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90-702: The Burra Broadcaster represents two iterations of a newspaper published in the town of Burra, South Australia , covering news and community events taking place in the Regional Council of Goyder area. Originally a print newspaper (issued 1991-2006), it was revived as a print/online newspaper in August 2013, taking over from the Mid North Broadcaster after that publication's closure earlier in June 2013. The Burra Community School began printing

180-577: A railway line from Gawler . When the railway failed to be built most of the new townships failed and, in 1876, the remaining townships formed the Corporation of Burra. In September 1846 the townships had their first police force with the movement of four constables from Julia Creek to the south into temporary accommodation provided by SAMA. Permanent lockup cells and stables were completed in Redruth mid-1847. In September that year, William Lang

270-456: A Cornish beam engine which was the first in Australia when erected in 1848. Due to the uneconomic state of the mine, in 1868 a decision made to open cut the mine. Mining ceased underground, having reached a depth of 183 metres (600 ft) and open-cut operations starting in 1870 although, over the remaining life of the mine, small underground operations extracted more ore than

360-403: A bed armor layer, and other depositional features, plus well defined banks due to bank erosion, are good identifiers when assessing for perennial streams. Particle size will help identify a perennial stream. Perennial streams cut through the soil profile, which removes fine and small particles. By assessing areas for relatively coarse material left behind in the stream bed and finer sediments along

450-658: A continuous aquatic habitat until they reach maturity. Crayfish and other crustaceans , snails , bivalves (clams), and aquatic worms also indicate the stream is perennial. These require a persistent aquatic environment for survival. Fish and amphibians are secondary indicators in assessment of a perennial stream because some fish and amphibians can inhabit areas without persistent water regime. When assessing for fish, all available habitat should be assessed: pools, riffles, root clumps and other obstructions. Fish will seek cover if alerted to human presence, but should be easily observed in perennial streams. Amphibians also indicate

540-470: A continuous or intermittent stream. The same non-perennial channel might change characteristics from intermittent to ephemeral over its course. Washes can fill up quickly during rains, and there may be a sudden torrent of water after a thunderstorm begins upstream, such as during monsoonal conditions. In the United States, an intermittent or seasonal stream is one that only flows for part of

630-615: A creek, especially one that is fed by a spring or seep . It is usually small and easily forded . A brook is characterised by its shallowness. A creek ( / k r iː k / ) or crick ( / k r ɪ k / ): In hydrography, gut is a small creek; this is seen in proper names in eastern North America from the Mid-Atlantic states (for instance, The Gut in Pennsylvania, Ash Gut in Delaware, and other streams) down into

720-512: A different group and the division decided by lot. The surveyed area was named the Burra Creek Special Survey. It is 8 by 4 miles (12.9 by 6.4 km), divided into two squares, 4 miles to a side. A group of wealthy capitalists (known as "the nobs") purchased the southern half of the division and a group of shopkeepers , merchants and SAMA (collectively known as "the snobs") the northern half. The Burra Burra Mine

810-422: A drainage network. Although each tributary has its own source, international practice is to take the source farthest from the river mouth as the source of the entire river system, from which the most extended length of the river measured as the starting point is taken as the length of the whole river system, and that furthest starting point is conventionally taken as the source of the whole river system. For example,

900-483: A further find. News of the copper this heralded was published on 21 June in Adelaide newspapers, and the site was soon named The Monster Mine . Governor George Grey had amended land grant regulations forcing the hundred of Kooringa to be a 20,000-acre (8,100 ha) rectangle, placing the two copper finds at opposite ends. Due to the £20,000 (sterling) price of the land it was divided in two, with each half sold to

990-617: A group of speculators from Scotland formed the Bon Accord Mining Company, purchasing a section of land on the northern boundary of the special survey, hoping that the ore body extended under the boundary. Due to the lack of success in mining company, land near the mine was subdivided in 1849 forming Aberdeen (named after the east coastal city of Aberdeen in Scotland ), with the company seeking to recoup some of their investment . Streets were named to honour directors of

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1080-443: A historic tourist destination. From its 1994 declaration as a State Heritage Town, tourism has grown to an estimate of 41,000 visitors in 2000. While many visitors are day-trippers and are from Adelaide , over 40% of the visitors come from outside South Australia and over 50% stay overnight. The town and mine are both well preserved with many original buildings, the water filled open cut mine , well-preserved mining buildings and

1170-540: A larger stream. Common terms for individual river distributaries in English-speaking countries are arm and channel . There are a number of regional names for a stream. A stream's source depends on the surrounding landscape and its function within larger river networks. While perennial and intermittent streams are typically supplied by smaller upstream waters and groundwater, headwater and ephemeral streams often derive most of their water from precipitation in

1260-404: A path into mines or other underground chambers. According to official U.S. definitions, the channels of intermittent streams are well-defined, as opposed to ephemeral streams, which may or may not have a defined channel, and rely mainly on storm runoff, as their aquatic bed is above the water table . An ephemeral stream does not have the biological, hydrological, and physical characteristics of

1350-412: A perennial stream and include tadpoles , frogs , salamanders , and newts . These amphibians can be found in stream channels, along stream banks, and even under rocks. Frogs and tadpoles usually inhabit shallow and slow moving waters near the sides of stream banks. Frogs will typically jump into water when alerted to human presence. Well defined river beds composed of riffles, pools, runs, gravel bars,

1440-483: A perennial stream, fine sediment may cling to riparian plant stems and tree trunks. Organic debris drift lines or piles may be found within the active overbank area after recent high flow. Streams, headwaters, and streams flowing only part of the year provide many benefits upstream and downstream. They defend against floods, remove contaminants, recycle nutrients that are potentially dangerous as well as provide food and habitat for many forms of fish. Such streams also play

1530-521: A pump engine house which today houses a museum. Several chimneys from the mining industry have survived and a tourist trail showcases the old Redruth Gaol , miners' dugout cottages in the creek bank, a row of miners' cottages built in 1850, the cellars of the demolished Unicorn Brewery and other historic places. Burra is listed on the Register of the National Estate and many buildings are on

1620-406: A slow-moving wetted channel or stagnant area. This is evidence that iron-oxidizing bacteria are present, indicating persistent expression of oxygen-depleted ground water. In a forested area, leaf and needle litter in the stream channel is an additional indicator. Accumulation of leaf litter does not occur in perennial streams since such material is continuously flushed. In the adjacent overbank of

1710-486: A stream as intermittent, "showing interruptions in time or space". Generally, streams that flow only during and immediately after precipitation are termed ephemeral . There is no clear demarcation between surface runoff and an ephemeral stream, and some ephemeral streams can be classed as intermittent—flow all but disappearing in the normal course of seasons but ample flow (backups) restoring stream presence — such circumstances are documented when stream beds have opened up

1800-424: A stream is a critical factor in determining its character and is entirely determined by its base level of erosion. The base level of erosion is the point at which the stream either enters the ocean, a lake or pond, or enters a stretch in which it has a much lower gradient, and may be specifically applied to any particular stretch of a stream. In geological terms, the stream will erode down through its bed to achieve

1890-524: A thin layer called sheet wash, combined with a network of tiny rills, which together form the sheet runoff; when this water is focused in a channel, a stream is born. Some rivers and streams may begin from lakes or ponds. Freshwater's primary sources are precipitation and mountain snowmelt. However, rivers typically originate in the highlands, and are slowly created by the erosion of mountain snowmelt into lakes or rivers. Rivers usually flow from their source topographically, and erode as they pass until they reach

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1980-538: A visit in October 1845 to Burra by Henry Ayers and the directors of SAMA the site of the township of Kooringa was chosen. George Strickland Kingston surveyed and laid out the township, completing it in April 1846, and named many of the streets after directors of SAMA. From the beginning the township was a company town , built at low cost and with insufficient housing, which forced many miners to dig makeshift homes. In

2070-446: A visitor centre and B&B . The townships of Copperhouse, Hampton and Nelson were not included in the 1940 proclamation forming the town of Burra, as they had become ghost towns . Other townships that either never succeeded or had been abandoned by 1940 were Princesstown, Lostwithiel, Westbury, Roachtown, Yarwood, Millertown, Warrapoota and Clonmel. Burra today is an important regional centre for surrounding farming communities and

2160-627: A vital role in preserving our drinking water quality and supply, ensuring a steady flow of water to surface waters and helping to restore deep aquifers. The extent of land basin drained by a stream is termed its drainage basin (also known in North America as the watershed and, in British English, as a catchment). A basin may also be composed of smaller basins. For instance, the Continental Divide in North America divides

2250-442: Is 1,555 feet (474 m) above sea level and 112 miles (180 km) from Adelaide . It was erected in 1883, replacing the original building. Regular passenger services ended at the end of 1986, with the last passenger train being an ARHS steam train on 19 September 1992. The last light engines ran to Burra in 2004 with the line being formally closed. After falling into disrepair, the station building has been renovated for use as

2340-435: Is a stream that branches off and flows away from a main stream channel, and the phenomenon is known as river bifurcation . Distributaries are common features of river deltas , and are often found where a valleyed stream enters wide flatlands or approaches the coastal plains around a lake or an ocean . They can also occur inland, on alluvial fans , or where a tributary stream bifurcates as it nears its confluence with

2430-550: Is derived from the Aboriginal word kuri-ngga meaning either in the circle or locality of the sheoak . During the life of the Burra Burra Mine, the township was widely reported as shabby, rundown and poorly maintained with the inhabitants having little incentive to maintain their rented properties. Kooringa is still the main section of the town and is known as Burra South. Llwchwr, sometimes spelled Llychwr ,

2520-425: Is sometimes termed a "young" or "immature" stream, and the later state a "mature" or "old" stream. Meanders are looping changes of direction of a stream caused by the erosion and deposition of bank materials. These are typically serpentine in form. Typically, over time the meanders gradually migrate downstream. If some resistant material slows or stops the downstream movement of a meander, a stream may erode through

2610-456: Is usually called a creek and marked on topographic maps with a solid blue line. There are five generic classifications: "Macroinvertebrate" refers to easily seen invertebrates , larger than 0.5 mm, found in stream and river bottoms. Macroinvertebrates are larval stages of most aquatic insects and their presence is a good indicator that the stream is perennial. Larvae of caddisflies , mayflies , stoneflies , and damselflies require

2700-763: The Burra Community Newsletter in the 1980s, before Terry Wilson established the Burra Broadcaster newspaper (issued 1991-2006) and printing business in Burra. The Taylor Group purchased the business in 2005, and then created the Mid North Broadcaster , a publication released from 2006-2013. It was formed by the merger of struggling local newspapers, the Burra Broadcaster , the Peterborough Times (2003-2006), and

2790-804: The Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape ; possibly coincidentally several ancient placenames such as Burrator in Devon and Burraton in Cornwall occur nearby; also possible origins for the name. A Burra Burra mine is located in Tennessee and named after the Australian one. The original inhabitants of the Burra area were the Ngadjuri Aboriginal people whose first Western contact was in 1839. The first European squatter in this region

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2880-529: The Eudunda Observer , with editorial control via the Murray Pioneer . When the combined newspaper folded in June 2013, an independently run Burra Broadcaster was resurrected locally as an online and print newspaper by Michelle Osborn , who was previously a reporter for the Mid North Broadcaster . Burra, South Australia Burra is a pastoral centre and historic tourist town in

2970-691: The Tombigbee River basin. Continuing in this vein, a component of the Mississippi River basin is the Ohio River basin, which in turn includes the Kentucky River basin, and so forth. Stream crossings are where streams are crossed by roads , pipelines , railways , or any other thing which might restrict the flow of the stream in ordinary or flood conditions. Any structure over or in a stream which results in limitations on

3060-593: The census of 1851 over a third of the population were living along the creek and the census compiler took time to note: There are no houses, the dwellings being excavated in the banks of the Burra Creek. Largely due to the company nature of the settlement, development was slow, with the first bank not opening until 1859. Until the National Bank established the first branch in Kooringa, most exchange

3150-480: The velocity of the stream. A perennial stream is one which flows continuously all year. Some perennial streams may only have continuous flow in segments of its stream bed year round during years of normal rainfall. Blue-line streams are perennial streams and are marked on topographic maps with a solid blue line. The word "perennial" from the 1640s, meaning "evergreen," is established in Latin perennis, keeping

3240-448: The 1890s. Henry Roach was chief Captain, responsible for day-to-day operations, from 1847 to 1867. The investors had put up a total of £12,320 of which £10,000 was spent purchasing the land. The first dividend was paid on 24 June 1847 and by 1 December 1847 the mine had returned total dividends of £49,280. Over the mine's 32-year life, less than 100 shareholders received £826,586 in mining dividends. All mining dividends stopped after

3330-504: The 20th century and for a last time from 1970 to 1981. When the mine was exhausted and closed the population shrank dramatically and the townships, for the next 100 years, supported pastoral and agricultural activities. Today the town continues as a centre for its surrounding farming communities and, being one of the best-preserved towns of the Victorian era in Australia, as a historic tourist centre. The Burra Charter , which outlines

3420-474: The Bon Accord Mining Company and the retention of mineral rights by the company prevented SAMA from acquiring the land, as they had in Redruth. New Aberdeen was subdivided after 1872 arrival of the railway line from Kapunda , and most of the early buildings in the two townships were constructed in the three years following. The broadgauge railway eventually went through Burra to reach a break of gauge station further north at Terowie . Burra railway station

3510-417: The Bon Accord Mining Company had also commenced operations. Until 1860 the mine was the largest metals mine in Australia. From 1845 to 1877 the mine produced approximately 50,000 tonnes of copper. The mine was reopened as a modern open cut in 1971, operating for a decade with 24,000 tonnes of copper extracted. The mine's Adelaide operation was run by Henry Ayers , secretary of SAMA, from its opening until

3600-704: The Caribbean (for instance, Guinea Gut , Fish Bay Gut , Cob Gut , Battery Gut and other rivers and streams in the United States Virgin Islands , in Jamaica (Sandy Gut, Bens Gut River, White Gut River), and in many streams and creeks of the Dutch Caribbean ). A river is a large natural stream that is much wider and deeper than a creek and not easily fordable, and may be a navigable waterway . The linear channel between

3690-482: The District Council and Town Corporation were amalgamated. Redruth was a government township formed in 1850 to break SAMA's monopoly. It is named after Redruth in Cornwall and its streets are named after Cornish mining towns . The township was the site of all original government buildings ( courthouse , gaol and police station ). The courthouse was erected in 1857, and Redruth Gaol , built in 1856,

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3780-625: The List of State Heritage Items. The town is publicly claimed to be the "Merino capital of the world". Proclamation of the Corporation of the Town of Burra Inaugural agricultural show. Burra Hospital opened Stream The flow of a stream is controlled by three inputs – surface runoff (from precipitation or meltwater ), daylighted subterranean water , and surfaced groundwater ( spring water ). The surface and subterranean water are highly variable between periods of rainfall. Groundwater, on

3870-500: The area and some people able to claim Ngadjuri ancestry . On 9 June 1845 William Streair bore samples of a rich copper ore into the office of Henry Ayers , secretary of the South Australian Mining Association (SAMA). Streair, a young shepherd in the employ of local pastoralist James Stein , had walked the 90 miles from Burra as did Thomas Pickett, a shepherd on a neighbouring property who made

3960-533: The atmosphere either by evaporation from soil and water bodies, or by plant evapotranspiration. By infiltration some of the water sinks into the earth and becomes groundwater, much of which eventually enters streams. Most precipitated water is partially bottled up by evaporation or freezing in snow fields and glaciers. The majority of the water flows as a runoff from the ground; the proportion of this varies depending on several factors, such as climate, temperature, vegetation, types of rock, and relief. This runoff begins as

4050-525: The base level of erosion throughout its course. If this base level is low, then the stream will rapidly cut through underlying strata and have a steep gradient, and if the base level is relatively high, then the stream will form a flood plain and meander. Typically, streams are said to have a particular elevation profile , beginning with steep gradients, no flood plain, and little shifting of channels, eventually evolving into streams with low gradients, wide flood plains, and extensive meanders. The initial stage

4140-597: The base stage of erosion. The scientists have offered a way based on data to define the origin of the lake. A classified sample was the one measured by the Chinese researchers from the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences. As an essential symbol of the river formation environment, the river source needs an objective and straightforward and effective method of judging . A calculation model of river source catchment area based on critical support flow (CSD) proposed, and

4230-648: The best practice standard for cultural heritage management in Australia, is named for a conference held here in 1979 by Australia ICOMOS ( International Council on Monuments and Sites ) where the document was adopted. Burra is located within the Hundred of Kooringa a few kilometres inside Goyder's Line , near Burra, Baldina and Gum creeks . The lies within the Temperate Grassland of South Australia . The main body of copper ore formed between two geological faults in broken dolomite rocks. The ore body

4320-610: The company enticed Thomas Burr to take over as general manager, he having resigned his post as Deputy Surveyor General of South Australia, but by September 1848 the unsatisfied company directors had sacked him. By 1848 the wages reached their lowest level, which precipitated the Burra miners' strike , being the first industrial strike in South Australia and earliest workers' strike of any consequence in Australia. The strike came and went numerous times, with miners not completely returning to work until January 1849. By April 1848

4410-431: The consolidation of the mostly culturally-based townships of Redruth, Aberdeen, New Aberdeen, Hampton, Copperhouse, Kooringa, Llwchwr, and Lostwithiel. The name Burra Burra has been asserted to have come from numerous sources. As early as July 1843, when the locality was already a sheep outstation for pastoralist William Peter of Manoora, it was known as Burrow Creek . Despite that obvious (though misspelt) connection to

4500-405: The expectation that the Burra lode would extend under the properties boundary. No extension was found and, to recoup money, the townships of Aberdeen (1849) and New Aberdeen (1872) were formed on company land. Stoppage of pumping at the Burra Burra Mine in 1877 caused a rise in the water level in the neighbouring Bon Accord Mine forcing it to also close. Mining activity lasted from 1846 until 1849,

4590-438: The expensive open cut. Over the life of the mine, Henry Ayers jealously preserved shareholder profits by ruthlessly controlling wages and expenses . In October 1846 this caused the first strike , of masons and bricklayers , with the company refusing to pay more than 8 shillings per day. With declining copper prices (from £91 per ton in 1845 to £87 in 1848) the company continually sought to reduce wages. In August 1847

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4680-707: The flow is reduced to a trickle or less. Typically torrents have Apennine rather than Alpine sources, and in the summer they are fed by little precipitation and no melting snow. In this case the maximum discharge will be during the spring and autumn. An intermittent stream can also be called a winterbourne in Britain, a wadi in the Arabic -speaking world or torrente or rambla (this last one from arabic origin) in Spain and Latin America. In Australia, an intermittent stream

4770-447: The form of rain and snow. Most of this precipitated water re-enters the atmosphere by evaporation from soil and water bodies, or by the evapotranspiration of plants. Some of the water proceeds to sink into the earth by infiltration and becomes groundwater, much of which eventually enters streams. Some precipitated water is temporarily locked up in snow fields and glaciers , to be released later by evaporation or melting. The rest of

4860-407: The immediate vicinity of a stream is called a riparian zone . Given the status of the ongoing Holocene extinction , streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity . The study of streams and waterways in general is known as surface hydrology and is a core element of environmental geography . A brook is a stream smaller than

4950-518: The indigenous Ngadjuri people , a later theory persistently postulates that it comes from the Hindustani for 'great great', used by Indians shepherds working for another early pastoralist, James Stein , to refer to creek. The name could also have come from Stein's home country of Scotland or a number of Aboriginal languages. A so-called ' English Burra Burra ' was discovered in 1851 in Devon in

5040-532: The lake has significant feeder rivers. The Kagera River, which flows into Lake Victoria near Bukoba's Tanzanian town , is the longest feeder, though sources do not agree on which is the Kagera's longest tributary and therefore the Nile's most remote source itself. To qualify as a stream, a body of water must be either recurring or perennial. Recurring (intermittent) streams have water in the channel for at least part of

5130-580: The last period of vulcanism near Burra. The name applied to what is now the town of Burra has changed over time. The Burra Burra Copper Mine was named after the Burra Burra Creek that flows through the town. From at least 1851 the collection of townships near the mine became referred to as "The Burra". The town of Burra was officially formed in 1940 by a notice in the South Australian Government Gazette with

5220-683: The mainly easterly-draining Atlantic Ocean and Arctic Ocean basins from the largely westerly-flowing Pacific Ocean basin. The Atlantic Ocean basin, however, may be further subdivided into the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico drainages. (This delineation is termed the Eastern Continental Divide .) Similarly, the Gulf of Mexico basin may be divided into the Mississippi River basin and several smaller basins, such as

5310-412: The meaning as "everlasting all year round," per "over" plus annus "year." This has been proved since the 1670s by the "living years" in the sense of botany. The metaphorical sense of "enduring, eternal" originates from 1750. They are related to "perennial." See biennial for shifts in vowels. Perennial streams have one or more of these characteristics: Absence of such characteristics supports classifying

5400-544: The mid-north of South Australia . It lies east of the Clare Valley in the Bald Hills range, part of the northern Mount Lofty Ranges , and on Burra Creek . The town began as a single company mining township that, by 1851, was a set of townships (company, private and government-owned) collectively known as "The Burra". The Burra mines supplied 89% of South Australia's and 5% of the world's copper for 15 years, and

5490-431: The mine closed in 1877, with the mine area sold in 1902 and the last property of SAMA in Kooringa sold in 1914. A final dividend was paid on 5 May 1916 and SAMA was wound up and closed. Most of the copper was for sale to India as it was taking over a third of world copper supply in the mid-19th century. Due to the lack of smelting in South Australia, copper ore was initially shipped to Cornwall . The company purchased

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5580-405: The mine was employing 567 people and supporting a population of 1,500 in the township of Kooringa. Employment at the mine peaked at 1,208 in 1859 and declined continuously until the mine's closure in 1877. In November 1877 most of the remaining disposable equipment and stores were sold off and mining by SAMA ceased. The Bon Accord Mining Company was formed on behalf of Scottish speculators , in

5670-453: The neck between two legs of a meander to become temporarily straighter, leaving behind an arc-shaped body of water termed an oxbow lake or bayou . A flood may also cause a meander to be cut through in this way. The stream load is defined as the solid matter carried by a stream. Streams can carry sediment, or alluvium. The amount of load it can carry (capacity) as well as the largest object it can carry (competence) are both dependent on

5760-596: The origin of the Nile River is the confluence of the White Nile and the Blue Nile, but the source of the whole river system is in its upper reaches. If there is no specific designation, "length of the Nile" refers to the "river length of the Nile system", rather than to the length of the Nile river from the point where it is formed by a confluence of tributaries. The Nile's source is often cited as Lake Victoria, but

5850-430: The other hand, has a relatively constant input and is controlled more by long-term patterns of precipitation. The stream encompasses surface, subsurface and groundwater fluxes that respond to geological, geomorphological, hydrological and biotic controls. Streams are important as conduits in the water cycle , instruments in groundwater recharge , and corridors for fish and wildlife migration. The biological habitat in

5940-415: The parallel ridges or bars on a shoreline beach or river floodplain, or between a bar and the shore. Also called a swale . A tributary is a contributory stream to a larger stream, or a stream which does not reach a static body of water such as a lake , bay or ocean but joins another river (a parent river). Sometimes also called a branch or fork. A distributary , or a distributary channel ,

6030-469: The relationship between CSA and CSD with a minimum catchment area established. Using the model for comparison in two basins in Tibet (Helongqu and Niyang River White Water), the results show that the critical support flow (Qc) of the housing dragon song is 0.0028 m /s. At the same time, the white water curvature is 0.0085 m /s. Besides, the critical support flow can vary with hydrologic climate conditions, and

6120-403: The settlement has been credited (along with the mines at Kapunda ) with saving the economy of the struggling new colony of South Australia. The Burra Burra Copper Mine was established in 1848 mining the copper deposit discovered in 1845. Miners and townspeople migrated to Burra primarily from Cornwall , Wales , Scotland and Germany. The mine first closed in 1877, briefly opened again early in

6210-425: The side of the stream or within the floodplain will be a good indicator of persistent water regime. A perennial stream can be identified 48 hours after a storm. Direct storm runoff usually has ceased at this point. If a stream is still flowing and contributing inflow is not observed above the channel, the observed water is likely baseflow. Another perennial stream indication is an abundance of red rust material in

6300-463: The town's first public hospital in 1878 and was demolished in 1968. Burra's first parliamentary representative was George Strickland "Paddy" Kingston who was elected in 1851 to the first legislative council as member for Burra and Clare , and for the same area to the house of assembly in its first parliament of 1857. Piped water was supplied from 1884 from the flooded and abandoned Bon Accord Mine with water reaching 100 houses by 1885. This

6390-423: The townships largely had their own hotels , churches , post offices , schools, and shops and identity. In 1851 the gold rush near Bathurst, New South Wales , emptied the town of many miners. Whole families, government officials and other townspeople left for the gold fields and by 1854 the town appeared largely deserted. The number of townships increased dramatically as a result of an 1858 proposal to extend

6480-655: The vital support flow Qc in wet areas (white water) is larger than in semi-arid regions (heap slot). The proposed critical support flow (CSD) concept and model method can be used to determine the hydrographic indicators of river sources in complex geographical areas, and it can also reflect the impact of hydrologic climate change on river recharge in different regions. The source of a river or stream (its point of origin) can consist of lakes, swamps, springs, or glaciers. A typical river has several tributaries; each of these may be made up of several other smaller tributaries, so that together this stream and all its tributaries are called

6570-512: The water flows off the land as runoff, the proportion of which varies according to many factors, such as wind, humidity, vegetation, rock types, and relief. This runoff starts as a thin film called sheet wash, combined with a network of tiny rills, together constituting sheet runoff; when this water is concentrated in a channel, a stream has its birth. Some creeks may start from ponds or lakes. The streams typically derive most of their water from rain and snow precipitation. Most of this water re-enters

6660-521: The year and is marked on topographic maps with a line of blue dashes and dots. A wash , desert wash, or arroyo is normally a dry streambed in the deserts of the American Southwest , which flows after sufficient rainfall. In Italy, an intermittent stream is termed a torrent ( Italian : torrente ). In full flood the stream may or may not be "torrential" in the dramatic sense of the word, but there will be one or more seasons in which

6750-402: The year. A stream of the first order is a stream which does not have any other recurring or perennial stream feeding into it. When two first-order streams come together, they form a second-order stream. When two second-order streams come together, they form a third-order stream. Streams of lower order joining a higher order stream do not change the order of the higher stream. The gradient of

6840-532: Was William Peter , whose head station was Gum Creek near Manoora. Pastoralists grazed much of the Ngadjuri land from the 1840s and, although there was conflict, Ngadjuri people worked as shepherds and wool scourers, particularly once the area was emptied during the gold rushes of the 1850s. Their population was seriously depleted by introduced European diseases and they were reported to be extinct by 1878. Traces remain with rock art and burial sites in

6930-549: Was also home to the Mid North Broadcaster , a publication released from 2006 to 2013. It was formed by the merger of struggling local newspapers, the Peterborough Times (2003–2006), the Burra Broadcaster (1991–2006), and the Eudunda Observer . It was owned by the Taylor group, with editorial control via the Murray Pioneer . Its distribution included the towns of Burra, Eudunda, Jamestown and Peterborough. During

7020-547: Was appointed resident magistrate and coroner for the Murray District and initially housed in a company cottage in Kooringa. The first hotel was a temporary wooden structure erected at the entrance to the township of Kooringa in mid-1846, and the first permanent hotel was the Burra Hotel (opened 25 September 1847) built by William Paxton , a SAMA director and original owner of Ayers House . The Burra Hotel became

7110-471: Was auctioned on 24 April 1860. From as early as 1843 shepherding had been common around Burra, with pastoral pioneers such as James Stein and William Peter being granted grazing rights for their flocks on unsurveyed land. Over the life of the Burra Mine, most food was brought in as there was no freehold offered by SAMA on the land and no adjoining hundreds were declared until 1860. Agriculture

7200-603: Was built by the Patent Copper Company (later the English and Australian Copper Company ) to avoid the need to ship all of the ore to Wales . The streets are named after those in Llwchwr , Wales and other nearby villages. In May 1848, the company had imported from Swansea the entire smelting works comprising men, materials, tools, staff and families. Smelting was reported to be in operation by May 1849. In 1846

7290-468: Was delayed by the slow surveying of hundreds, as until these had been done there was no freehold or leasehold land but only grazing rights. As Burra lies almost on Goyder's 1865 line it is rated at the edge of marginal land for farming. After mining the town became a pastoral centre, and South Australia 's main sheep trading centre until the mid-20th century. The Baldina Run, a major sheep station of 50 square miles some 10 miles east of Burra, near Kooringa,

7380-433: Was either in the form of company scrip or at shops operating as money exchanges . All towns, except Kooringa, were built outside the mining lease but were still close to the mine as it was at the northern edge of the lease. The formation of the townships was forced by the refusal of SAMA to grant any freeholds within Kooringa, so miners began moving into other townships from the end of 1849. During their early lives, each of

7470-466: Was established by Henry Ayers in 1851, leased by J and C. B. Fisher until 1862, then taken over by Alfred Barker, son-in-law of James Chambers . The Burra Record was a newspaper covering Burra and the mid-north eastern area. The Burra Record had begun life as the Northern Mail , the town's first publication, which was first published on 30 June 1876. After 26 weekly issues, in 1877, it

7560-648: Was established by the snobs in their northern selection, the Princess Royal Mine by the nobs in their southern. In 1846, 347 acres (140 ha) just north of the division was sold to the Scottish Australian Investment Company for £5,550 where they established the Bon Accord Mine. Mining began on 29 September 1845 with the first gunpowder charge set off on the monster Burra Burra copper lode and by mid-1846,

7650-486: Was renamed "Burra North" at that time; it would eventually be merged with Burra as well. Burra's population has declined from a peak of 5,000 in 1851 to a present figure of approximately 1,000. The dramatic decrease at the end of mining inhibited expansion and helped preserve many of the original buildings and houses. The District Council of Burra was proclaimed in 1872, the Town Corporation in 1876 and in 1969

7740-712: Was renamed to Burra News and Northern Mail, before being renamed again in July 1878. In 1977, it merged with the Review-Times to form the Review-Times-Record , which in turn became The Flinders News in 1989. Another publication was the County Light Times , produced in the town from 3 March 1949 to 22 February 1951. Published by Harold Du Rieue, the newspaper's coverage included the districts of Riverton, Tarlee, Rhynie and Saddleworth. Burra

7830-680: Was restarted in 1858 and finally ceased four years later with no orebody having been discovered. Many of the mine's buildings remain and are preserved by the National Trust of South Australia as a museum. The Princess Royal Mine was never successful, and in June 1859 the Princess Royal Mining Company closed its doors. During its brief life the mine produced 468 long tons (476 t) of copper worth £6,500 from 888 long tons (902 t) of ore. The mine and surrounding 10,000 acres (4,000 ha) of then pastoral land

7920-430: Was the first country gaol in South Australia. From 1897 to 1922, the gaol was used as a girls' reformatory . SAMA delayed building in Redruth when they bought 77 of the 120 lots on offer at the initial land auction , paying almost 20 times the overall reserve price. Kooringa was the first company township in Australia and, until the closure of the mine, was maintained as a strictly company-run town. The township's name

8010-492: Was the primary source for Burra until 1966 when it was replaced with water piped from the Murray River . The Burra received its first supply of electricity on 27 March 1924 from the newly formed Burra electric supply company. The historic Burra neighbourhoods of Kooringa, Llwchwr, Aberdeen, New Aberdeen, and Graham ceased to be separately recognised and were included as part of Burra township proper in July 1940. Redruth

8100-426: Was up to 70 metres (230 ft) wide and mainly consisted of green malachite and blue azurite veins and nodules amongst the host rock. The malachite and azurite were formed from copper sulphide minerals, by a process known as " secondary enrichment ". This process took millions of years to convert the low grade copper sulphide ore, which was probably created 300 to 400 millions of years ago during

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