149-635: The Burgundian State ( French : État bourguignon ; Dutch : Bourgondische Rijk ) was a polity ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy from the late 14th to the late 15th centuries, and which ultimately comprised not only the Duchy and County of Burgundy but also the Burgundian Netherlands . The latter, acquired piecemeal over time and largely through inheritance, was, in fact, their principal source of wealth and prestige. The Dukes were members of
298-744: A French official to teachers in the department of Finistère , in western Brittany, included the following: "And remember, Gents: you were given your position in order to kill the Breton language". The prefect of Basses-Pyrénées in the French Basque Country wrote in 1846: "Our schools in the Basque Country are particularly meant to replace the Basque language with French..." Students were taught that their ancestral languages were inferior and they should be ashamed of them; this process
447-431: A comprehensive academic study entitled "The World's 10 most influential languages". In the article, Weber ranked French as, after English, the second-most influential language of the world, ahead of Spanish. His criteria were the numbers of native speakers, the number of secondary speakers (especially high for French among fellow world languages), the number of countries using the language and their respective populations,
596-555: A foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050. French is the fastest growing language on the continent (in terms of either official or foreign languages). French is increasingly being spoken as a native language in Francophone Africa, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and
745-669: A kingdom in its own right, but Charles the Bold 's early death at the Battle of Nancy put an end to his Lotharingian dream and his legacy passed to the House of Habsburg through the marriage of his daughter Mary to Maximilian of Austria . Meanwhile Picardy and the Duchy of Burgundy were conquered by the King of France . The partition of the Burgundian heritage marked the beginning of
894-710: A large part of France. However, Joan of Arc came and changed the course of the war, allowing Charles VII of France to be crowned in Reims on July 1429. Joan of Arc was later captured by the Burgundians and handed over to the English. In 1435, the Congress of Arras took place and ended in a reconciliation between Burgundy and France. Duke Philip the Good recognized Charles VII as King of France , and Charles recognized
1043-548: A new Parliament in Mechelen , being a sovereign court receiving appeals from subjects from all the Burgundian Netherlands . It was abolished by Mary 's Great Privilege of 1477, only to be reestablished by her son Philip the Handsome under the name of "Great Council of Mechelen". The Chambres des Comptes (Chambers of Accounts) were major elements of the centralization of power and of the modern financial system set up by
1192-705: A period of prosperity and prominence among European nations. Richelieu established the Académie française to protect the French language. By the early 1800s, Parisian French had become the primary language of the aristocracy in France. Near the beginning of the 19th century, the French government began to pursue policies with the end goal of eradicating the many minorities and regional languages ( patois ) spoken in France. This began in 1794 with Henri Grégoire 's "Report on
1341-494: A relic of the old nominal case system of Latin longer than most other Romance languages (with the notable exception of Romanian which still currently maintains a case distinction), differentiating between an oblique case and a nominative case. The phonology was characterized by heavy syllabic stress, which led to the emergence of various complicated diphthongs such as -eau which would later be leveled to monophthongs. The earliest evidence of what became Old French can be seen in
1490-587: A second language. French is the second most taught foreign language in the EU. All institutions of the EU use French as a working language along with English and German ; in some institutions, French is the sole working language (e.g. at the Court of Justice of the European Union ). French is also the 16th most natively spoken language in the world, the sixth most spoken language by total number of speakers , and
1639-526: A second language. However it has also become a native language in a number of urban areas, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and the Democratic Republic of the Congo . In some North African countries, though not having official status, it is also a first language among some upper classes of the population alongside indigenous languages, but only
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#17327646480741788-941: A second one among the general population. In 2015, approximately 40% of the Francophone population (including L2 and partial speakers) lived in Europe, 36% in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian Ocean, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas, and 1% in Asia and Oceania. French is the second most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union . Of Europeans who speak other languages natively, approximately one-fifth are able to speak French as
1937-697: A true Burgundian State existed only from the loss of the Duchy of Burgundy and the extinction of the Burgundian dynasty to the Dutch Revolt . After the death of Duke Philip I of Burgundy in 1361, the Duchy was integrated to the royal domain of King John II of France . He later decided to give it as a fief to his youngest son, known as Philip the Bold , who was officially recognized as Duke of Burgundy and First Peer of France on 2 June 1364. The same year, Edmund of Langley , son of Edward III of England , became engaged to Margaret of Flanders , daughter of
2086-657: A turn away from administrative domination. Furthermore, after negotiations lasting fifteen years, in 2001 China joined the World Trade Organization . Jus novum ( c. 1140 -1563) Jus novissimum ( c. 1563 -1918) Jus codicis (1918-present) Other Sacraments Sacramentals Sacred places Sacred times Supra-diocesan/eparchal structures Particular churches Juridic persons Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law Clerics Office Juridic and physical persons Associations of
2235-547: A variant of Canadian French , is spoken in parts of New England . Missouri French was historically spoken in Missouri and Illinois (formerly known as Upper Louisiana ), but is nearly extinct today. French also survived in isolated pockets along the Gulf Coast of what was previously French Lower Louisiana , such as Mon Louis Island , Alabama and DeLisle, Mississippi (the latter only being discovered by linguists in
2384-437: Is 95%, and in the French collectivity of Wallis and Futuna , it is 84%. In French Polynesia and to a lesser extent Wallis and Futuna, where oral and written knowledge of the French language has become almost universal (95% and 84% respectively), French increasingly tends to displace the native Polynesian languages as the language most spoken at home. In French Polynesia, the percentage of the population who reported that French
2533-779: Is a Romance language of the Indo-European family . Like all other Romance languages, it descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire . French evolved from Gallo-Romance , the Latin spoken in Gaul , and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues d'oïl —languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French ( Francien ) largely supplanted. French
2682-472: Is a widespread second language among the Lebanese people , and is taught in many schools along with Arabic and English. French is used on Lebanese pound banknotes, on road signs, on Lebanese license plates , and on official buildings (alongside Arabic). Today, French and English are secondary languages of Lebanon , with about 40% of the population being Francophone and 40% Anglophone. The use of English
2831-489: Is also a working language in nonprofit organisations such as the Red Cross (alongside English, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic and Russian), Amnesty International (alongside 32 other languages of which English is the most used, followed by Spanish, Portuguese, German, and Italian), Médecins sans Frontières (used alongside English, Spanish, Portuguese and Arabic), and Médecins du Monde (used alongside English). Given
2980-430: Is among the top five most studied languages worldwide, with about 120 million learners as of 2017. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 16th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. French has a long history as an international language of literature and scientific standards and is a primary or second language of many international organisations including
3129-462: Is an official language in 27 countries , as well as one of the most geographically widespread languages in the world, with about 50 countries and territories having it as a de jure or de facto official, administrative, or cultural language. Most of these countries are members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), the community of 54 member states which share
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#17327646480743278-535: Is codified in treaties, but develops through the precedent set down by the European Court of Justice . The African law system is based on common law and civilian law. Many legal systems in Africa were based on ethnic customs and traditions before colonization took over their original system. The people listened to their elders and relied on them as mediators during disputes. Several states didn't keep written records, as their laws were often passed orally. In
3427-652: Is enacted only in New Brunswick, where about one third of the population is Francophone. French is also an official language of all of the territories ( Northwest Territories , Nunavut , and Yukon ). Out of the three, Yukon has the most French speakers, making up just under 4% of the population. Furthermore, while French is not an official language in Ontario , the French Language Services Act ensures that provincial services are available in
3576-503: Is growing in the business and media environment. Out of about 900,000 students, about 500,000 are enrolled in Francophone schools, public or private, in which the teaching of mathematics and scientific subjects is provided in French. Actual usage of French varies depending on the region and social status. One-third of high school students educated in French go on to pursue higher education in English-speaking institutions. English
3725-404: Is known as Old French. The period of Old French spanned between the 8th and 14th centuries. Old French shared many characteristics with Latin. For example, Old French made use of different possible word orders just as Latin did because it had a case system that retained the difference between nominative subjects and oblique non-subjects . The period is marked by a heavy superstrate influence from
3874-469: Is often considered to be a useful skill by business owners in the United Kingdom; a 2014 study found that 50% of British managers considered French to be a valuable asset for their business, thus ranking French as the most sought-after foreign language there, ahead of German (49%) and Spanish (44%). MIT economist Albert Saiz calculated a 2.3% premium for those who have French as a foreign language in
4023-828: Is one of the official languages of such major international and regional courts, tribunals, and dispute-settlement bodies as the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights , the Caribbean Court of Justice , the Court of Justice for the Economic Community of West African States , the Inter-American Court of Human Rights , the International Court of Justice , the International Criminal Tribunal for
4172-576: Is taught in universities around the world, and is one of the world's most influential languages because of its wide use in the worlds of journalism, jurisprudence , education, and diplomacy. In diplomacy, French is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (and one of the UN Secretariat 's only two working languages ), one of twenty official and three procedural languages of the European Union , an official language of NATO ,
4321-553: Is the language of business and communication, with French being an element of social distinction, chosen for its emotional value. French is an official language of the Pacific Island nation of Vanuatu , where 31% of the population was estimated to speak it in 2023. In the French special collectivity of New Caledonia , 97% of the population can speak, read and write French while in French Polynesia this figure
4470-483: Is the native language of about 23% of the Swiss population, and is spoken by 50% of the population. Along with Luxembourgish and German, French is one of the three official languages of Luxembourg , where it is generally the preferred language of business as well as of the different public administrations. It is also the official language of Monaco . At a regional level, French is acknowledged as an official language in
4619-492: Is the second-most spoken language (after English) in the states of Maine and New Hampshire . In Louisiana , it is tied with Spanish for second-most spoken if Louisiana French and all creoles such as Haitian are included. French is the third most spoken language (after English and Spanish) in the states of Connecticut , Rhode Island , and New Hampshire . Louisiana is home to many distinct French dialects, collectively known as Louisiana French . New England French , essentially
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4768-424: Is the sole official language in the province of Quebec , where some 80% of the population speak it as a native language and 95% are capable of conducting a conversation in it. Quebec is also home to the city of Montreal , which is the world's fourth-largest French-speaking city, by number of first language speakers. New Brunswick and Manitoba are the only officially bilingual provinces, though full bilingualism
4917-702: The Corpus Juris Civilis . As one legal historian wrote, "Justinian consciously looked back to the golden age of Roman law and aimed to restore it to the peak it had reached three centuries before." During the Byzantine Empire the Justinian Code was expanded and remained in force until the Empire fell, though it was never officially introduced to the West. Instead, following the fall of
5066-747: The 1983 Code of Canon Law , promulgated by John Paul II on 25 January 1983. John Paul II also brought to a close the long process of codifying the Eastern Catholic canon law common to all 23 sui juris Eastern Catholic Churches on 18 October 1990 by promulgating the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches . One of the major legal systems developed during the Middle Ages was Islamic law and jurisprudence . A number of important legal institutions were developed by Islamic jurists during
5215-764: The Aosta Valley region of Italy where it is the first language of approximately 50% of the population, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands . It is also spoken in Andorra and is the main language after Catalan in El Pas de la Casa . The language is taught as the primary second language in the German state of Saarland , with French being taught from pre-school and over 43% of citizens being able to speak French. The majority of
5364-462: The Aosta Valley region of Italy; and various communities elsewhere. French is estimated to have about 310 million speakers, of which about 80 million are native speakers. According to the OIF, approximately 321 million people worldwide are "able to speak the language" as of 2022, without specifying the criteria for this estimation or whom it encompasses. In Francophone Africa, it is spoken mainly as
5513-632: The Belgian Revolution , modern-day Belgium . The Court of Burgundy was itinerant . There was no such thing as a capital, although some towns could have claimed it. Dijon was the traditional capital of the Dukes of Burgundy , and it was there Philip the Bold founded the Palace of the Dukes and the Chartreuse of Champmol , which was meant to be a burial place for the dynasty. But Philip
5662-541: The British Empire . Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore and Hong Kong also adopted the common law. The eastern Asia legal tradition reflects a unique blend of secular and religious influences. Japan was the first country to begin modernising its legal system along western lines, by importing bits of the French , but mostly the German Civil Code. This partly reflected Germany's status as a rising power in
5811-763: The Cross of Burgundy and the Order of the Golden Fleece . Under Charles the Bold , who wanted to create a kingdom of his own, propaganda insisted that the Belgae were the common ancestors for all of his lands. The Leo Belgicus appeared after that to symbolise the unity of the Low Countries . Furthermore, the Burgundian State was not a de jure sovereign state . The dukes of Burgundy were vassals of
5960-539: The Democratic Republic of Congo . There is not a single African French , but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages . Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth. It is also where the language has evolved the most in recent years. Some vernacular forms of French in Africa can be difficult to understand for French speakers from other countries, but written forms of
6109-466: The Duchy of Luxembourg . The Low Countries were at last united, becoming the Burgundian Netherlands . Under his rule, the court of Burgundy found its apex. A great patron , he made it a major artistic center. Burgundian celebrations and banquets enjoyed an international reputation. Philip himself was a renowned prince within Christendom , especially for his repeated calls for a Crusade against
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6258-702: The Dutch Republic (now the Netherlands ). The southern provinces remained under Spanish rule until the 18th century and became known as the Spanish Netherlands , or Southern Netherlands (corresponding roughly to present day Belgium , Luxembourg and northern Hauts-de-France ). The notion of a "Burgundian State" was coined in the 19th century by the Belgian historian Henri Pirenne in his Histoire de Belgique to describe what he saw as
6407-485: The European Union , French was the dominant language within all institutions until the 1990s. After several enlargements of the EU (1995, 2004), French significantly lost ground in favour of English, which is more widely spoken and taught in most EU countries. French currently remains one of the three working languages, or "procedural languages", of the EU, along with English and German. It is the second-most widely used language within EU institutions after English, but remains
6556-441: The Francien dialect is one that not only continued but also thrived during the Middle French period (14th–17th centuries). Modern French grew out of this Francien dialect. Grammatically, during the period of Middle French, noun declensions were lost and there began to be standardized rules. Robert Estienne published the first Latin-French dictionary, which included information about phonetics, etymology, and grammar. Politically,
6705-421: The Guelders Wars , the following territories were added to the Burgundian states: Friesland , and Frisia , Utrecht , Overijssel , Groningen , the County of Zutphen , and the Duchy of Guelders . In 1549, Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction and organized the Burgundian Low Countries in Seventeen Provinces . Following the Dutch Revolt , those territories were divided between the Spanish Netherlands and
6854-447: The Hanseatic League , took shape so that merchants could trade using familiar standards, rather than the many splintered types of local law. A precursor to modern commercial law, the Law Merchant emphasised the freedom of contract and alienability of property. The two main traditions of modern European law are the codified legal systems of most of continental Europe, and the English tradition based on case law. As nationalism grew in
7003-404: The House of Valois-Burgundy , a cadet branch of the French royal House of Valois , and the complex of territories they ruled is sometimes referred to as Valois Burgundy . The term "Burgundian State" was coined by historians and was not in contemporary use; the polity remained a collection of separate duchies and counties in personal union under the Duke of Burgundy. It is regarded as one of
7152-439: The International Olympic Committee , the Council of Europe , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , Organization of American States (alongside Spanish, Portuguese and English), the Eurovision Song Contest , one of eighteen official languages of the European Space Agency , World Trade Organization and the least used of the three official languages in the North American Free Trade Agreement countries. It
7301-527: The Mali Empire , the Kouroukan Fouga , was proclaimed in 1222–1236 AD as the official constitution of the state. It defined regulations in both constitutional and civil matters. The provisions of the constitution are still transmitted to this day by griots under oath. During colonization, authorities in Africa developed an official legal system called the Native Courts. After colonialism, the major faiths that stayed were Buddhism, Hinduism, and Judaism. The United States legal system developed primarily out of
7450-408: The Margraviate of Antwerp and the Duchies of Brabant , Limburg and Luxembourg , succeeding his cousin Philip , son of Anthony of Burgundy . He also took advantage of a succession crisis to make himself the heir of Jacqueline of Hainaut — at the time of her death, in 1433, he seized her Counties of Hainaut , Holland and Zeeland . Finally, in 1441 he bought from his aunt Elizabeth of Görlitz
7599-420: The Oaths of Strasbourg and the Sequence of Saint Eulalia , while Old French literature began to be produced in the eleventh century, with major early works often focusing on the lives of saints (such as the Vie de Saint Alexis ), or wars and royal courts, notably including the Chanson de Roland , epic cycles focused on King Arthur and his court , as well as a cycle focused on William of Orange . It
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#17327646480747748-444: The Ottoman Empire , such as during the Feast of the Pheasant . In 1430, he created the prestigious Order of the Golden Fleece . However, the growing centralisation of power under the House of Burgundy did not please the Flemish cities, proud of their autonomy and liberties. Duke Philip had to suppress the Bruges Rebellion of 1436–1438, and then the Revolt of Ghent of 1449–1453. Both times, Burgundian forces were able to count on
7897-404: The Swiss Confederacy , leading to the Burgundian Wars (1474–1477). Charles the Bold 's armies suffered two large defeats in 1476, at Grandson and Morat . The Duke of Lorraine took advantage of that and took Nancy back. With a weakened army, Duke Charles persevered and wanted to besiege Nancy as quickly as possible. The union of the Swiss and Lorrainer armies defeated the Burgundians during
8046-520: The United Nations , the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , the World Trade Organization , the International Olympic Committee , the General Conference on Weights and Measures , and the International Committee of the Red Cross . French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended primarily from Vulgar Latin ) that evolved out of the Gallo-Romance dialects spoken in northern France. The language's early forms include Old French and Middle French . Due to Roman rule, Latin
8195-416: The United Provinces . Franche-Comté was ceded by Spain to France in the Treaty of Nijmegen (1678). Following the War of the Spanish Succession , the Habsburg Netherlands passed to Austria and remained in Austrian hands until the French conquest of the late 18th century. Following the Congress of Vienna , the former Burgundian territories remaining divided between France, the Netherlands and, following
8344-522: The common law . In particular, Henry II instituted legal reforms and developed a system of royal courts administered by a small number of judges who lived in Westminster and traveled throughout the kingdom. Henry II also instituted the Assize of Clarendon in 1166, which allowed for jury trials and reduced the number of trials by combat . Louis IX of France also undertook major legal reforms and, inspired by ecclesiastical court procedure, extended Canon-law evidence and inquisitorial-trial systems to
8493-432: The jus vetus (all law before the Code) and the jus novum (the law of the Code, or jus codicis ). Eastern canon law developed separately. In the twentieth century, canon law was comprehensively codified. On 27 May 1917, Pope Benedict XV codified the 1917 Code of Canon Law . John XXIII , together with his intention to call the Second Vatican Council , announced his intention to reform canon law, which culminated in
8642-413: The king of France and the Holy Roman Emperor , even if they acted as sovereigns. The authority of the emperor was highly hypothetical, but in most of their French fiefs , for instance, their judgements could be challenged before the Parlement of Paris . Charles the Bold created the Parliament of Mechelen to avoid this. Following Johan Huizinga, Marc Boone and Wim Blockmans ironically concluded that
8791-489: The "Burgundian State" was a creation of modern historiography and was not an entity that its contemporaries recognised. Many historians, especially historians of law , Belgian and Dutch historians, argue that legally speaking, the lands of the dukes formed a collection of princely estates, rather than an actual state . As such, they call those lands "Valois Burgundy", "Burgundian states", "Great Principality of Burgundy", "Burgundian Union" or "Burgundian Commonwealth". Indeed,
8940-459: The 18th and 19th centuries, lex mercatoria was incorporated into countries' local law under new civil codes. Of these, the French Napoleonic Code and the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch became the most influential. As opposed to English common law , which consists of massive tomes of case law, codes in small books are easy to export and for judges to apply. However, today there are signs that civil and common law are converging. European Union law
9089-455: The 1990s) but these varieties are severely endangered or presumed extinct. French is one of two official languages in Haiti alongside Haitian Creole . It is the principal language of education, administration, business, and public signage and is spoken by all educated Haitians. It is also used for ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations, and church masses. The vast majority of the population speaks Haitian Creole as their first language;
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#17327646480749238-474: The 20th century, when it was replaced by English as the United States became the dominant global power following the Second World War . Stanley Meisler of the Los Angeles Times said that the fact that the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language. During the Grand Siècle (17th century), France, under the rule of powerful leaders such as Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV , enjoyed
9387-404: The Bold sacked and destroyed the town in 1468. At the end of Philip's long reign, under the influence of the House of Croÿ , the Duke got closer to King Louis XI of France , whom he hosted when he was opposed to his father. Louis bought back the towns of Picardy , which displeased Charles , count of Charolais , the Duke's son and heir. He joined a noble revolt against the King, the League of
9536-435: The Burgundian State remained a personal union of territories under the remote authority of the duke. The provinces shared no common legislation, although the dukes created common institutions. At the time, there was no name to describe the territorial complex otherwise than "the lands and estates of the duke of Burgundy". The last dukes of the Valois dynasty, however, tried to rally the various populations around symbols such as
9685-461: The Burgundian territorial acquisitions. Philip was personally exempted from pledging homage to the King. After 1435, Philip the Good was no longer interested in the French affairs, and ruled his own territories as their sovereign . Philip managed to considerably expand the Burgundian State in the Low Countries . In 1421, he bought the County of Namur from the impoverished Marquis of Namur , inheriting it outright in 1429. In 1430, he inherited
9834-510: The Canadian capital, is also effectively bilingual, as it has a large population of federal government workers, who are required to offer services in both French and English, and is just across the river from the Quebecois city of Gatineau . According to the United States Census Bureau (2011), French is the fourth most spoken language in the United States after English, Spanish, and Chinese, when all forms of French are considered together and all dialects of Chinese are similarly combined. French
9983-614: The Caribbean that are collectively referred to as the French West Indies , namely Guadeloupe , Saint Barthélemy , Saint Martin , and Martinique . French is the official language of both French Guiana on the South American continent, and of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , an archipelago off the coast of Newfoundland in North America. French was the official language of the colony of French Indochina , comprising modern-day Vietnam , Laos , and Cambodia . It continues to be an administrative language in Laos and Cambodia, although its influence has waned in recent decades. In colonial Vietnam,
10132-607: The Count Louis II of Flanders and heiress to Flanders , Artois , Rethel , Nevers and the Free County of Burgundy . King Charles V of France could not let this marriage happen. Since Edmund and Margaret were cousins, they needed a papal dispensation to marry, which Pope Urban V refused them because of lobbying by Charles, who wanted to marry Margaret to his younger brother, Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. The Count of Flanders, eager for an alliance, agreed to marry his daughter and heir presumptive to Philip. The marriage took place on 19 June 1369 in Ghent , and from then Philip
10281-407: The County of Burgundy. Later, by the Treaty of Cambrai of 1529, King Francis I of France definitively gave up French sovereignty over Artois and Flanders; in return, Emperor Charles V gave up on his claim to the Duchy of Burgundy. In 1512, the Burgundian Circle was created as an Imperial Circle of the Holy Roman Empire , bringing together Franche-Comté and the Habsburg Netherlands . During
10430-408: The Empire, this local elite had been slowly abandoning Gaulish entirely, but the rural and lower class populations remained Gaulish speakers who could sometimes also speak Latin or Greek. The final language shift from Gaulish to Vulgar Latin among rural and lower class populations occurred later, when both they and the incoming Frankish ruler/military class adopted the Gallo-Roman Vulgar Latin speech of
10579-464: The English common law system (with the exception of the state of Louisiana , which continued to follow the French civilian system after being admitted to statehood). Some concepts from Spanish law , such as the prior appropriation doctrine and community property , still persist in some US states, particularly those that were part of the Mexican Cession in 1848. Under the doctrine of federalism , each state has its own separate court system , and
10728-635: The English. As regent, he made King Charles sign the Treaty of Troyes , which disinherited his son in favor of Henry V of England , who was to marry Catherine of Valois , uniting the Houses of France and England . But Henry died in August 1422, followed two months later by Charles. Henry VI , King of France and England , was just a baby, and the regency was assumed by John, Duke of Bedford . The Anglo-Burgundian alliance won many major victories, and controlled
10877-756: The French lands of the Duke of Burgundy from the jurisdiction of the Parlement of Paris . But he later opposed this agreement, and declared war on the duke in December 1470. According to the noncompliance clause of the treaty, Duke Charles declared himself and his lands forever freed of the French crown . In the same time, he encouraged a resumption of the Hundred Years' War . He supported King Edward IV of York , marrying his sister , and had him land in Calais in
11026-484: The Germanic Frankish language , which non-exhaustively included the use in upper-class speech and higher registers of V2 word order , a large percentage of the vocabulary (now at around 15% of modern French vocabulary ) including the impersonal singular pronoun on (a calque of Germanic man ), and the name of the language itself. Up until its later stages, Old French , alongside Old Occitan , maintained
11175-490: The Good and his successors preferred to stay in the Netherlands , in towns such as Brussels , Ghent , Bruges , Lille , Arras and Hesdin . Around the Duke was his hôtel , the household having in charge the daily life of the Court, following the French model. The wealthy Court of Burgundy displayed unprecedented splendor, culminating in the sumptuous wedding of Charles the Bold and Margaret of York , "the wedding of
11324-666: The King was considered mad and the Duke of Burgundy effectively had power, although Louis I, Duke of Orléans , gained more and more power and Philip's influence diminished. Philip died in 1404 and John the Fearless succeeded him. His main goal was to regain power over the regency by excluding Louis of Orléans . Louis was very unpopular: he wanted to resume war with the English and was rumoured to have had an affair with Queen Isabeau . Both men were constantly hampering each other, until John finally decided to kill his enemy. Louis of Orléans
11473-545: The Lorrainer city of Nancy the capital of his kingdom. Charles was obsessed with kingship, which could have given his lands the unity they lacked. He always dressed very richly, and, faced with the King of France or the Emperor, presented himself as their equal. He made himself a golden hat, of which an Italian observer of the time said that "it seemed like a king's crown". Valois Burgundy's territorial appetite frightened
11622-568: The Netherlands, which were imperial estates), while France won the Duchy of Burgundy, Artois and Picardy , and soon the County of Burgundy as the dowry of Margaret. But the Dauphin, after having been crowned as Charles VIII, instead married Anne of Brittany , who was already married by proxy to Maximilian. By the Treaty of Senlis of 1493, the French king gave back Artois, Charolais and
11771-555: The Public Weal , whereupon the King returned the towns to Burgundy. Philip the Good nurtured the ambition to elevate the Burgundian State to the status of a sovereign kingdom within the framework of the Holy Roman Empire , which included a nominal Kingdom of Italy and a more substantial Kingdom of Bohemia , and in the past had also incorporated the ancient Kingdom of Burgundy that however had lost any materiality by
11920-632: The Romans and the next Emperor, then pivoted to reviving the Kingdom of Burgundy, which would have included all Burgundian State's lands within the Empire plus the Duchies of Lorraine , Savoy and Clèves and the Bishoprics of Utrecht , Liège , Toul and Verdun . The date of 25 November 1473 was set for Charles' coronation, and a crown and scepter were prepared. The Emperor, however, abruptly ended
12069-687: The South; and the Netherlands to the North. The States General of the Netherlands were summoned for the first time on 9 January 1464 in Bruges , with representatives of the three estates from 16 or 17 provinces – giving its name to the Seventeen Provinces . One institution was gaining power: the Chancery . The chancellor of Burgundy was getting a political role, becoming a chief minister for
12218-405: The West was consolidated under Charlemagne , law became centralized so as to strengthen the royal court system, and consequently case law , and abolished folk-right. However, once Charlemagne's kingdom definitively splintered, Europe became feudalistic, and law was generally not governed above the county, municipal or lordship level, thereby creating a highly decentralized legal culture that favored
12367-721: The Western Empire and in former Roman countries, the ruling classes relied on the Theodosian Code to govern natives and Germanic customary law for the Germanic incomers – a system known as folk-right – until the two laws blended together. Since the Roman court system had broken down, legal disputes were adjudicated according to Germanic custom by assemblies of learned lawspeakers in rigid ceremonies and in oral proceedings that relied heavily on testimony . After much of
12516-592: The battle of 5 January 1477 , in which Charles the Bold was killed. After Charles's death, Louis XI didn't wait long to invade Burgundy , Artois and Flanders . To protect herself, Mary , Charles's sole heir, summoned the States General of the Netherlands . Unhappy with the previous duke's actions, she had to grant them the Great Privilege , which suppressed several centralized institutions, reestablished many local and communal rights, and increased
12665-456: The bridge to the modern legal world, over the centuries between the rise and decline of the Roman Empire . Roman law, in the days of the Roman republic and Empire , was heavily procedural and there was no professional legal class. Instead a lay person, iudex , was chosen to adjudicate. Precedents were not reported, so any case law that developed was disguised and almost unrecognised. Each case
12814-720: The centuries-long French–Habsburg rivalry and played a pivotal role in European politics long after Burgundy had lost its role as an independent political identity. With the abdication of Emperor Charles V in 1555, the Burgundian Netherlands passed to the Spanish Empire of King Philip II . During the Dutch Revolt , or the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), the northern provinces of the Low Countries gained their independence from Spanish rule and formed
12963-653: The century", still celebrated in Bruges nowadays every five years. Another time for celebrations were the chapters of the Order of the Golden Fleece , were members of the order reunited. The order, who promoted chivalry and Christianity, was very influential in Europe. The Burgundian Court was also a major artistic center. The illustrated manuscripts of the dukes were well renowned, with illuminators such as Jean Miélot , Willem Vrelant , Loyset Liédet or Lieven van Lathem . The Early Netherlandish painting appeared thanks to
13112-620: The classical period of Islamic law and jurisprudence . One such institution was the Hawala , an early informal value transfer system , which is mentioned in texts of Islamic jurisprudence as early as the 8th century. Hawala itself later influenced the development of the Aval in French civil law and the Avallo in Italian law. Roman law was heavily influenced by Greek teachings. It forms
13261-521: The country near French-speaking Quebec, however, it is the foreign language more commonly taught. Vowel phonemes in French Legal history Legal history or the history of law is the study of how law has evolved and why it has changed. Legal history is closely connected to the development of civilisations and operates in the wider context of social history . Certain jurists and historians of legal process have seen legal history as
13410-519: The demographic prospects of the French-speaking nations of Africa, researcher Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry wrote in 2014 that French "could be the language of the future". However, some African countries such as Algeria intermittently attempted to eradicate the use of French, and as of 2024 it was removed as an official language in Mali and Burkina Faso . Significant as a judicial language, French
13559-614: The development of customary law founded on localized case law. However, in the 11th century, crusaders , having pillaged the Byzantine Empire, returned with Byzantine legal texts including the Justinian Code, and scholars at the University of Bologna were the first to use them to interpret their own customary laws. Medieval European legal scholars began researching the Roman law and using its concepts and prepared
13708-648: The distinction between divine law ( thémis ), human decree ( nomos ) and custom ( díkē ). Yet Ancient Greek law contained major constitutional innovations in the development of democracy . Ancient India and China represent distinct traditions of law, and had historically independent schools of legal theory and practice. The Arthashastra , dating from the 400 BC, and the Manusmriti from 100 BCE were influential treatises in India, texts that were considered authoritative legal guidance. Manu's central philosophy
13857-463: The dukes. Nicolas Rolin was a well-known figure, a recognized patron and the right-hand man of Philip the Good for more than forty years. Guillaume Hugonet succeeded him, and was a spokesman for Charles the Bold : he would always express the Duke's political views (of himself as an absolute ruler) by addressing the towns or the States General. Burgundian army assembled soldiers from all
14006-818: The dukes. Philip the Bold created Chambers in Lille and Dijon ; Philip the Good in Brussels and The Hague . Charles the Bold created in 1474 a unique Chamber for the Burgundian Netherlands , in Mechelen , like the Parliament . Mechelen became the capital of the Northern Burgundian administration. The city had the benefit of being an independent lordship, so neither Flanders , Brabant or Holland would be privileged by this choice. The taxes were indirect. The towns refused direct taxes, but nonetheless
14155-448: The economic power of the countries using the language, the number of major areas in which the language is used, and the linguistic prestige associated with the mastery of the language (Weber highlighted that French in particular enjoys considerable linguistic prestige). In a 2008 reassessment of his article, Weber concluded that his findings were still correct since "the situation among the top ten remains unchanged." Knowledge of French
14304-594: The elites primarily spoke French, while many servants who worked in French households spoke a French pidgin known as " Tây Bồi " (now extinct). After French rule ended, South Vietnam continued to use French in administration, education, and trade. However, since the Fall of Saigon and the opening of a unified Vietnam's economy, French has gradually been effectively displaced as the first foreign language of choice by English in Vietnam. Nevertheless, it continues to be taught as
14453-485: The evolution of modern European civil law traditions. The cultural exchange between the secular (Roman/Barbarian) and ecclesiastical (canon) law produced the jus commune and greatly influenced both civil and common law. The history of Latin canon law can be divided into four periods: the jus antiquum , the jus novum , the jus novissimum and the Code of Canon Law . In relation to the Code, history can be divided into
14602-606: The faithful Pars dynamica (trial procedure) Canonization Election of the Roman Pontiff Academic degrees Journals and Professional Societies Faculties of canon law Canonists Institute of consecrated life Society of apostolic life The legal history of the Catholic Church is the history of Catholic canon law , the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West. Canon law originates much later than Roman law but predates
14751-516: The first government authority to adopt Modern French as official was the Aosta Valley in 1536, while the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539) named French the language of law in the Kingdom of France . During the 17th century, French replaced Latin as the most important language of diplomacy and international relations ( lingua franca ). It retained this role until approximately the middle of
14900-675: The first one in Lille for his northern possessions, the other one in Dijon for his southern possessions. These were the first step in the centralization of power. Philip carried out an ambitious matrimonial policy that turned to the east: his first son John married Margaret of Bavaria , and his daughters Margaret and Catherine of Burgundy married, respectively, William , Count of Hainaut , Holland and Zeeland , and Leopold IV, Duke of Austria . His last son Anthony married Jeanne of Saint-Pol , daughter of Waleran III of Luxembourg . During
15049-852: The former Yugoslavia , International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda , the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea the International Criminal Court and the World Trade Organization Appellate Body . It is the sole internal working language of the Court of Justice of the European Union , and makes with English the European Court of Human Rights 's two working languages. In 1997, George Weber published, in Language Today ,
15198-829: The gender of the corresponding word in Gaulish. The estimated number of French words that can be attributed to Gaulish is placed at 154 by the Petit Robert , which is often viewed as representing standardized French, while if non-standard dialects are included, the number increases to 240. Known Gaulish loans are skewed toward certain semantic fields, such as plant life ( chêne , bille , etc.), animals ( mouton , cheval , etc.), nature ( boue , etc.), domestic activities (ex. berceau ), farming and rural units of measure ( arpent , lieue , borne , boisseau ), weapons, and products traded regionally rather than further afield. This semantic distribution has been attributed to peasants being
15347-477: The kingdom of Babylon as stelae , for the entire public to see; this became known as the Codex Hammurabi . The most intact copy of these stelae was discovered in the 19th century by British Assyriologists, and has since been fully transliterated and translated into various languages, including English, German and French. Ancient Greek has no single word for "law" as an abstract concept, retaining instead
15496-454: The language are very closely related to those of the rest of the French-speaking world. French is the second most commonly spoken language in Canada and one of two federal official languages alongside English. As of the 2021 Canadian census , it was the native language of 7.7 million people (21% of the population) and the second language of 2.9 million (8% of the population). French
15645-479: The language, although it has now given way to Tamil and English. A former French mandate , Lebanon designates Arabic as the sole official language, while a special law regulates cases when French can be publicly used. Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used". The French language in Lebanon
15794-612: The language. The Act applies to areas of the province where there are significant Francophone communities, namely Eastern Ontario and Northern Ontario . Elsewhere, sizable French-speaking minorities are found in southern Manitoba, Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island and the Port au Port Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, where the unique Newfoundland French dialect was historically spoken. Smaller pockets of French speakers exist in all other provinces. The Ontarian city of Ottawa ,
15943-479: The last to hold onto Gaulish. The beginning of French in Gaul was greatly influenced by Germanic invasions into the country. These invasions had the greatest impact on the northern part of the country and on the language there. A language divide began to grow across the country. The population in the north spoke langue d'oïl while the population in the south spoke langue d'oc . Langue d'oïl grew into what
16092-423: The late 14th century. Philip viewed Burgundian kingship as a long-term aim which needed careful preparation. In 1447, he held talks to that effect with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III, but the latter only proposed kingship on behalf of Brabant or Frisia , both options too narrow to suit Philip's vision. In 1454, Philip traveled to Regensburg with intent to negotiate Burgundy's status, but Frederick did not attend
16241-548: The late nineteenth century. Similarly, traditional Chinese law gave way to westernisation towards the final years of the Qing dynasty in the form of six private law codes based mainly on the Japanese model of German law. Today Taiwanese law retains the closest affinity to the codifications from that period, because of the split between Chiang Kai-shek 's nationalists, who fled there, and Mao Zedong 's communists who won control of
16390-575: The lead of the Armagnac party. In 1419, parleys took place: the Armagnac and the Burgundian parties were close to find peace at last, but on 10 September 1419, during a parley between the Duke and the Dauphin on the bridge at Montereau , John the Fearless was murdered in turn . Seeking revenge, the new 23-year-old duke of Burgundy, Philip, later known as Philip the Good , agreed to ally with
16539-463: The mainland in 1949. The current legal infrastructure in the People's Republic of China was heavily influenced by soviet Socialist law , which essentially inflates administrative law at the expense of private law rights. Today, however, because of rapid industrialisation China has been reforming, at least in terms of economic (if not social and political) rights. A new contract code in 1999 represented
16688-434: The major powers in Europe of the 15th century. The Dukes of Burgundy were among the wealthiest and the most powerful princes in Europe and were sometimes called "Grand Dukes of the West". Including the thriving regions of Flanders and Brabant , the Burgundian State was a major centre of trade and commerce and a focal point of courtly culture that set the fashion for European royal houses and their courts. It nearly turned into
16837-518: The meeting and no progress was made. Charles , known as "Charles the Bold", succeeded his father Philip the Good in 1467, after having been his lieutenant for two years. An ambitious and ruthless character, he wished to rule over a territorially continuous and independent kingdom, reminiscent of the old Lotharingia , but also of the Kingdoms of Burgundy and of Gallia Belgica . By the Treaty of Péronne of October 1468, Louis XI of France withdrew
16986-420: The necessity and means to annihilate the patois and to universalize the use of the French language". When public education was made compulsory , only French was taught and the use of any other ( patois ) language was punished. The goals of the public school system were made especially clear to the French-speaking teachers sent to teach students in regions such as Occitania and Brittany . Instructions given by
17135-425: The negotiations by fleeing by night with his son. Charles continued to expand the Burgundian State by buying Brisgau and Sundgau from Sigismund, Archduke of Austria in 1469, then conquering the Duchy of Guelders and the County of Zutphen . Finally, in 1475, he conquered the Duchy of Lorraine , ruling at last over a vast continuous territory going from Charolais to Friesland . He proclaimed his wish to make
17284-652: The official use or teaching of French. It is spoken as a first language (in descending order of the number of speakers) in France; Canada (especially in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and New Brunswick); Belgium ( Wallonia and the Brussels-Capital Region ); western Switzerland (specifically the cantons forming the Romandy region); parts of Luxembourg; parts of the United States (the states of Louisiana, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont); Monaco;
17433-534: The other main foreign language in the Vietnamese educational system and is regarded as a cultural language. All three countries are full members of La Francophonie (OIF). French was the official language of French India , consisting of the geographically separate enclaves referred to as Puducherry . It continued to be an official language of the territory even after its cession to India in 1956 until 1965. A small number of older locals still retain knowledge of
17582-525: The parameters of social-science inquiry, using statistical methods, analysing class distinctions among litigants, petitioners and other players in various legal processes. By analyzing case outcomes, transaction costs, and numbers of settled cases, they have begun an analysis of legal institutions, practices, procedures and briefs that gives a more complex picture of law and society than the study of jurisprudence , case law and civil codes can achieve. Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC,
17731-518: The patronage of the duke of Burgundy: among the most famous of those "Flemish primitives" were Robert Campin , Jan van Eyck , Rogier van der Weyden and Petrus Christus . In music, the composers of the Burgundian School were the leading composers in the mid-15th century Europe, such as Guillaume Du Fay , Gilles Binchois and Antoine Busnois . Burgundian territories were roughly divided into two parts: Burgundy ( Duchy and County ) to
17880-467: The power of the States General. They encouraged her to marry Maximilian of Austria . The marriage eventually took place in Ghent on 19 August 1477. The coming of Maximilian as duke cheered the troops, and turned the tables on the King of France who had been taking advantage of the death of his opponent. The French were defeated at the Battle of Guinegate (1479) , after which they negotiated a truce. However,
18029-517: The precursor of the Belgian state . In his nationalist view, the Dukes of Burgundy were the creators of a Burgundian or Belgian nation. Johan Huizinga reused the concept out of convenience at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1999, Bertrand Schnerb [ fr ] popularised the expression in France with a monograph named The Burgundian State . That use is, however, controversial among historians. Though he used it, Huizinga noted that
18178-471: The preferred language of certain institutions or administrations such as the Court of Justice of the European Union , where it is the sole internal working language, or the Directorate-General for Agriculture . Since 2016, Brexit has rekindled discussions on whether or not French should again hold greater role within the institutions of the European Union. A leading world language , French
18327-467: The provinces. It relied on feudal duties , until Charles the Bold decided to modernize it by creating compagnies d'ordonnance , i.e. a regular army , based on the French model. Philip the Bold created a Parliament in Beaune , and around the duke was a judicial Grand Conseil , itinerant and under the jurisdiction of the Parlement of Paris , until 1471. In December 1473, Charles the Bold created
18476-662: The recording of the evolution of laws and the technical explanation of how these laws have evolved with the view of better understanding the origins of various legal concepts; some consider legal history a branch of intellectual history . Twentieth-century historians viewed legal history in a more contextualised manner – more in line with the thinking of social historians . They have looked at legal institutions as complex systems of rules, players and symbols and have seen these elements interact with society to change, adapt, resist or promote certain aspects of civil society . Such legal historians have tended to analyse case histories from
18625-537: The reigns of Philip the Bold and his son John the Fearless , loyalty to the king of France remained strong, and serving the kingdom was a significant duty. During the minority of his nephew, King Charles VI , Philip took part in the "government of the uncles": he was regent alongside his brothers Louis I, Duke of Anjou , and John, Duke of Berry , and Louis II, Duke of Bourbon . Charles VI took power for himself in 1388, aged 19, only to give it back four years later, when he showed his first signs of madness . From then,
18774-471: The rest largely speak French as a first language. As a French Creole language , Haitian Creole draws the large majority of its vocabulary from French, with influences from West African languages, as well as several European languages. It is closely related to Louisiana Creole and the creole from the Lesser Antilles . French is the sole official language of all the overseas territories of France in
18923-566: The royal courts. In 1280 and 1295 measures were instituted by the Court of Arches and other authorities in London to improve the conduct of lawyers in the courts. Also, judges no longer moved on circuits becoming fixed to their jurisdictions, and jurors were nominated by parties to the legal dispute rather than by the sheriff. In addition, by the 10th century, the Law Merchant , first founded on Scandinavian trade customs, then solidified by
19072-465: The summer of 1475. Presenting himself without a whole army, he failed to convince Edward, who had to deal with the King of France, resulting in the Treaty of Picquigny . Charles also got closer to the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III of Habsburg . In November 1473, the two met at Trier and negotiated the marriage of Charles's daughter Marie to Frederick's son Maximilian . During that encounter, Frederick considered having Charles elected as King of
19221-425: The support of the other Flemish towns. After those two events, urban liberties were severely compromised, and Burgundian domination only increased. More opposition came in the Wars of Liège , a series of three rebellions led by the Principality of Liège , refusing the Burgundian protectorate and Louis de Bourbon , nephew of Philip the Good, as their Prince-Bishop. Three times the rebels were defeated, until Charles
19370-412: The taxes only increased and were becoming more and more direct. Under Charles the Bold, the military campaigns were expensive and military aids were often demanded, until 1475 and the granting of an aid of 500,000 crowns by the States General of the Netherlands . French language French ( français [fʁɑ̃sɛ] or langue française [lɑ̃ɡ fʁɑ̃sɛːz] )
19519-414: The total number of French speakers will reach approximately 500 million in 2025 and 650 million by 2050, largely due to rapid population growth in sub-Saharan Africa . OIF estimates 700 million French speakers by 2050, 80% of whom will be in Africa. In a study published in March 2014 by Forbes , the investment bank Natixis said that French could become the world's most spoken language by 2050. In
19668-619: The two official languages—along with Dutch —of the Brussels-Capital Region , where it is spoken by the majority of the population (approx. 80%), often as their primary language. French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland, along with German, Italian, and Romansh , and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland, called Romandy , of which Geneva is the largest city. The language divisions in Switzerland do not coincide with political subdivisions, and some cantons have bilingual status: for example, cities such as Biel/Bienne and cantons such as Valais , Fribourg and Bern . French
19817-407: The unexpected death of Mary in 1482, from a horse riding accident, weakened Maximilian's position, as he had to cope with difficulties being accepted as the rightful regent for his son Philip , aged three. The Treaty of Arras , signed on December 1482, planned to marry Mary and Maximilian's daughter, Margaret , to the Dauphin Charles , aged 12. The Burgundy-Habsburgs kept Flanders (and the rest of
19966-508: The urban intellectual elite. The Gaulish language likely survived into the sixth century in France despite considerable Romanization . Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French contributing loanwords and calques (including oui , the word for "yes"), sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence, and influences in conjugation and word order. Recent computational studies suggest that early gender shifts may have been motivated by
20115-425: The use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words. In Belgium, French is an official language at the federal level along with Dutch and German. At the regional level, French is the sole official language of Wallonia (excluding a part of the East Cantons , which are German-speaking ) and one of
20264-412: The way for the partial resurrection of Roman law as the modern civil law in a large part of the world. There was, however, a great deal of resistance so that civil law rivaled customary law for much of the late Middle Ages. After the Norman conquest of England , which introduced Norman legal concepts into medieval England, the English King's powerful judges developed a body of precedent that became
20413-481: The workplace. In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese . In English-speaking Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, French is the first foreign language taught and in number of pupils is far ahead of other languages. In the United States, French is the second-most commonly taught foreign language in schools and universities, although well behind Spanish. In some areas of
20562-402: The world's French-speaking population lives in Africa. According to a 2023 estimate from the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie , an estimated 167 million African people spread across 35 countries and territories can speak French as either a first or a second language . This number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as
20711-465: Was murdered on 23 November 1407 in the streets of Paris. It was the beginning of the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War . The Duke of Burgundy was in power until 1413, when the Armagnacs took Paris. When Henry V of England resumed the war, John of Burgundy remained neutral and avoided the French defeat at Agincourt . He took Paris back in 1418 and had control over the King, but Charles , the Dauphin of France , an Armagnac partisan, escaped. He later took
20860-417: Was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the ( Germanic ) Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to the French colonial empire , there are numerous French-based creole languages , most notably Haitian Creole . A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French
21009-456: Was based on the concept of Ma'at , and was characterised by tradition, rhetorical speech, social equality and impartiality. By the 22nd century BC, Ur-Nammu , an ancient Sumerian ruler, formulated the first extant law code , consisting of casuistic statements ("if... then..."). Around 1760 BC, King Hammurabi further developed Babylonian law , by codifying and inscribing it in stone. Hammurabi placed several copies of his law code throughout
21158-476: Was closely associated to the reign of his father-in-law, helping him to crush the Flemish at the Battle of Roosebeke . Louis of Flanders died soon after, on 30 January 1384: Philip became Count consort of Flanders, Artois, Rethel, Nevers and Burgundy. Peace was officially restored in Flanders by the Peace of Tournai in 1385. Also in 1385, the offices of Chancellor of Burgundy and of Chancellor of Flanders were merged, and in 1386 two Chambers of Accounts were created:
21307-531: Was during the period of the Crusades in which French became so dominant in the Mediterranean Sea that became a lingua franca ("Frankish language"), and because of increased contact with the Arabs during the Crusades who referred to them as Franj , numerous Arabic loanwords entered French, such as amiral (admiral), alcool (alcohol), coton (cotton) and sirop (syrop), as well as scientific terms such as algébre (algebra), alchimie (alchemy) and zéro (zero). Within Old French many dialects emerged but
21456-400: Was gradually adopted by the inhabitants of Gaul. As the language was learned by the common people, it developed a distinct local character, with grammatical differences from Latin as spoken elsewhere, some of which is attested in graffiti. This local variety evolved into the Gallo-Romance tongues, which include French and its closest relatives, such as Arpitan . The evolution of Latin in Gaul
21605-469: Was known in the Occitan-speaking region as Vergonha . Spoken by 19.71% of the European Union's population, French is the third most widely spoken language in the EU, after English and German and the second-most-widely taught language after English. Under the Constitution of France , French has been the official language of the Republic since 1992, although the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts made it mandatory for legal documents in 1539. France mandates
21754-411: Was shaped by its coexistence for over half a millennium beside the native Celtic Gaulish language , which did not go extinct until the late sixth century, long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire . The population remained 90% indigenous in origin; the Romanizing class were the local native elite (not Roman settlers), whose children learned Latin in Roman schools. At the time of the collapse of
21903-437: Was the language they use the most at home rose from 67% at the 2007 census to 74% at the 2017 census. In Wallis and Futuna, the percentage of the population who reported that French was the language they use the most at home rose from 10% at the 2008 census to 13% at the 2018 census. According to a demographic projection led by the Université Laval and the Réseau Démographie de l'Agence universitaire de la Francophonie ,
22052-404: Was to be decided afresh from the laws of the state, which mirrors the (theoretical) unimportance of judges' decisions for future cases in civil law systems today. During the 6th century AD in the Eastern Roman Empire, the Emperor Justinian codified and consolidated the laws that had existed in Rome so that what remained was one twentieth of the mass of legal texts from before. This became known as
22201-433: Was tolerance and pluralism, and was cited across South East Asia. During the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent , sharia was established by the Muslim sultanates and empires, most notably Mughal Empire 's Fatawa-e-Alamgiri , compiled by emperor Aurangzeb and various scholars of Islam. After British colonialism, Hindu tradition, along with Islamic law, was supplanted by the common law when India became part of
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