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143-516: The General Motors EV1 is a battery electric car produced by the American automaker General Motors from 1996 until its demise in 1999. A subcompact car , the EV1 marked the introduction of mass produced and purpose-built battery electric vehicles. The conception of the EV1 dates back to 1990 when GM introduced the battery electric "Impact" prototype, upon which the design of the production EV1

286-524: A series powertrain are also called range-extended electric vehicles (REEVs), such as the Chevrolet Volt and Fisker Karma . Plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) are a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs). The electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (aka all-combustion vehicles) belong to one of

429-547: A solar PV system on Adelaide's central bus station . Rides are zero-fare as part of Adelaide's public transport system. Proterra 's EcoRide BE35 transit bus, called the Ecoliner by Foothill Transit in West Covina, California, is a heavy-duty, fast charge, battery-electric bus. Proterra's ProDrive drive-system uses a UQM motor and regenerative braking that captures 90 percent of the available energy and returns it to

572-537: A LVW 3,751–5,750 lb (1,701–2,608 kg)); LEV II closed that discrepancy and defined a single emissions standard for all PCs and LDTs. Under LEV III, medium-duty passenger vehicles (MDPV) were brought under the most stringent standards alongside PCs and LDTs. Rather than providing a single standard for vehicles based on age, purpose, and weight, the LEV ;I standards introduced different tiers of limits for smog -forming compound emissions starting in

715-407: A LVW up to 3,750 lb (1,700 kg) (these "light" LDTs were later denoted LDT1 under LEV II). LEV II increased the scope of vehicles classed as light-duty trucks to encompass a higher GVWR up to 8,500 lb (3,900 kg), compared to the LEV I standard of 6,000 lb (2,700 kg). In addition, LEV I had defined less stringent limits for heavier LDTs (denoted LDT2 with

858-614: A Presidential Memorandum directing the EPA to reconsider the waiver. In the initial denial, EPA Administrator Stephen L. Johnson stated the Clean Air Act was not "intended to allow California to promulgate state standards for emissions from new motor vehicles designed to address global climate change problems" and further, that he did not believe "the effects of climate change in California are compelling and extraordinary compared to

1001-548: A ZEV with a fuel-fired heater, as long as the heater was unable to be operated at ambient temperatures above 40 °F (4 °C) and did not have any evaporative emissions. Under LEV II (ZEV-99), the ZEV definition was updated to include precursor pollutants, but did not consider upstream emissions from power plants. The ZEV regulation has evolved and been modified several times since 1990, and several new partial or low-emission categories were created and defined, including

1144-615: A credit has a market value of $ 3-4,000, and some automakers have more credits than required. CARB held a public workshop in September 2020 where several new consumer-friendly regulations for ZEVs were proposed to improve adoption: In May 2021, additional draft requirements were added: To improve access to ZEVs, CARB added proposed environmental justice (EJ) credits in August 2021 for manufacturers who improve options for clean transportation to underserved communities, such as by providing

1287-573: A discount on a ZEV that would be used in a community-based clean mobility program. The August workshop also included additional regulations for ZEVs: The final workshop in October 2021 proposed that ZEVs would be taken out of fleet calculations for vehicle emissions and provided yearly targets for ZEV vehicle sales as a percent of total sales, including potential EJ credits. Additionally, the required warranty period and requirements to take credit for PHEV sales were defined: The California DMV implements

1430-487: A distance of 3,100,000 kilometres (1,900,000 mi). They were made locally by Advanced Vehicle Systems. Two of these buses were used for the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. Beginning in the summer of 2000, Hong Kong Airport began operating a 16-passenger Mitsubishi Rosa electric shuttle bus, and in the fall of 2000, New York City began testing a 66-passenger battery-powered school bus , an all-electric version of

1573-437: A fuel cell stack. Another noteworthy development was the unveiling of a four-passenger variant of the EV1, extended in length by 19 inches (480 mm). Despite favorable customer reception, GM believed that electric cars occupied an unprofitable niche of the automobile market. The company ended production of the EV1 in 1999, after 1,117 examples were produced over its tenure of under three years. On February 7, 2002 Ken Stewart,

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1716-529: A leasing arrangement, explicitly prohibiting the option to buy under a contractual provision (with a suggested retail price listed at $ 34,000). Saturn assumed responsibility for leasing and maintenance of the EV1. Analysts projected a potential market ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 cars annually. Similar to the PrEView program, lessees were pre-screened by GM, with only residents of Southern California and Arizona initially eligible for participation. Leasing rates for

1859-409: A manufacturer was required to meet increasingly stringent requirements starting in 1994. The calculation of fleet average NMOG emissions was based on a weighted sum of vehicle NMOG emissions, based on the number sold and type of certification (i.e., TLEV, LEV, ULEV, etc.), divided by the total number of vehicles produced, including ZEVs. Manufacturers whose fleet average NMOG emissions met or exceeded

2002-670: A maximum loaded weight of 3,000 pounds (1,400 kg). The concept of battery electric vehicles is to use charged batteries on board vehicles for propulsion. Battery electric cars are becoming more and more attractive with the higher oil prices and the advancement of new battery technology ( lithium-ion ) that have higher power and energy density (i.e., greater possible acceleration and more range with fewer batteries). Compared to older battery types such as lead-acid batteries. Lithium-ion batteries for example now have an energy density of 0.9–2.63 MJ/L whereas lead-acid batteries had an energy density of 0.36 MJ/L (so 2.5 to 7.3x higher). There

2145-432: A powered variant of the cycle rickshaw . The large-scale adoption of electric two-wheelers can reduce traffic noise and road congestion but may necessitate adaptations of the existing urban infrastructure and safety regulations. Ather Energy from India has launched their BLDC motor powered Ather 450 electric scooter with Lithium Ion batteries in 2018. Also from India, AVERA – a new and renewable energy company

2288-437: A significant environmental effort in 1990. They mandated that each of the seven largest automakers in the U.S., with GM being the largest among them, must ensure that two percent of their fleet would be emission-free by 1998, increasing to five percent by 2001 and ten percent by 2003, based on consumer demand. The board clarified that the mandate aimed to address California's severe air pollution issue, which, at that time, exceeded

2431-478: A similar "smog score" on new vehicles sold starting in 2013; the standards were realigned for labels applied to 2018 model year vehicles. The LEV program has established several categories of reduced emissions vehicles. LEV I defined LEV and ULEV vehicles, and added TLEV and Tier 1 temporary classifications that would not be sold after 2003. LEV II added SULEV and PZEV vehicles, and LEV III tightened emission standards. The actual emission levels depend on

2574-408: A total range of 390 miles (630 km). Conversely when operating solely in electric mode, it was estimated to achieve a range of 40 miles (64 km). The parallel hybrid variant featured a 1.3-liter Isuzu turbocharged , direct injection diesel engine, delivering 75 hp (56 kW). GM also introduced a fuel cell variant; its system comprised a fuel processor, an expander/ compressor , and

2717-449: A year of the EV1's release, leasing programs were also launched in various other American states. In 1998 GM unveiled a series of adaptations for the EV1, encompassing a series hybrid , a parallel hybrid , a compressed natural gas variant, as well as a four-door model, all of which served as prototypes for possible potential future models. Despite favorable customer reception, GM believed that electric cars occupied an unprofitable niche of

2860-539: Is a fuel adjustment factor depending on the alternative fuel used (1.03 for natural gas , 0.89 for LPG , and 0.74 for E85 ). ZEVs are also required to calculate GHG as the processes to generate the energy (or fuel) used also produce GHG. For ZEVs, C O 2 e q u i v a l e n t = U + A C d i r e c t {\displaystyle CO_{2}^{\mathrm {equivalent} }=U+AC^{\mathrm {direct} }} , where U {\displaystyle U}

3003-461: Is a regulatory framework aimed at reducing emissions from commercial vessels operating in California's harbors and ports. The rule primarily targets diesel-powered vessels such as ferries, tugboats, and other workboats that operate in and around California's ports. Since the original adoption of regulation in 2008, and its amendments in 2010 and 2022, vessel owners in the state have been required to either replace their engines or send their boats out of

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3146-685: Is a type of electric vehicle (EV) that uses energy exclusively from an on-board battery . This definition excludes hybrid electric vehicles . BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs) for propulsion. They derive all power from battery packs and thus have no internal combustion engine, fuel cell , or fuel tank . BEVs include – but are not limited to – motorcycles, bicycles, scooters, skateboards, railcars, watercraft, forklifts, buses, trucks, and cars. In 2016, there were 210 million electric bikes worldwide used daily. Cumulative global sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric car vehicles passed

3289-611: Is also responsible for two appointees from members of the public, and the final governor appointee is the Board's Chair. The first Chair of CARB was Dr. Arie Jan Haagen-Smit , who was previously a professor at the California Institute of Technology and started research into air pollution in 1948. Dr. Haagen-Smit is credited with discovering the source of smog in California, which led to the development of air pollution controls and standards. In honor of his legacy, CARB started

3432-472: Is consumed. A country with a high share of renewable energy in its electricity mix will have a low C.I. In the European Union, in 2013, the carbon intensity had a strong geographic variability but in most of the member states, electric vehicles were "greener" than conventional ones. On average, electric cars saved 50–60% of CO 2 emissions compared to diesel and gasoline fuelled engines. Moreover,

3575-511: Is explored in the 2006 documentary film titled Who Killed the Electric Car? . The film covers the history of the electric car, its modern development, and its commercialization. It addresses future concerns regarding air pollution , oil dependency , and climate change . The documentary explores various factors contributing to the EV1's cancellation, including the CARB's decision to reverse

3718-753: Is funded by the California Air Resources Board (CARB), offered throughout the State of California and administered by the California Center for Sustainable Energy (CCSE). The CARB first adopted the Low-Emission Vehicle (LEV) Program standards in 1990 to address smog-forming pollutants, which covered automobiles sold in California from 1994 through 2003. An amendment to the LEV Program, known as LEV II,

3861-471: Is going to launch two models of electric scooters at the end of 2018, with Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery technology. India is the world’s biggest market for bicycles at 22 million units per year. By 2024, electric two-wheelers will be a $ 2 billion market with over 3 million units being sold in India. The Indian government is launching schemes and incentives to promote the adoption of electric vehicles in

4004-425: Is needed. This DC power is supplied by the battery pack, and the controller regulates the power to the motor, supplying either variable pulse width DC or variable frequency variable amplitude AC, depending on the motor type. The controller also handles regenerative braking , whereby electrical power is gathered as the vehicle slows down and this power recharges the battery. In addition to power and motor management,

4147-665: Is one of three sections within the Modeling & Meteorology Branch. The other two sections are the Regional Air Quality Modeling Section and the Meteorology Section. The air quality and atmospheric pollution dispersion models routinely used by this Section include a number of the models recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The section uses models which were either developed by CARB or whose development

4290-522: Is referred to as a battery pack , which is a group of multiple battery modules and cells. For example, the Tesla Model S battery pack has up to 7,104 cells, split into 16 modules with 6 groups of 74 cells in each. Each cell has a nominal voltage of 3–4 volts , depending on its chemical composition. Electric cars have traditionally used series wound DC motors, a form of brushed DC electric motor . Separately excited and permanent magnet are just two of

4433-517: Is still a long way to go if comparing it to petroleum-based fuels and biofuels, however (gasoline having an energy density of 34.2 MJ/L -38x to 12.92x higher- and ethanol having an energy of 24 MJ/L -26x to 9.12x higher-). This is partially offset by higher conversion efficiency of electric motors – BEVs travel roughly 3x further than similar-size internal combustion vehicles per MJ of stored energy. BEVs include automobiles , light trucks , and neighborhood electric vehicles . Battery electric trains in

General Motors EV1 - Misplaced Pages Continue

4576-505: Is the upstream emissions factor (130 g/mi for battery electric vehicles, 210 for hydrogen/fuel cell, and 290 for hydrogen/internal combustion). Direct CO 2 emissions could be calculated in a relatively straightforward fashion based on fuel consumption. Manufacturers that do not wish to measure N 2 O emissions may assume a value of 0.006 g/mi. An update was issued in 2010 which allowed manufacturers to calculate GHG emissions using CAFE data; for conventionally powered vehicles,

4719-497: Is the world's only electric vehicle that drives like a real car." Automobile called the car's ride and handling "amazing", praising its "smooth delivery of power". That year, a modified Impact set a land speed record for production electric vehicles of 183 mph (295 km/h). Despite the good reception, as highlighted in a front-page feature in The New York Times , GM appeared to be less than enthusiastic about

4862-627: Is used to power the Mountain View Community Shuttles. This technology was supported by the California Energy Commission, and the shuttle program is being supported by Google. Thunder Sky (based in Hong Kong) builds lithium-ion batteries used in submarines and has three models of electric buses, the 10/21 passenger EV-6700 with a range of 280 km (170 mi) under 20 mins quick-charge,

5005-687: The Blue Bird TC/2000 . A similar bus was operated in Napa Valley, California , for 14 months ending in April 2004. The 2008 Beijing Olympics used a fleet of 50 electric buses, which have a range of 130 km (81 mi) with the air conditioning on. They use lithium-ion batteries , and consume about 1 kW⋅h/mi (0.62 kW⋅h/km; 2.2 MJ/km). The buses were designed by the Beijing Institute of Technology and built by

5148-461: The Magne Charge inductive charging paddle, manufactured by Delco Electronics , a subsidiary of GM. This paddle was inserted into a slot located between the EV1's headlights . The wireless charging technology ensured that no direct connection was required, although there were rare instances of fires starting at the charge port. For fast recharging of the vehicle, a home charger provided by GM

5291-701: The Ranger EV for the 1998 model year, and Nissan stated they planned to offer the Altra in the 1998 model year as well to fulfill the MOA. As an acceptable alternative, Mazda stated they would purchase ZEV credits from Ford. The Low-Emission Vehicle Program was revised to define modified ZEV regulations for 2015 models. CARB estimates that ACC will result in 10% of all sales to be ZEVs by 2025. The share remained at 3% between 2014 and 2016. Battery vehicles receive 3 or 4 credits, while fuel cell cars receive 9. As of 2016 ,

5434-546: The United States , the first battery-electric, fast-charge bus has been in operation in Pomona, California , since September 2010 at Foothill Transit . The Proterra EcoRide BE35 uses lithium-titanate batteries and is able to fast-charge in less than 10 minutes. In 2012, heavy-duty trucks and buses contributed 7% of global warming emissions in California. In 2014, the first production model all-electric school bus

5577-405: The brushless DC electric motor . Once electric power is supplied to the motor (from the controller), the magnetic field interaction inside the motor will turn the drive shaft and ultimately the vehicle's wheels. EV battery storage is a key element for the global energy transition which is dependent on more electricity storage right now. As energy availability is the most important factor for

5720-593: The fake consumer organization "Californians Against Utility Company Abuse", which opposed the use of taxpayer funds for public EV charging stations, were accused of being funded by oil companies with interests in maintaining the dominance of gasoline cars. Marvin Rush, a cinematographer for the TV series Star Trek: Voyager , noticed that GM was not adequately promoting the EV1. Concerned, he personally invested $ 20,000 to create and broadcast four unofficial radio commercials for

5863-881: The governor and subject to confirmation by the Senate: five from local air districts, four air pollution subject-matter experts, two members of the public, and the Chair. The other two voting members are appointed from environmental justice committees by the Assembly and Senate. Five of the governor-appointed board members are chosen from regional air pollution control or air quality management districts , including one each from: Four governor-appointed board members are subject matter experts in specific fields: automotive engineering , currently Dan Sperling ; science, agriculture, or law, currently John Eisenhut; medicine, currently John R. Balmes, M.D.; and air pollution control. The governor

General Motors EV1 - Misplaced Pages Continue

6006-462: The oil industry for conspiring to keep electric cars off the road. As car sales declined later in the decade amid the onset of global oil and financial crises, perspectives on the EV1 program underwent a shift. In 2006 Wagoner admitted that his decision to discontinue the EV1 electric-car program and neglect hybrid development was his biggest regret during his tenure at GM. He emphasized that while it didn't directly impact profitability, it did tarnish

6149-450: The oil industry for conspiring to keep electric cars off the road. In contrast to numerous electric vehicles of its time, the EV1 was a purpose-built electric vehicle, not a conversion of another car. This factor contributed to its significant development cost of US$ 350 million, as well as its high production costs. Kenneth Baker, a General Motors engineer, served as the lead engineer for the EV1 program, having previously served as such for

6292-464: The 1890s. Battery vehicle milk floats expanded in 1931, and by 1967, gave Britain the largest electric vehicle fleet in the world. Hybrid electric vehicles use both electric motors and internal combustion engines, and are not considered pure or all-electric vehicles. Hybrid electric vehicles whose batteries can be charged externally are called plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) and run as BEVs during their charge-depleting mode. PHEVs with

6435-524: The 1995 model year. After 2003, LEV was the minimum standard to be met. CARB adopted regulations for limits on greenhouse gas emissions in 2004 starting with the 2009 model year to support the direction provided by AB 1493. In June 2005, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed Executive Order S-03-05 , which required a reduction in California GHG emissions, targeting an 80% reduction compared to 1990 levels by 2050. Assembly Bill 32, better known as

6578-654: The 20th century, the majority of the world's battery electric road vehicles were British milk floats . The 21st century saw the massive development of BYD electric trucks. In March 2012, Smith Electric Vehicles announced the release of the Newton Step-Van, an all-electric, zero-emission vehicle built on the versatile Newton platform that features a walk-in body produced by Indiana-based Utilimaster . BYD supplies DHL with electric distribution fleet of commercial BYD T3 . Although electric cars often give good acceleration and have generally acceptable top speed,

6721-672: The Advanced Clean Cars II (ACC II) Program, focusing on emissions of vehicles sold after 2025. ACC II reiterated the aim to have all new passenger cars, trucks and SUVs sold in the state to be zero emissions vehicles by 2035, and was scheduled for consideration before CARB in June 2022. The regulations of ACC II were adopted by California in August 2022. LEV I defined a ZEV as one that produces "zero emissions of any criteria pollutants under any and all possible operational modes and conditions." A vehicle could still qualify as

6864-737: The Advanced Clean Cars Program (ACC), adopted in 2012, which included regulations for cars sold through the 2025 model year. The regulations include updates to regulations for LEV III (for smog-forming emissions), LEV III GHG (for greenhouse gas emissions), and ZEV. Since then, in September 2020 Governor Gavin Newsom signed an executive order directing that by 2035, all new cars and passenger trucks sold in California will be zero-emission vehicles. Executive Order N-79-20 directs CARB to develop regulations to require that ZEVs be an increasing share of new vehicles sold in

7007-480: The CARB. The red sticker program began in 1994 when CARB adopted standards for emissions from two-stroke engines used primarily on dirt bikes. Between 1998 and 2003, the red sticker program was refined allowing vehicles that did not meet peak ozone season standards to be operated only at specific times of the year. As of model year 2022, the CARB no longer authorizes issuing of red stickers. The California Air Resources Board's (CARB) Commercial Harbor Craft regulation

7150-748: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , codified these requirements. CARB filed a waiver request with the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under Section 209(b) of the Clean Air Act in December 2005 to permit it to establish limits on greenhouse gas emissions; although the waiver request was initially denied in March 2008, it was later approved on June 30, 2009 after President Barack Obama signed

7293-633: The California State Assembly passed AB 1229, which required all new vehicles manufactured after January 1, 2009 to bear an Environmental Performance Label, which scored the emissions performance of the vehicle on two scales ranging between 1 (worst) and 10 (best): one for global warming (emissions of GHG such as N 2 O , CH 4 , air conditioning refrigerants , and CO 2 ) and one for smog-forming compounds (non-methane organic gases (NMOG), NO x , and HC ). The Federal Government followed suit and required

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7436-532: The Delco Remy organization, commenced production. This pack made the car's curb weight 2,908 pounds (1,319 kg). The NiMH batteries were rated at 77 amp-hours at 343 volts (26.4 kWh), providing a range of 160 miles (257 km) per charge, doubling the range of the original first generation cars. Charging the NiMH-equipped cars to full capacity could take six to eight hours. The EV1 used

7579-637: The EV-2009 city buses, and the 43 passenger EV-2008 highway bus, which has a range of 300 km (190 mi) under quick-charge (20 mins to 80 percent), and 350 km (220 mi) under full charge (25 mins). The buses will also be built in the United States and Finland. Tindo is an all-electric bus from Adelaide, Australia . The Tindo (aboriginal word for sun) is made by Designline International in New Zealand and gets its electricity from

7722-558: The EV1 as one of the "50 Worst Cars of All Time". The magazine lauded its design and engineering, stating that it "was a marvel of engineering [and was] absolutely the best electric vehicle anyone had ever seen", but criticized it for being very expensive to build, which led GM executives to terminating the program. They described GM as the company that "killed the electric car". Battery electric vehicle A battery electric vehicle ( BEV ), pure electric vehicle , only-electric vehicle , fully electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle

7865-528: The EV1 based on an initial vehicle price of US$ 33,995 . Lease payments varied from approximately $ 299 to $ 574 per month. An industry official suggested that each EV1 cost the company around US$ 80,000 , including research, development and other associated costs; other estimates placed the vehicle's actual cost as high as $ 100,000. GM invested slightly less than $ 500 million into the EV1 and electric vehicle-related technologies, and over $ 1 billion in total. To enhance its efficiency, extensive wind-tunnel testing

8008-706: The EV1 operated on a 3-phase AC induction system, generating 137 brake horsepower (102 kW) at 7,000 revolutions per minute (RPMs). The EV1 could maintain its full torque capacity across its entire power range, delivering 110 pound-feet (150 N⋅m) of torque from 0 to 7,000 RPMs. Power was transmitted to the front wheels through an integrated single-speed reduction transmission . The first generation EV1 models featured lead–acid batteries weighing 1,175 pounds (533 kg). These batteries, initially supplied by GM's Delco Remy Division, were rated at 53 amp-hours at 312 volts (16.5 kWh), offering an initial range of 60 miles (97 km) per charge. In 1999

8151-468: The EV1 ranged from $ 399 to $ 549 a month. The car's debut was marked by a significant media event, featuring an US$ 8 million promotional campaign incorporating prime-time TV commercials, billboards, a dedicated website, and an appearance at the premiere of the Sylvester Stallone film Daylight . Among the initial lessees were notable figures such as celebrities, executives, and politicians. At

8294-404: The EV1 with The Washington Post , noting that "There [was] an extremely passionate, enthusiastic and loyal following for this particular vehicle [...] There simply [were not] enough of them at any given time to make a viable business proposition for GM to pursue long term". By the end of August 2004 GM had reclaimed all leased EV1s from their lessees, resulting in the absence of any EV1s on

8437-506: The EV1's good efficiency characteristics. These tires, mounted on the lightest fourteen-inch wheels ever used, are inflated to 50 pounds per square inch (psi), compared to the standard 35 psi for normal tires. The special rubber compound utilized in these tires, along with their hardness, contributed to its low rolling resistance . Its recyclable aluminum structure was the world's lightest, weighing 290 pounds (130 kg). Thus it constituted 10 percent of its overall weight, in comparison to

8580-423: The EV1's price, the outdated lead–acid battery technology, and the car's restricted range, stating, "Let us not forget that technology starts small and grows slowly before technology improves and costs go down". Some groups opposing taxation expressed disapproval of the exemptions and tax credits given to EV1 lessees, arguing it amounted to government-subsidized driving for affluent individuals. Certain groups, such as

8723-462: The EV1, and GM has been acknowledged for discontinuing the EV1, with the newspaper Automotive News asserting that this decision helped GM avoid decades of losses. But despite this praise, many criticized GM's decision to phase out the EV1. Electric car enthusiasts, environmental interest groups, and former EV1 lessees have accused the company of self- sabotaging its electric car program to avoid potential losses in spare parts sales, while also blaming

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8866-620: The Government of Canada entered into a Memorandum of Understanding in June 2019 to cooperate on greenhouse gas emissions mitigation. The CARB Zero-Emission Vehicle (ZEV) program was enacted by the California government starting in 1990 to promote the use of zero emission vehicles. The program goal is to reduce the pervasive air pollution affecting the main metropolitan areas in the state, particularly in Los Angeles , where prolonged pollution episodes are frequent. The California ZEV rule

9009-845: The Governor's Office in the Executive Branch of California State Government. CARB has 15 divisions and offices: The division assesses the extent of California's air quality problems and the progress being made to abate them, coordinates statewide development of clean air plans and maintains databases pertinent to air quality and emissions. The division's technical support work provides a basis for clean air plans and CARB's regulatory programs. This support includes management and interpretation of emission inventories, air quality data, meteorological data and of air quality modeling . The Air Quality Planning and Science Division has five branches: The Atmospheric Modeling & Support Section

9152-665: The Haagen-Smit Clean Air Awards program in 2001 to recognize individuals who have had significant accomplishments in the field of air quality and climate change. The two legislature-appointed board members work directly with communities affected by air pollution. They are currently Diane Takvorian and Dean Florez, appointed by the Assembly and Senate respectively. CARB is a part of the California Environmental Protection Agency , an organization which reports directly to

9295-535: The Jinghua Coach. The batteries are replaced with fully charged ones at the recharging station to allow 24-hour operation of the buses. In France , the electric bus phenomenon is in development, but some buses are already operating in numerous cities. PVI, a medium-sized company located in the Paris region, is one of the leaders of the market with its brand Gepebus (offering Oreos 2X and Oreos 4X ). In

9438-524: The LEV Program have been codified as specific sections in Title 13 of the California Code of Regulations ; in general, LEV I is § 1960.1; LEV II is § 1961; Pavley is § 1961.1; LEV III is § 1961.2 (smog-forming pollutants) and 1961.3 (GHG). The ZEV regulations, which were initially part of LEV I, have been broken out separately into § 1962. For comparison,

9581-656: The March 2008 denial of the GHG emissions regulation. CARB decided to adopt regulation of GHG emissions under Executive Order G-05-061, which provided phase-in targets for fleet average GHG emissions in CO 2 -equivalent grams per mile starting with the 2009 model year. The calculation of CO 2 -equivalent emissions was based on contributions from four different chemicals: CO 2 , N 2 O , CH 4 , and air conditioning refrigerants . The emissions in g/mi CO 2 -equivalent are calculated according to

9724-648: The Mexico City ePrix takes place on a road course, a modified version of the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez. Special-purpose vehicles come in a wide range of types, ranging from relatively common ones such as golf carts , things like electric golf trolleys , milk floats , all-terrain vehicles , neighborhood electric vehicles , and a wide range of other devices. Certain manufacturers specialize in electric-powered "in plant" work machines. Three-wheeled vehicles include electric rickshaws ,

9867-558: The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency adopted the California regulations. In August 2022, Virginia, citing to a 2021 law, announced it would follow California regulations for ZEV registrations. Arizona and New Mexico had previously adopted California LEV regulations under Section 177, but later repealed those states' clean car standards in 2012 and 2013, respectively. In Canada, the province of Quebec adopted CARB standards effective in 2010. CARB and

10010-484: The NMOG emissions goal would be subjected to civil penalties; those which fell below the goal would receive credits, which could then be marketed to other manufacturers. The 1996 amendments to the ZEV regulations in LEV I (ZEV-96) introduced credits where a ZEV could be counted more than once based on vehicle range or battery specific energy to encourage deployment of ZEVs prior to 2003. Under LEV II/ZEV-99,

10153-465: The PZEV and AT PZEV categories were introduced, and the percentage of ZEVs sold by a manufacturer could be partially met by the sales of PZEV and AT PZEVs. If a vehicle met PZEV criteria, it qualified for a credit equal to 0.2 of one ZEV for the purposes of calculating that manufacturer's ZEV production. AT PZEVs capable of traveling with zero emissions for a limited range were allowed additional credit if

10296-573: The PrEView initiative, work on the GM electric car program persisted. While the original fifty Impact cars were destroyed after testing was finished, the design had evolved into the GM EV1 by 1996. The first generation, often referred to as the "Gen I", would be powered by lead–acid batteries and had a stated range of 70 to 100 miles. A production run of 660 vehicles ensued, with paint options including dark green, red, and silver. The vehicles were offered through

10439-552: The TerraVolt energy storage system, which in turn increases the total distance the bus can drive by 31–35 percent. It can travel 30–40 miles (48–64 km) on a single charge, is up to 600 percent more fuel-efficient than a typical diesel or CNG bus, and produces 44 percent less carbon than CNG. Proterra buses have had several problems, most notably in Philadelphia where the entire fleet was removed from service. For most of

10582-479: The ZEV requirements until at least 2003. In conjunction with relaxing the requirements in ZEV-96, CARB signed memoranda of agreement (MOAs) with the seven large scale manufacturers to begin rolling out demonstration fleets of ZEVs with limited public availability in the near term. The GM EV1 was the first battery electric vehicle (BEV) offered to the public, in partial fulfillment of the agreement with CARB. The EV1

10725-590: The [Chevrolet] Volt ten years earlier'", alluding to the Volt considered as the indirect successor to the EV1. The demise of the EV1 inspired the conception of the American battery electric carmaker Tesla Motors . Appalled by GM's decision to discontinue and destroy it, Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning established Tesla Motors in July 2003. Just half a year later, Elon Musk provided substantial funding and assumed

10868-722: The advent of a nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH). The Gen II models were released with a 60 amp-hour , 312-volt (18.7  kWh , 67.3  MJ ) Panasonic lead–acid battery pack . Subsequent models featured an Ovonics NiMH battery, rated at 77 Ah with 343 volts (26.4 kWh, 95.0 MJ). Cars with the lead–acid pack had a range of 80 to 100 miles (130 to 160 km), while the NiMH cars could travel 120 to 140 miles (190 to 230 km) between charges. The second generation EV1 leasing program expanded to several other American cities, with monthly payments ranging from $ 349 to $ 574. A total of 457 second generation GM EV1s were produced by

11011-537: The automaker. These drivers indicated their willingness to cover maintenance and repair expenses for the EV1, while granting GM the authority to terminate the lease in case of costly repairs. Despite this proposal, in June 2002 GM declined the offer and returned the checks, totalling over US$ 22,000. In November 2003 GM initiated the retrieval of the vehicles; approximately forty units were donated to museums and educational establishments, albeit with deactivated power systems intended to prevent future operation. However, most of

11154-466: The automobile market. The company ultimately crushed most of the cars, and in 2001 GM terminated the EV1 program, disregarding protests from customers. Since its demise, the EV1's cancellation has remained a subject of dispute and controversy. Electric car enthusiasts, environmental interest groups, and former EV1 lessees have accused the company of self- sabotaging its electric car program to avoid potential losses in spare parts sales, while also blaming

11297-453: The average new car sold in 1965 would produce approximately 2,000 lb (910 kg) of hydrocarbons over 100,000 mi (160,000 km) of driving; under the LEV I standards, the average new car sold in 1998 was projected to produce hydrocarbon emissions of 50 lb (23 kg) over the same distance, and under LEV II, the average new car in 2010 would further reduce hydrocarbon emissions to 10 lb (4.5 kg). In 2005,

11440-445: The brand manager of GM Advanced Technology Vehicles, informed lessees that GM would be recalling the cars from the road, which contradicted a previous statement indicating that GM had no plans to withdraw cars from customers. The EV1 program was terminated in late 2003 under the leadership of then-GM CEO Rick Wagoner . 58 EV1 drivers submitted letters along with deposit checks to GM, seeking lease extensions with no financial burden on

11583-490: The car. Although GM initially opposed this initiative, their stance shifted later on. They decided to endorse the commercials and reimburse Rush for his expenses. In 1997 the company allocated US$ 10 million for EV1 advertising and pledged to raise this amount by an additional US$ 5 million the next year. In 1998 for the 1999 model year GM released a second iteration of the EV1. Noteworthy improvements included lower production costs, quieter operation, extensive weight reduction, and

11726-404: The carbon intensity of California's transportation fuels by 2020. These reductions include not only tailpipe emissions but also all other associated emissions from production, distribution and use of transport fuels within the state. Therefore, California LCFS considers the fuel's full life cycle , also known as the "well to wheels" or "seed to wheels" efficiency of transport fuels. The standard

11869-430: The combined pollution levels of the other 49 states. Other participants of the former American Automobile Manufacturers Association, including Toyota , Nissan , and Honda , also individually developed prototype zero-emissions vehicles in response to the new mandate. In 1994, GM initiated "PrEView", a program in which fifty handcrafted Impact electric cars would be loaned to drivers for durations of one to two weeks, with

12012-437: The company and leased to customers. On March 2, 2000 GM issued a recall for 450 first generation EV1s. The automaker had determined that a faulty charge port cable could eventually build up enough heat to catch on fire. Sixteen "thermal incidents" were reported, including at least one fire that resulted in the destruction of a charging vehicle. The recall did not affect second generation EV1s. GM established lease payments for

12155-444: The company's image. Wagoner reiterated this sentiment in a National Public Radio (NPR) interview following the December 2008 Senate hearings on the U.S. auto industry bailout request. In the March 13, 2007 issue of Newsweek , "GM R&D chief Larry Burns ... now wishes GM hadn't killed the plug-in hybrid EV1 prototype his engineers had on the road a decade ago: 'If we could turn back the hands of time,' says Burns, 'we could have had

12298-429: The components of the car, including the incorporation of magnesium in the frames of the seats. In addition, the power-assisted anti-lock brakes are electrically activated. The front disc brakes operate on an electro-hydraulic system. The rear drums represent an industry first, being fully electric, which eliminates the requirement for hydraulic lines or parking brake cables. Traditionally vehicles use heat produced by

12441-404: The contribution from the nitrous oxide and methane terms could be assumed to be 1.9 g/mi. CARB voted unanimously in March 2017 to require automakers to average 54.5 miles per US gallon (4.32 L/100 km; 65.5 mpg ‑imp ) for new cars in 2025. Because California had emissions regulations prior to the 1977 Clean Air Act , under Section 177 of that bill, other states may adopt

12584-490: The controller performs various safety checks such as anomaly detection, functional safety tests and failure diagnostics. Most electric vehicles today use an electric battery , consisting of electrochemical cells with external connections in order to provide power to the vehicle. Battery technology for EVs has developed from early lead-acid batteries used in the late 19th century to the 2010s, to lithium-ion batteries which are found in most EVs today. The overall battery

12727-554: The country, and is aiming to be a manufacturing hub for electric vehicles within the next five years. China has experienced an explosive growth of sales of non-assisted e-bikes including the scooter type, with annual sales jumping from 56,000 units in 1998 to over 21 million in 2008, and reaching an estimated 120 million e-bikes on the road in early 2010. China is the world's leading manufacturer of e-bikes, with 22.2 million units produced in 2009. An increasing variety of personal transporters are being manufactured, including

12870-514: The de-carbonisation process is constantly reducing the GHG emissions due to the use of electric vehicles. In the European Union, on average, between 2009 and 2013 there was a reduction in the electricity carbon intensity of 17%. In a life-cycle assessment perspective, considering the GHG necessary to build the battery and its end-of-life, the GHG savings are 10–13% lower. California Air Resources Board The stated goals of CARB include attaining and maintaining healthy air quality ; protecting

13013-473: The effects in the rest of the country." Johnson's successor, Lisa P. Jackson , signed the waiver overturning Johnson's denial, writing that "EPA must grant California a waiver if California determines that its standards are, in the aggregate, at least as protective of the public health and welfare as applicable Federal standards." Jackson also noted that in the history of the waiver process, over 50 waivers had been granted and only one had been fully denied, namely

13156-493: The electric vehicle company AeroVironment , the Impact drew upon design insights acquired from GM's participation in the 1987 World Solar Challenge . This challenge was a trans-Australia race for solar vehicles , in which the company's Sunraycer was victorious. Alan Cocconi of AC Propulsion designed and built the original drive system electronics for the Impact, and the design was later refined by Hughes Electronics . The car

13299-419: The electricity is generated. Electric cars are having a major impact in the auto industry given advantages in city pollution , less dependence on oil and combustion, and scarcity and expected rise in gasoline prices. World governments are pledging billions to fund development of electric vehicles and their components. Formula E is a fully electric international single-seater championship. The series

13442-489: The electricity used to power them may do so in its generation. The two factors driving the emissions of battery electric vehicles are the carbon intensity of the electricity used to recharge the Electric Vehicle (commonly expressed in grams of CO 2 per kWh) and the consumption of the specific vehicle (in kilometers/kWh). The carbon intensity of electricity varies depending on the source of electricity where it

13585-580: The engine to heat the passenger compartment. But since electric vehicles generate minimal waste heat, an alternative solution had to be conceived. GM opted for a heat pump to regulate the temperature inside the EV1, consuming a third of the energy required by a traditional unit for both cooling and heating. Nevertheless the system effectively warmed passengers only when temperatures exceed 30 °F (−1 °C). To address colder climates, upcoming electric vehicles were anticipated to incorporate heat pumps alongside compact fuel-fired heaters. The electric motor in

13728-512: The federal Clean Air Act , subject to a waiver from the United States Environmental Protection Agency . Other states may choose to follow CARB or the federal vehicle emission standards but may not set their own. CARB's governing board is made up of 16 members, with 2 non-voting members appointed for legislative oversight, one each by the California State Assembly and Senate . 12 of the 14 voting members are appointed by

13871-674: The form of BEMUs (battery electric multiple units) are operated commercially in Japan . They are charged via pantographs , either when driving on electrified railway lines or during stops at specially equipped train stations. They use battery power for propulsion when driving on railway lines that are not electrified, and have successfully replaced diesel multiple units on some such lines. Other countries have also tested or ordered such vehicles. Chattanooga, Tennessee , operates nine zero-fare electric buses, which have been in operation since 1992 and have carried 11.3 million passengers and covered

14014-626: The formula C O 2 e q u i v a l e n t = C O 2 + 296 × N 2 O + 23 × C H 4 − A C d i r e c t − A C i n d i r e c t {\displaystyle CO_{2}^{\mathrm {equivalent} }=CO_{2}+296\times N_{2}O+23\times CH_{4}-AC^{\mathrm {direct} }-AC^{\mathrm {indirect} }} , which has two terms for direct and indirect emissions allowances of air conditioning refrigerants, depending on

14157-425: The goals until 2003, and small volume manufacturers were exempted. These percentages were calculated based on total production of passenger cars and light-duty trucks with a loaded vehicle weight (LVW) less than 3,750 lb (1,700 kg). The LEV I rules also introduced the concept of emission credits. Under LEV I, the vehicle fleet average emissions rate of non-methane organic gases (NMOG) produced by

14300-667: The introduction of PZEV and AT PZEV categories in ZEV-99. Under ZEV-90, CARB classified manufacturers according to the average sales per year between 1989 and 1993; small volume manufacturers were those that sold 3,000 or fewer new vehicles per year; intermediate volume manufacturers sold between 3,001 and 35,000; and large volume manufacturers sold more than 35,000 per year. For large volume manufacturers, CARB required that 2% of 1998 to 2000 model year vehicles sold were ZEVs, ramping up to 5% ZEVs by 2001 and 10% ZEVs in 2003 and beyond. Intermediate volume manufacturers were not required to meet

14443-435: The introduction of new transportation emissions regulations by the California Air Resources Board, contributed to a revived interest in electric vehicles in the United States. In January 1990 GM chairman Roger Smith demonstrated the Impact, a battery electric concept car , at the 1990 Los Angeles Auto Show . GM aimed for a production rate of 100,000 cars per year, as opposed to the initially proposed 20,000. Developed by

14586-521: The introduction of the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid vehicle to the American market in late 2010, the Chevrolet Spark EV was launched in June 2013. It marked GM's first all-electric passenger car release in the United States since the discontinuation of the EV1 in 1999. The Spark EV was phased out in December 2016, coinciding with the introduction of the Bolt by Chevrolet . The EV1's demise

14729-604: The lower specific energy of production batteries available in 2015 compared with carbon-based fuels means that electric cars need batteries that are a fairly large fraction of the vehicle mass but still often give a relatively low range between charges. Recharging can also take significant lengths of time. For journeys within a single battery charge, rather than long journeys, electric cars are practical forms of transportation and can be recharged overnight. Electric cars can significantly reduce city pollution by having zero emissions . Vehicle greenhouse gas savings depend on how

14872-494: The mandate after pressure and lawsuits from automobile manufacturers, influence from the oil industry , anticipation surrounding a future hydrogen car , and the perfidy of the George W. Bush administration . The film extensively covers GM's efforts to convince California that there was no demand for their product, followed by their decision to repossess and dispose of nearly every EV1 manufactured. The news magazine Time named

15015-627: The more stringent California emissions regulations as an alternative to federal standards. Thirteen other states and the District of Columbia have chosen to do so, and ten of those have additionally adopted the California Zero-Emission Vehicle regulations. In December 2020, Minnesota announced its intention to adopt California LEV and ZEV rules; following a hearing before an administrative law judge in February 2021,

15158-504: The one million unit milestone in September 2016. As of October 2020 , the world's top selling all-electric car in history is the Tesla Model 3 , with an estimated 645,000 sales, followed by the Nissan Leaf with over 500,000 sales as of September 2020 . During the 1880s, Gustave Trouvé , Thomas Parker and Andreas Flocken built experimental electric cars, but the first practical battery electric vehicles appeared during

15301-419: The one-wheeled self-balancing unicycles , self-balancing scooters , electric kick scooters , and electric skateboards . Several battery electric ships operate throughout the world, some for business. Electric ferries are being operated and constructed. The motor controller receives a signal from potentiometers linked to the accelerator pedal, and it uses this signal to determine how much electric power

15444-545: The policy dictates of the California Air Resources Board (CARB) with respect to registration of off-highway motor vehicles (OHVs). Registration consists of ID plates or placards issued by the DMV. Operating a motorized vehicle off-highway in California requires either a Green Sticker or a Red Sticker ID. The Green Sticker indicates that the vehicle has passed emission requirements. The Red Sticker (issued through 2021) restricts OHV use due to not meeting emission standards established by

15587-493: The prospect of having created a thriving electric car: General Motors is preparing to put its electric vehicle act on the road, and planning for a flop. With pride and pessimism, the company, the furthest along of the Big Three in designing a mass-market electric car, says that in the face of a California law that requires that [two] percent of new cars be "zero emission" vehicles beginning in 1997, it has done its best but that

15730-434: The public from exposure to toxic air contaminants; and providing innovative approaches for complying with air pollution rules and regulations. CARB has also been instrumental in driving innovation throughout the global automotive industry through programs such as its ZEV mandate . One of CARB's responsibilities is to define vehicle emissions standards . California is the only state permitted to issue emissions standards under

15873-675: The readiness of mass produced for electric cars, stating in 1994 that "if the law is there, we'll meet it ... at this point of time, nobody can forecast that we can make an electric car ". These automakers' skepticism was criticized by Thomas C. Jorling, the Commissioner of Environmental Conservation for New York State , which had adopted the California emission program. According to Jorling, consumers had shown significant interest in electric cars. Jorling suggested that automakers were hesitant to transition from internal combustion engine technology due to their massive investments. Following

16016-703: The refrigerant used, such as HFC134a , and the system design. Vehicles powered by alternative fuels use a slightly modified formula, C O 2 e q u i v a l e n t = ( C O 2 + A C i n d i r e c t ) × F + 296 × N 2 O + 23 × C H 4 + A C d i r e c t {\displaystyle CO_{2}^{\mathrm {equivalent} }=(CO_{2}+AC^{\mathrm {indirect} })\times F+296\times N_{2}O+23\times CH_{4}+AC^{\mathrm {direct} }} , where F {\displaystyle F}

16159-434: The release event, 40 EV1 leases were signed, with GM anticipating leasing 100 cars by year's end. Deliveries began on December 5, 1996. In the first year on the market, GM leased just 288 cars. But in 1999 Ken Stewart, the brand manager for the EV1 program, characterized the feedback from the car's drivers as "wonderfully-maniacal loyalty". Joe Kennedy, Saturn's vice president of marketing at GM, acknowledged concerns regarding

16302-802: The road. However, one EV1 was showcased at the Main Street in Motion exhibit at Epcot in Walt Disney World , located in Lake Buena Vista , Florida. Five EV1s were reported to be donated to China in 1998, specifically to the National Electric Vehicle Experimental & Demonstration Area (NEVEDA), a government research institute in Shantou . By 2018, only two EV1s were seen at the facility, while

16445-409: The role of chairman . Musk stated in a 2017 Twitter post that "Since big car companies were killing their EV programs, the only chance was to create an EV company, even though it was almost certain to fail". He stated in a subsequent tweet that it had "nothing to do with government incentives or making money. I thought there was a 90 probability of losing it all (almost did many times), but it

16588-509: The second generation EV1 cars adopted a new set of lead–acid batteries from the Japanese electronics company Panasonic , increasing the weight to 1,310 pounds (590 kg). The batteries were rated at 60 amp-hours at 312 volts (18.7 kWh), extending the EV1's range to 90 miles (145 km). Shortly after the introduction of the second generation cars, the planned nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) Ovonics battery pack , developed under

16731-484: The standards in use. LEV I defined emission limits for several different classes of vehicle, including passenger cars (PC), light-duty trucks (LDT), and medium-duty vehicles (MDV). Heavy-duty vehicles were specifically excluded from LEV I. LEV I also defined a loaded vehicle weight (LVW) as the vehicle's Curb weight plus an allowance of 300 lb (140 kg). In general, the most stringent standards were applied to passenger cars and light-duty trucks with

16874-419: The state, with light-duty cars and trucks and off-road vehicles and equipment meeting the 100% ZEV goal by 2035 and medium and heavy-duty trucks and buses meeting the same 100% ZEV goal by 2045. The order also directs Caltrans to develop near-term actions to encourage "an integrated, statewide rail and transit network" and infrastructure to support bicycles and pedestrians. In response, CARB began development of

17017-511: The state. The Low-Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) requires oil refineries and distributors to ensure that the mix of fuel they sell in the Californian market meets the established declining targets for greenhouse gas emissions measured in CO 2 -equivalent grams per unit of fuel energy sold for transport purposes. The 2007 Governor's LCFS directive calls for a reduction of at least 10% in

17160-453: The stipulation that their feedback and experiences would be documented. Volunteers were required to possess a garage suitable for the installation of a high-current charging unit by an electric company. Driver response to the cars was favorable, as were reviews by the automotive press. According to Motor Trend , the Impact "is precisely one of those occasions where GM proves beyond any doubt that it knows how to build fantastic automobiles. This

17303-432: The two categories. In China, plug-in electric vehicles, together with hybrid electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles (NEVs). However, in the United States, neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs) are battery electric vehicles that are legally limited to roads with posted speed limits no higher than 45 miles per hour (72 km/h), are usually built to have a top speed of 30 miles per hour (48 km/h), and have

17446-401: The types of DC motors available. More recent electric vehicles have made use of a variety of AC motor types, as these are simpler to build and have no brushes that can wear out. These are usually induction motors or brushless AC electric motors which use permanent magnets. There are several variations of the permanent magnet motor which offer simpler drive schemes and/or lower cost including

17589-417: The unit comprised a lightweight gas turbine and a high-speed permanent magnet AC generator, the former of which primarily charged the vehicle's batteries. The Williams APU had the capability to operate on either compressed natural gas or gasoline. According to GM's assertions, the vehicle could attain 60 miles per US gallon (3.9 L/100 km; 72 mpg ‑imp ) when running on the latter, offering

17732-416: The unsuccessful Chevrolet Electrovette program in the 1970s. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the automobile industry saw little progress in electric car development; over 80 percent of vehicles produced in the United States featured V8 engines . But shifts in federal and state regulations began to influence this. The enactment of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendment and the 1992 Energy Policy Act , alongside

17875-518: The urban all-electric range was at least ten miles. ZEVs that were introduced prior to 2003 received a multiplier, with a value ranging up to 10× a single ZEV depending on the all-electric range and fast-charging capability. In March 1996, ZEV-96 eliminated the ZEV ramp-up planned to start in 1998, but the goal of 10% ZEVs by 2003 was retained, with credits granted for sales of partial ZEVs (PZEVs). According to comment responses, CARB determined that advanced batteries would not be ready in time to meet

18018-410: The usual 20 percent. The EV1 features regenerative braking , a system in which applying the brakes turns the drive motor into a generator. This process not only slows down the vehicle but also captures its kinetic energy , returning it to the battery for reuse. To save weight and maximize performance, GM designed the EV1 as a subcompact two-seater vehicle. Efforts to minimize weight extended to most of

18161-500: The vehicle has come up short. ... Now it hopes that lawmakers and regulators will agree with it and postpone or scrap the deadline. According to the report, GM viewed the PrEView program as a failure, leading them to believe that the electric car was not yet viable, and that the CARB regulations should be removed. Dennis Minano, GM's vice president for Energy and Environment, questioned whether consumers desired electric vehicles. Robert James Eaton , chairman of Chrysler , also doubted

18304-507: The vehicles were dispatched to car crushing facilities for demolition. In 2003 Peter Horton , an actor reporting for the Los Angeles Times , sought to lease an EV1 from GM but was informed that he "was welcome to join their waiting list [of a few thousand] along with [an undisclosed number of] others for an indefinite period of time, but his chances of getting a car were slim". In March 2005 GM spokesman Dave Barthmuss discussed

18447-418: The vitality of an economy the mobile storage infrastructure of EV batteries can be seen as one of the most meaningful infrastructure projects facilitating the energy transition to a fully sustainable economy based on renewables. A meta-study graphically showing the importance of electricity storage depicts the technology in context. Electric vehicles produce no greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in operation, but

18590-552: The whereabouts of the three other EV1s were unknown. Since its demise and destruction, GM's decision to cancel the EV1 has generated dispute and controversy. The American Smithsonian Magazine described the EV1 as "not technically a failure", whereas the Australian Financial Review newspaper contended that while "successful, [the EV1] was doomed to fail". These opinions were due to the economic infeasibility of

18733-518: Was adopted in 1999, and covered vehicles for the 2004 through 2014 model years. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission regulations were adopted in 2004 starting for the 2009 model year, and are named the "Pavley" standards after Assemblymember Fran Pavley , who had written Assembly Bill 1493 in 2002 to establish them. A second amendment, LEV III, was adopted in 2012, and covers vehicles sold from 2015 onward for both smog (superseding LEV II) and GHG (superseding Pavley) emissions. The rules created under

18876-480: Was available only through a US$ 399 (equivalent to $ 780 in 2023)/month lease starting in December 1996; the initial markets were South Coast, San Diego, and Arizona, and expanded to Sacramento and the Bay Area. GM also offered an electric S-10 pickup truck to fleet operators. In 1997, Honda ( EV Plus , May 1997), Toyota ( RAV4 EV , October 1997), and Chrysler ( EPIC , 1997) followed suit. Ford also introduced

19019-618: Was conceived in 2012, and the inaugural championship started in Beijing on 13 September 2014. The series is sanctioned by the FIA. Alejandro Agag is the current CEO of Formula E. The Formula E championship is currently contested by ten teams with two drivers each (after the withdrawal of Team Trulli, there are temporarily only nine teams competing). Racing generally takes place on temporary city-center street circuits which are approximately 2 to 3.4 kilometres (1.2 to 2.1 mi) long. Currently, only

19162-528: Was conducted on the EV1, and GM additionally implemented partial fender skirts on the rear wheelhouses. The rear wheels are 9 inches (230 mm) closer together than the front wheels, thereby creating the "teardrop" shape. These factors resulted in a very low drag coefficient of  C d =0.19 and a drag area of  C d A =3.95 sq ft (0.367 m). Its design incorporated super-light magnesium alloy wheels and self-sealing, low-rolling resistance tires developed by Michelin rounded out

19305-593: Was delivered to the Kings Canyon Unified School District in California's San Joaquin Valley . The bus was one of four the district ordered. This battery-electric school bus, which has four sodium nickel batteries, is the first modern electric school bus approved for student transportation by any state. In 2016, including the light heavy-duty vehicles, there were roughly 1.5 million heavy-duty vehicles in California. The same technology

19448-399: Was first adopted by CARB as part of the 1990 Low-Emission Vehicle (LEV I) Program. The focus of the 1990 rules (ZEV-90) was to meet air quality standards for ozone rather than the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Under LEV II in 1999, the ZEV regulations were moved to a separate section (13 CCR § 1962) and the requirements for ZEVs as a percentage of fleet sales

19591-479: Was funded by CARB, such as: The California Air Resources Board is charged with implementing California's comprehensive suite of policies to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases . In part due to CARB, California has successfully decoupled greenhouse gas emissions from economic growth, and achieved its goal of reducing emissions to 1990 levels four years earlier than the target date of 2020. Alternative Fuel Vehicle Incentive Program (also known as Fueling Alternatives)

19734-479: Was largely inspired. The California Air Resources Board enacted a mandate in 1990, stating that the seven leading automakers marketing vehicles in the United States must produce and sell zero-emissions vehicles to maintain access to the California market. Mass production commenced in 1996. In its initial stages of production, most of them were leased to consumers in California, Arizona, and Georgia. Within

19877-598: Was made more formal. Executive Order S-03-05 (2005) and Assembly Bills 1493 (2002) and 32 (2006) prompted CARB to reevaluate the ZEV program as last amended in 1996, which had been primarily concerned with reducing emissions of smog-forming pollutants. By the time AB 32 passed in 2006, vehicles complying with PZEV and AT PZEV standards had become commercially successful, and the ZEV program could then shift towards reducing both smog-forming compounds and greenhouse gases. The next set of ZEV regulations were adopted in 2012 with LEV III. CARB put both LEV and ZEV rules together as

20020-414: Was necessary. In addition to the fast charger, GM offered a 120-volt AC convenience charger for the lead–acid battery that could be utilized with any standard North American power socket for slower charging of the battery pack. GM revealed a family of alternative fuel prototype models at the 1998 Detroit Auto Show . Among these, the compressed natural gas variant was the only model in this family that

20163-479: Was not electric, and it was a conversion of the standard two–seat EV1 platform . It featured a 1.0-liter turbocharged engine, and its advertised fuel efficiency was rated at 60 miles per US gallon (3.9 L/100 km; 72 mpg ‑imp ). The series hybrid prototype featured a auxiliary power unit (APU) housing a gas turbine engine situated in the trunk. Supplied by Williams International , an American manufacturing company founded by Sam B. Williams ,

20306-483: Was powered by 32 lead–acid rechargeable batteries. On April 18, 1990 Smith announced that the Impact would become a production vehicle with a goal of 25,000 vehicles. The Impact achieved a top speed of 183 mph (295 km/h). Impressed by the feasibility of the Impact and spurred by GM's commitment to produce a minimum of 5,000 units, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) initiated

20449-510: Was the only chance". Research showed that manufacturers were at least a decade behind in terms of electric vehicle adoption, technology , and infrastructure . While EV1 is considered ahead of its time, it could also be seen as a product of its era and the technologies available at that time. Lead–acid and NiMH batteries had been around for decades, aerodynamics were well understood, and electric motors were already in widespread use. As part of GM's vehicle electrification strategy, and following

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