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57-522: Bulgarians were members of Soviet Antarctic expeditions since 1960s. Bulgaria has been a member of the Antarctic Treaty since 1978. Since the collapse of Communism Bulgaria intensified its research in Antarctica. As of 2024, there are 1,367 Bulgarian toponyms in Antarctica . The institute was established in 1993, and comprises several dozens individual members and few institutional ones:

114-580: A crisis that lasted until the last day of the conference, since the United States, along with other countries, intended to ban only those that were made without prior notice and without prior consultation. The support of the USSR and Chile for the Argentine proposal finally caused the United States to retract its opposition. The signing of the treaty was the first arms control agreement that occurred in

171-682: A fleet of eight warships to Antarctica in February 1948. On 17 January 1953, Argentina reopened the Lieutenant Lasala refuge on Deception Island , leaving a sergeant and a corporal in the Argentine Navy. On 15 February, in the incident on Deception Island, 32 royal marines landed from the British frigate HMS Snipe armed with Sten machine guns, rifles, and tear gas capturing the two Argentine sailors. The Argentine refuge and

228-542: A hypothetical war in the Antarctic. On 2 September 1947, the quadrant of Antarctica in which the United States was interested (between 24° W and 90° W ) was included as part of the security zone of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance , committing its members to defend it in case of external aggression. In August 1948, the United States proposed that Antarctica be under the guardianship of

285-557: A nearby uninhabited Chilean shelter were destroyed, and the Argentine sailors were delivered to a ship from that country on 18 February near South Georgia . A British detachment remained three months on the island while the frigate patrolled its waters until April. On 4 May 1955, the United Kingdom filed two lawsuits, against Argentina and Chile respectively, before the International Court of Justice to declare

342-531: A plan to suspend all Antarctic claims for five to ten years while negotiating a final solution, but this did not find acceptance. In 1950, the interest of the United States to keep the Soviet Union away from Antarctica was frustrated, when the Soviets informed the claimant states that they would not accept any Antarctic agreement in which they were not represented. The fear that the USSR would react by making

399-588: A territorial claim, bringing the Cold War to Antarctica, led the United States to make none. Various international conflicts motivated the creation of an agreement for the Antarctic. Some incidents had occurred during the Second World War , and a new one occurred in Hope Bay on 1 February 1952, when the Argentine military fired warning shots at a group of Britons. The response of the United Kingdom

456-703: Is a member of the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP), the Standing Committee on Antarctic Logistics and Operations (SCALOP), the European Polar Board , and the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR). This Bulgaria -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Antarctic Treaty The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively known as

513-546: Is defined as all the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude . Since September 2004, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat , which implements the treaty system, is headquartered in Buenos Aires , Argentina. The main treaty was opened for signature on 1 December 1959, and officially entered into force on 23 June 1961. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during

570-535: Is no Antarctic sovereignty. The majority of Antarctica is claimed by one or more countries, but most countries do not explicitly recognize those claims. The area on the mainland between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only major land on Earth not claimed by any country . Until 2015 the interior of the Norwegian Sector, the extent of which had never been officially defined, was considered to be unclaimed. That year, Norway formally laid claim to

627-622: Is often considered to represent an example of the common heritage of mankind principle. Since the designation of the Australian Antarctic Territory pre-dated the signing of the Antarctic Treaty, Australian laws that relate to Antarctica date from more than two decades before the Antarctic Treaty era. In terms of criminal law, the laws that apply to the Jervis Bay Territory (which follows

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684-555: The Antarctic Treaty System ( ATS ), regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica , Earth's only continent without a native human population. It was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War , designating the continent as a scientific preserve, establishing freedom of scientific investigation, and banning military activity ; for the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica

741-796: The International Conference of American States and at the 1936 Inter-American Conference for the Maintenance of Peace . During World War II , the American government had been able to secure support for the Allies from all individual governments in the Americas except Uruguay (which remained neutral until 22 February 1945 ) and Argentina (which had difficult relations with the Allied powers from 1944 to 1945 but declared war on

798-746: The International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) had discussed the possibility of holding a third International Polar Year . At the suggestion of the World Meteorological Organization , the idea of the International Polar Year was extended to the entire planet, thus creating the International Geophysical Year that took place between 1 July 1957, and 31 December 1958. In this event, 66 countries participated. At

855-563: The International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–58: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union , the United Kingdom, and the United States. These countries had established over 55 Antarctic research stations for the IGY, and the subsequent promulgation of the treaty was seen as a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved. As of 2024 ,

912-604: The Monroe Doctrine from 1823 onward, and became increasingly interventionist following the 1904 promulgation of the Roosevelt Corollary . During the 1930s the United States had been alarmed by Axis overtures suggesting military cooperation with Latin American governments; apparent strategic threats against the Panama Canal were of particular concern. These were discussed in a series of meetings of

969-777: The Rio Treaty , the Rio Pact , the Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance , or by the Spanish-language acronym TIAR from Tratado Interamericano de Asistencia Recíproca ) is an intergovernmental collective security agreement signed in 1947 in Rio de Janeiro among many countries of the Americas . The central principle contained in its articles is that an attack against one is to be considered an attack against them all; this

1026-937: The South African Citizens in Antarctica Act, 1962 , South African law applies to all South African citizens in Antarctica , and they are subject to the jurisdiction of the magistrate's court in Cape Town . The Antarctic Treaties Act, 1996 incorporates the Antarctic Treaty and related agreements into South African law. In regard to violations of these treaties, South Africa also asserts jurisdiction over South African residents and members of expeditions organised in South Africa. Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance The Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (commonly known as

1083-529: The Americas (ALBA) countries Bolivia , Ecuador , Nicaragua , and Venezuela , under the leadership of leftist governments, initiated the retirement from the TIAR, a decision which the Obama administration described as "unfortunate" but respected. The treaty was officially denounced by Nicaragua on 20 September 2012, Bolivia on 17 October 2012, Venezuela on 14 May 2013, and Ecuador on 19 February 2014. The treaty

1140-735: The Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to US$ 10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of the Treasury , Commerce , Transportation , and the Interior share enforcement responsibilities. The Act requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs of the State Department , which reports such plans to other nations as required by

1197-626: The Antarctic Treaty. Further information is provided by the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation . In 2006, the New Zealand police reported that jurisdictional issues prevented them issuing warrants for potential American witnesses who were reluctant to testify during the Christchurch Coroner's investigation into the death by poisoning of Australian astrophysicist Rodney Marks at

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1254-564: The Axis on 27 March 1945 ). Some countries had signed the Declaration by United Nations in early 1942 and more had signed by the end of 1945. However, Latin American countries were largely sidelined from the Allied discussions of a postwar security order, held at Dumbarton Oaks from August to October 1944. The Brazilian Ambassador to Washington, Carlos Martins Pereira e Souza, "protested the violation of inter-American norms of consultation in

1311-617: The Bahamas (1982), no countries that became independent after 1947 have joined the treaty; Canada is yet to become a member, though it already has separate defense commitments with the United States. As revolutionary and nationalist governments spread through Latin America through the 1950s and 1960s, the fear of a shared enemy that was experienced during WWII dissipated and the idea of defensive cooperation became strained. According to Slater, many Latin American governments participating in

1368-649: The Bulgarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski , Sofia Medical University , and the Atlantic Club of Bulgaria . Founding Chairman of the institute is Christo Pimpirev . The Institute cooperates in Antarctic logistics and research projects with the Antarctic Programs of Spain , United Kingdom , Russia , Germany , Argentina , Brazil , Chile , South Korea etc. The Bulgarian Antarctic Institute

1425-552: The Christchurch Coroner said that it was unlikely that Dr. Marks ingested the methanol knowingly, although there is no certainty that he died as the direct result of the act of another person. During media interviews, the police detective in charge of the investigation criticized the National Science Foundation and contractor Raytheon for failing to cooperate with the investigation. Under

1482-670: The ICSU meeting in Stockholm from 9 to 11 September 1957, the creation of a Special Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR) was approved, inviting the twelve countries conducting Antarctic investigations to send delegates to integrate the committee, with the purpose of exchanging scientific information among its members regarding Antarctica. The SCAR was later renamed to the Scientific Committee for Research in Antarctica. Both Argentina and Chile stated that research carried out on

1539-698: The Latin American countries except El Salvador and Argentina, resulting in the Act of Chapultepec of 6 March 1945. The Act included a framework for the negotiation of a regional security treaty. It also shaped Latin American pressure during the United Nations conference in San Francisco for clauses in the UN Charter to facilitate regional collective defense, under Article 51. Initially,

1596-593: The OAS's Inter-American Peace Force was organized, caused many members to believe that the United States did not respect the ideals of multilateralism . Conversely during the Falklands War in 1982, the United States favored the United Kingdom arguing that Argentina had been the aggressor and because Argentina had not been attacked, as did Chile and Colombia. This was seen by most Latin American countries as

1653-599: The South Pole base in May 2000. Dr. Marks died while wintering over at the United States' Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station located at the geographic South Pole. Prior to autopsy, the death was attributed to natural causes by the National Science Foundation and the contractor administering the base. However, an autopsy in New Zealand revealed that Dr. Marks died from methanol poisoning. The New Zealand Police launched an investigation. In 2006, frustrated by lack of progress,

1710-553: The Treaty sought "to insulate the hemisphere from rather than involve it in world conflict", though the United States pushed the smaller countries towards confrontation with its ideological adversaries. Latin American governments then began to view inter-American collaboration as bending to the will of the United States, forfeiting their sovereignty. Though the Cold War overtones of the Rio Treaty became increasingly evident, during

1767-438: The United Nations, as a trust territory administered by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, the United States, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand. This idea was rejected by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, and Norway. Before the rejection, on 28 August 1948, the United States proposed to the claimant countries some form of internationalization of Antarctica, and the United Kingdom supported this. Chile responded by presenting

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1824-483: The United States now stations special deputy U.S. Marshals in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence. Some U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act , Public Law 95-541, 16 U.S.C.   § 2401 et seq. , provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation or statute : Violation of

1881-565: The United States' often considered adherence to the Treaty's principles of nonintervention as secondary to its Cold War concerns. Though the action of the United States during the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état and the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion raised questions among Latin American governments, the unilateral approach of the United States invading the Dominican Republic in 1965 during the Dominican Civil War , before

1938-478: The United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand coincided in the establishment of an international administration for Antarctica, proposing that it should be within the framework of the United Nations. Australia and the United Kingdom expressed the need for inspections by observers, and the British also proposed the use of military personnel for logistical functions. Argentina proposed that all atomic explosions be banned in Antarctica, which caused

1995-602: The area between its Queen Maud Land and the South Pole. Governments that are party to the Antarctic Treaty and its Protocol on Environmental Protection implement the articles of these agreements, and decisions taken under them, through national laws. These laws generally apply only to their own citizens, wherever they are in Antarctica, and serve to enforce the consensus decisions of the consultative parties: about which activities are acceptable, which areas require permits to enter, what processes of environmental impact assessment must precede activities, and so on. The Antarctic Treaty

2052-489: The continent and the remaining five being non-claimants. Other nations have joined as consultative members by conducting significant research in Antarctica. Non-consultative parties can also adhere to the treaty. In 1991–1992, the treaty was renegotiated by 33 nations, with the main change being the Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection, which prohibited mining and oil exploration for 50 years. The positions of

2109-502: The continent during the International Geophysical Year would not give any territorial rights to the participants, and that the facilities that were erected during that year should be dismantled at the end of it. However, in February 1958, the United States proposed that the Antarctic investigations should be extended for another year, and the Soviet Union reported that it would maintain its scientific bases until

2166-600: The final failure of the treaty. In September 2002, citing the Falklands example and anticipating the invasion of Iraq , Mexico formally withdrew from the treaty; after the requisite two years, in September 2004, Mexico ceased to be a signatory. In 2008, the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) created a new regional security council to manage their own defensive objectives. On 5 June 2012, Bolivarian Alliance for

2223-545: The framework of the Cold War, and the participating countries managed to avoid the internationalization of Antarctic sovereignty . As of the year 2048, any of the consultative parties to the treaty may request the revision of the treaty and its entire normative system, with the approval of a relative majority. Other agreements – some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments – include: The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM) are

2280-543: The immediate post-war years, Long argues that it was more closely tied to pre-WWII regional antecedents and, even, Latin American diplomatic pressure. Long states, "Despite many Latin American concerns about the United States' ultimately interventionist nature, Latin American diplomats cited the Monroe Doctrine and United States-led Pan-Americanism in support of a grand bargain that would extend and institutionalize US engagement while restricting unilateralism." However,

2337-792: The international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 29 of the 57 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in decision-making at these meetings, though the other 28 are still allowed to attend. The decision-making participants are the Consultative Parties and, in addition to the 12 original signatories, including 17 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there. The Antarctic Treaty also has Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (SATCM) , which are generally summoned to treat more important topics but are less frequents and Meetings of Experts. As of 2024, there are 57 states party to

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2394-433: The invalidity of the claims of the sovereignty of the two countries over Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas. On 15 July 1955, the Chilean government rejected the jurisdiction of the court in that case, and on 1 August, the Argentine government also did so, so on 16 March 1956, the claims were closed. In 1956 and 1958, India tried unsuccessfully to bring the Antarctic issue to the United Nations General Assembly . In 1950,

2451-519: The laws of the Australian Capital Territory ) apply to the Australian Antarctic Territory. Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the Antarctic Treaty Act 1960 , the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 and the Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981 . The law of the United States , including certain criminal offences by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end,

2508-588: The mid-1960s. The central ideas with full acceptance were the freedom of scientific research in Antarctica and the peaceful use of the continent. There was also a consensus for demilitarization and the maintenance of the status quo. The treaty prohibits nuclear testing, military operations, economic exploitation, and territorial claims in Antarctica. It is monitored through on-site inspections. The only permanent structures allowed are scientific research stations. The original signatory countries hold voting rights on Antarctic governance, with seven of them claiming portions of

2565-404: The preparation of postwar plans." These protests led to a series of consultations as well as to a Mexican proposal for an inter-American meeting. At the Inter-American Conference on the Problems of War and Peace, at Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City during February and March 1945, discussions of the post-war world order were held by the US Secretary of State and by the foreign secretaries of all

2622-405: The right to make a claim. The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina in September 2004 by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM). Jan Huber (the Netherlands) served as the first Executive Secretary for five years until 31 August 2009. He was succeeded on 1 September 2009, by Manfred Reinke (Germany). Reinke was succeeded by Albert Lluberas (Uruguay), who

2679-461: The security conference was planned to be held in Rio de Janeiro in October 1945 but it was postponed to March 1946. The March 1946 date was also postponed indefinitely. Disputes between the United States and Argentina's Juan Perón (President from 4 June 1946) led to the delays. The American concern, alongside that of some countries in South America regarding Peronism raised the possibility of including collective intervention to preserve democracy in

2736-406: The security conference. During the delay, global tensions between the United States and Soviet Union grew. In light of the developing Cold War and following the statement of the Truman Doctrine on 12 March 1947, the United States wished to make those new anti-communist commitments permanent, as did many anti-communist leaders in Latin America. The Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance

2793-426: The studies being carried out had been completed. Scientific bases increased international tension concerning Antarctica. The danger of the Cold War spreading to that continent caused the President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower , to convene an Antarctic Conference of the twelve countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year, to sign a treaty. In the first phase, representatives of

2850-454: The treaty has 57 parties. After World War II , the U.S. considered establishing a claim in Antarctica. From 26 August 1946, and until the beginning of 1947, it carried out Operation Highjump , the largest military expeditionary force that the United States had ever sent to Antarctica, consisting of 13 ships, 4,700 men, and numerous aerial devices. Its goals were to train military personnel and to test material in conditions of extreme cold for

2907-658: The treaty, 29 of which, including all 12 original signatories to the treaty, have consultative (voting) status. The consultative members include the 7 countries that claim portions of Antarctica as their territory. The 49 non-claimant countries do not recognize the claims of others. 42 parties to the Antarctic Treaty have also ratified the "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty". [REDACTED]   East Germany also acceded on 19 November 1974, and received consultative status on 5 October 1987, prior to its reunification with West Germany . Has an overlapping claim with another one or two claimants. Reserved

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2964-416: The twelve nations met in Washington, who met in sixty sessions between June 1958 and October 1959 to define a basic negotiating framework. However, no consensus was reached on a preliminary draft. In the second phase, a conference at the highest diplomatic level was held from 15 October to 1 December 1959, when the Treaty was signed. The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by 12 nations and came into effect in

3021-411: Was elected in June 2017 at the 40th Antarctic Consultative Treaty Meeting in Beijing, China. The tasks of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat can be divided into the following areas: Antarctica currently has no permanent population and therefore it has no citizenship nor government. Personnel present on Antarctica at any time are always citizens or nationals of some sovereignty outside Antarctica, as there

3078-432: Was invoked numerous times during the 1950s and 1960s, in particular the unanimous support of the United States' naval blockade during the Cuban Missile Crisis . In 2001, the United States invoked the Rio Treaty after the September 11 attacks . In 2019, during a presidential crisis in Venezuela between incumbent President Nicolás Maduro and president of the opposition-led National Assembly of Venezuela Juan Guaidó ,

3135-418: Was known as the "hemispheric defense" doctrine. Despite this, several members have breached the treaty on multiple occasions. The treaty was initially created in 1947 and came into force in 1948, in accordance with Article 22 of the treaty. The Bahamas was the most recent country to sign and ratify it in 1982. The United States maintained a hemispheric defense policy relative to European influence under

3192-405: Was the first of many so-called "mutual security agreements", and the formalization of the Act of Chapultepec. The treaty was adopted by the original signatories on 2 September 1947 in Rio de Janeiro (hence the colloquial name "Rio Treaty"). It came into force on 3 December 1948 and was registered with the United Nations on 20 December 1948. With the exceptions of Trinidad and Tobago (1967) and

3249-418: Was to send a warship that landed marines at the scene on 4 February. In 1949, Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom signed a Tripartite Naval Declaration committing not to send warships south of the 60th parallel south , which was renewed annually until 1961 when it was deemed unnecessary when the treaty entered into force. This tripartite declaration was signed after the tension generated when Argentina sent

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