for Suceava County/Bukovina is Antonia Maria-Gheorghiu (as of 2023). The executive director of the local branch of FDGR/DFDR in Suceava County/Bukovina is Carmen Cobliș (as of 2023). Treaty of K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk Kaynarca The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca ( Turkish : Küçük Kaynarca Antlaşması ; Russian : Кючук-Кайнарджийский мир ), formerly often written Kuchuk-Kainarji ,

13386-721: The mid 19th and early 20th centuries. The first European attempt to drill for oil was in Bóbrka in western Galicia in 1854. By 1867, a well at Kleczany, in Western Galicia, was drilled using steam to about 200 meters. On 31 December 1872, a railway line linking Borysław (now Boryslav) with the nearby city of Drohobycz (now Drohobych) was opened. British engineer John Simeon Bergheim and Canadian William Henry McGarvey came to Galicia in 1882. In 1883, their company bored holes of 700 to 1,000 meters and found large oil deposits. In 1885, they renamed their oil developing enterprise

13524-591: The modern regions of western Ukraine : the Lviv , Ternopil , and Ivano-Frankivsk oblasts near Halych. In the 18th century, territories that later became part of the modern Polish regions of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship , Subcarpathian Voivodeship , and Silesian Voivodeship were added to Galicia after the collapse of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . Eastern Galicia became contested ground between Poland and Ruthenia in medieval times and

13662-528: The need for reform to save the state and to reassert the true faith; and the only basis of reform could be a Muslim equivalent of Satan casting out Satan. [?] Cevdet Pasa reproduced the treaty in his history. His Article 14 states that the church is to be called the dosografa church. The Mu‘āhedāt Mecmū‘ası is the officially-published collection of Ottoman treaties. A copy of the text of the treaty can also be found in Başbakanlık Arşivi in İstanbul and in

13800-403: The new church paralleled the increase in territorial, commercial, and diplomatic status accorded to Russia by the treaty. The surrender of Muslims to Christian rule put into question the rationale of a state founded on Muslim conquest of Christians, and of a religious revelation that promised to the true believer prosperity and power on earth as well as salvation hereafter. It made abundantly clear

13938-696: The oil and natural gas industries in Galicia. This influx of capital caused the number of petroleum enterprises to shrink from 900 to 484 by 1884, and to 285 companies manned by 3,700 workers by 1890. However, the number of oil refineries increased from thirty-one in 1880 to fifty-four in 1904. By 1904, there were thirty boreholes in Borysław of over 1,000 meters. Production increased by 50% between 1905 and 1906 and then trebled between 1906 and 1909 because of unexpected discoveries of vast oil reserves of which many were gushers. By 1909, production reached its peak at 2,076,000 tons or 4% of worldwide production. Often called

14076-525: The poor economic situation and powerful national socialist propaganda , a pro-Third Reich mentality developed within the Bukovina German community. Because of this, many increased their preparedness for evacuation. When Nazi Germany signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with the Soviet Union (USSR) in 1939 (just before the outbreak of World War II ), the fate (unknown to those affected) of

14214-571: The population) were registered in Bukovina when it was still part of the Kingdom of Romania (as per the Romanian population census of 1930). Historically, some of them developed their own dialect over the course of several hundred years which they called Buchenländisch , while others speak a series of other distinct German dialects , depending on their region of origin. After the end of World War II, several thousand ethnic Germans still remained in southern Bukovina (according to an estimate c. 7,500), but many of them emigrated to West Germany before

14352-523: The population. A small number were full-time farmers, but by far the overwhelming number (84%) had only smallholdings or no possessions. Galicia had arguably the most ethnically diverse population of all the countries in the Austrian monarchy, consisting mainly of Poles and " Ruthenians "; the peoples known later as Ukrainians and Rusyns , as well as ethnic Jews , Germans , Armenians , Czechs , Slovaks , Hungarians , Roma and others. In Galicia as

14490-508: The princes of Hungary, although its borders coincided but roughly with those of the former medieval principality. Known informally as Galicia, it became the largest, most populous, and northernmost province of the Austrian Empire . After 1867 it was part of the Austrian half of Austria-Hungary , until the dissolution of the monarchy at the end of World War I in 1918. During the First World War , Galicia saw heavy fighting between

14628-512: The protection of the ministers of the Russian Empire. Article XV – All cases of disagreement shall be investigated by "the Governors and Commanders of the frontiers". These officials will be bound to render justice where it is due, and any disagreements or disputes in the future will not serve as a pretext for any alteration in the friendship and good-feeling established by the treaty. Article XVI – The Empire of Russia returns Bessarabia ,

14766-599: The recent Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Kozludzha , the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji ended the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–74 and marked a defeat of the Ottomans in their struggle against Russia. The Russians were represented by Field-Marshal Count Pyotr Rumyantsev while the Ottoman side was represented by Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha. The treaty was a most humiliating blow to the once-mighty Ottoman realm. It would also stand to foreshadow several future conflicts between

14904-719: The regencies of Africa ( Tripoli , Tunis , Algiers , etc.). Article XIII – Subjects of the Ottoman Empire must evoke the title of the Empress of all the Russias in all public acts and letters. In the Turkish language, that is to say "Temamen Roussielerin Padischag ". Article XIV – Grants permission to the High Court of Russia to build a public church "of the Greek ritual" in Constantinople. The church will always be under

15042-522: The region during the High Middle Ages , most notably in Siret, where they managed to build a local stronghold situated near a hill in the proximity of the then medieval town during the early 13th century. Subsequently however, most of the local Germans had been gradually assimilated in these local cultures by the dominant ethnic group of Romanians , and, to a lesser extent, Csángós . Following

15180-482: The region; the language of official business and education was predominantly German, particularly among the upper classes. Population growth and a shortage of land led to the establishment of daughter settlements in Galicia , Bessarabia , and Dobruja . After 1840, a shortage of land caused the decline into poverty of the German rural lower classes; in the late 19th century parts of the German rural population alongside

15318-641: The regional cuisine of the Bukovina Germans is similar to the German-Bohemian cuisine. In terms of Bukovina German literature, Gregor von Rezzori and Ludwig Adolf Staufe-Simiginowicz are the most well known writers. Simiginowicz wrote Volkssagen aus der Bukowina (a compilation of folk songs from the entire region of Bucovina). He also collected fairytales from Bucovina. He was born in Suceava (German: Suczawa ) and studied history and German studies in Vienna . A noteworthy German-language poet in Bukovina

15456-432: The regional population as a whole) were murdered by the Third Reich in collaboration with fascist Romania under Marshal Ion Antonescu during The Holocaust . In the nearly completely deserted Bukovina German villages during World War II, the local German communities transferred their local architectural heritage (e.g. churches for example) to the Romanian community free of charge and without any conditions. In 1944–45, as

15594-463: The resettlement plan failed, most notably the Zipser Germans , but also some Bukovina Germans. After the end of World War II, the German community of Bukovina declined dramatically in numbers, with only several thousand ethnic Germans still residing in Suceava County (German: Kreis Suczawa ) and a few waves of returning expelled Bukovina Germans re-settling the county. As with the rest of

15732-618: The right to build a church in Constantinople's Galata quarter. The treaty stated that the church would be under the protection of the Russian minister, who could make representations concerning it to the Sublime Porte. In later years, the Russian government would make claims on an even broader right to protect the Greek Orthodox Church and the Greek Orthodox people in the Sultan's domains. Those claims were exaggerated, but

15870-421: The rights of all the Greek Orthodox people in the Ottoman Empire. Galicia (Eastern Europe) Galicia ( / ɡ ə ˈ l ɪ ʃ ( i ) ə / gə- LISH -(ee-)ə ; Polish : Galicja , IPA: [ɡaˈlit͡sja] ; Ukrainian : Галичина , romanized :  Halychyna , IPA: [ɦɐlɪtʃɪˈnɑ] ; Yiddish : גאַליציע , romanized :  Galitsye ; see below )

16008-591: The same for its own church. The treaty forced the Ottomans to allow the passage of Russian ships through the Turkish Straits into the Mediterranean past the sultan's palace in Constantinople, avoiding the lengthy detour previously used. The treaty allowed the Ottoman sultan to maintain certain rights there in his capacity as caliph of Muslims. In religious affairs only, the Muslims remained subject to

16146-431: The series of Ecnebi Defterleri that records treaties, decorations and consular matters. Texts of the treaty are also found in Italian and Russian. Grand Vizier Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha signed Turkish and Italian copies of the treaty, and Field Marshal P. A. Rumyantsev signed Russian and Italian texts. Russian, Italian, and Turkish are the only three languages in which original copies of the treaty were written, and in case of

16284-511: The settlement of German craftsmen and farmers in existing villages increased. The settlers included Zipser Germans (German: Zipser Sachsen ) from the Zips region of Upper Hungary (today mostly Slovakia but also Lesser Poland Voivodeship in Poland), Banat Swabians from Banat , and ethnic Germans from Galicia (more specifically Evangelical Lutheran Protestants ), but also immigrants from

16422-459: The signing of the treaty, and within two months after the signing of the treaty, send persons to settle the handing over of the Castle of Kinburn in keeping with the stipulations of Article XXIII. Article XXVII – In order to keep the peace and friendship between the two Empires authentic, there shall be envoys sent by both sides who will meet on the frontiers and treated with honor and ceremony. As

16560-400: The source of some confusion. While most of the treaty is straightforward, Articles 7 and 14 have been the source of a variety of interpretations. Article 14 of the treaty concerns the church that is to be built in Constantinople . In the Russian text, Article 14 states that the church would be of the 'Greco-Russian' faith. The Italian text states that the church is to be called 'Russo-Greek'. It

16698-587: The sultan's suzerainty , when the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji forced the Sublime Porte to recognize the Tatars of the Crimea as politically independent, although the sultan remained the religious leader of the Tatars as the Muslim caliph. This was the first time the powers of the Ottoman caliph were exercised outside of Ottoman borders and ratified by a European power. The Khanate retained this nominal independence, while actually being dependent on Russia, until Catherine

16836-509: The territories acquired by Austria did not correspond exactly to those of former Halych-Volhynia – the Russian Empire took control of Volhynia to the north-east, including the city of Volodymyr-Volynskyi ( Włodzimierz Wołyński ) – after which Lodomeria was named. On the other hand, much of Lesser Poland – Nowy Sącz and Przemyśl (1772–1918), Zamość (1772–1809), Lublin (1795–1809), and Kraków (1846–1918) – became part of Austrian Galicia . Moreover, despite

16974-559: The time of the Holy Roman Empire ). The town of Suceava is referred to as Sotschen (an Old High German name) in one of the works of Abraham Ortelius on European geography for the 15th and 16th centuries. Aside from the local Transylvanian Saxon community which most likely stemmed from Bistrița area (German: Bistritz or Nösen, archaic form of the name of the town) , the Teutonic Knights were also present in

17112-527: The title of Schultheiß ( Romanian : Șoltuz ), of some notable medieval settlements such as Baia (German: Baja, Stadt Molde, or Moldenmarkt ), the first capital of the Principality of Moldavia, or Târgu Neamț (German: Niamtz ). It is also possible that the German community in Baia could have stemmed from Galicia ( Romanian : Galiția ; a historical region nowadays situated between southeastern Poland and western Ukraine ), being thus represented by

17250-479: The treaty did not designate the church to be built in Constantinople as "Russo-Greek". Mention of the church's Russian character was omitted. "Of the Greek ritual" may seem to have an insignificant difference from a church "of the Greco-Russian faith", but the mistranslation found in the French and the English texts helped Russian pretensions of a right to protect the wider Greek Church in the Ottoman Empire. It

17388-633: The two Empires shall be granted liberty without ransom money or redemption money. This includes those in the Empire of Russia who voluntarily quit Mahometanism in order to embrace the Christian religion, as well as those in the Ottoman Empire who have left Christianity in order to embrace the Mahometan faith. Article XXVI – The commander of the Russian Army in Crimea and the Governor of Oczakow must communicate with each other immediately after

17526-701: The widespread multilingualism blurred ethnic divisions. Religiously, Galicia is predominantly Catholic, and Catholicism is practiced in two rites. Poles are Roman Catholic , while Ukrainians belong to the Greek Catholic Church . Other Christians belong to one of the Ukrainian Orthodox Churches . Until the Holocaust , Judaism was widespread, and Galicia was the center of Hasidism . The new state borders cut Galicia off from many of its traditional trade routes and markets of

17664-515: The writings of Rose Ausländer , Alfred Kittner, Alfred Margul Sperber, or Paul Celan . Other notable German writers of Bukovina include mixed Ukrainian-German intellectuals Ludwig Adolf Staufe-Simiginowicz and Olha Kobylianska (who was also remotely related to renowned German poet Zacharias Werner ). From 1918 to 1919, following the end of World War I and the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Bukovina became part of

17802-414: The year 1206 as Galiciæ . The eastern part of the region was controlled by the medieval Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia before it was annexed by the Kingdom of Poland in 1352 and became part of the Ruthenian Voivodeship . During the partitions of Poland , it was incorporated into a crown land of the Austrian Empire – the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria . The nucleus of historic Galicia lies within

17940-624: Was Ernst Rudolf Neubauer. Another German-language poet was Olha Kobylianska (who was distantly related to German poet Zacharias Werner ). In the passing of time, since the Austrian/Habsburg annexation of Bukovina, the Bukovina Germans had the following main occupations: Even further back in time, the Transylvanian Saxon community which settled during the 14th century on the present-day Suceava County excelled at trade and craftsmanship. The political representation of

18078-532: Was a peace treaty signed on 21 July 1774, in Küçük Kaynarca (today Kaynardzha , Bulgaria) between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire , ending the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–74 with many concessions to Russia. The concessions to Russia are not merely territorial; not only are the territories of Romania and Crimea Khanate (not Crimea proper) ceded, Russia also gains the right to construct

18216-484: Was created following the death in 1198 or 1199 (and without a recognised heir in the paternal line) of the last Prince of Galicia, Vladimir II Yaroslavich ; Roman acquired the Principality of Galicia and united his lands into one state. Roman's successors would mostly use Halych (Galicia) as the designation of their combined kingdom. In Roman's time Galicia–Volhynia's principal cities were Halych and Volodymyr. In 1204, Roman captured Kyiv in alliance with Poland , signed

18354-597: Was during Austrian times, the two largest numbers of German urban dwellers were to be found in Cernăuți (German: Czernowitz ) (the largest town of Bukovina in Romanian royal times as well) and in Suceava (German: Suczawa ). Other large urban German communities were also present in Rădăuți (German: Radautz ), Gura Humorului (German: Gura Humora ), and Câmpulung Moldovenesc (German: Kimpolung ). In rural settlements,

18492-486: Was fought over by Austria-Hungary and Russia during World War I and also Poland and Ukraine in the 20th century. In the 10th century, several cities were founded there, such as Volodymyr and Jaroslaw , whose names mark their connections with the Grand Princes of Kiev . There is considerable overlap between Galicia and Podolia (to the east) as well as between Galicia and south-west Ruthenia , especially in

18630-575: Was founded in 1875, then the easternmost German-speaking university. In 1910–11, the Bukovinian Reconciliation (a political agreement between the peoples of Bukovina and their political representatives in the Landtag assembly on the question of autonomous regional administration) took place between the representatives of the nationalities. During the first round of the 20th century, local German-language literature flourished through

18768-437: Was not in conformity with the Turkish, Russian and Italian texts of the treaty and may or may not have been an innocent mistake, according to Roderic H. Davison . "The St. Petersburg French translation, then, by dropping any reference to the Russian character of the church, and including only reference to the Greek, was misleading. Deliberate or not, it certainly laid an advantageous base for later Russian claims." Surprisingly,

18906-473: Was the most diverse part of the region, and one of the most diverse areas in Europe at the time. The Galician Jews immigrated in the Middle Ages from Germany. German-speaking people were more commonly referred to by the region of Germany where they originated (such as Saxony or Swabia ). For those who spoke different native languages, e.g. Poles and Ruthenians, identification was less problematic, and

19044-410: Was the most spoken language in Galicia as a whole, although the eastern part of the region was predominantly Ruthenian-speaking. According to the 1910 census, 58.6% of Galicia spoke Polish as its mother tongue, compared to 40.2% who spoke a Ruthenian language. The number of Polish-speakers may have been inflated because Jews were not given the option of listing Yiddish as their language. Eastern Galicia

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