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96-579: GOES-16 , formerly known as GOES-R before reaching geostationary orbit , is the first of the GOES-R series of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites  (GOES) operated by NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration  (NOAA). GOES-16 serves as the operational geostationary weather satellite in the GOES East position at 75.2°W , providing a view centered on

192-560: A Category 2 hurricane . Together, the ground system involves 2,100 servers and 3  PB of data storage; data processing is handled by 3,632  processor cores capable of 40 trillion floating point operations per second . In 2009, NOAA contracted the Government Communications Systems Division of Harris Corporation with the development of the GOES-R ground system, with an estimated value of contract at US$ 736 million; Harris

288-430: A United Launch Alliance  (ULA) Atlas V . The spacecraft reached an initial geostationary orbit several days later, beginning a yearlong non-operational checkout and validation phase. In November 2017, GOES-16 began a drift to its operational GOES East position, and was declared as fully operational on 18 December 2017. The satellite is expected to have an operational lifespan of ten years, with five additional years as

384-483: A delta-v of approximately 50 m/s per year. A second effect to be taken into account is the longitudinal drift, caused by the asymmetry of the Earth – the equator is slightly elliptical ( equatorial eccentricity ). There are two stable equilibrium points sometimes called "gravitational wells" (at 75.3°E and 108°W) and two corresponding unstable points (at 165.3°E and 14.7°W). Any geostationary object placed between

480-427: A geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), an elliptical orbit with an apogee at GEO height and a low perigee . On-board satellite propulsion is then used to raise the perigee, circularise and reach GEO. Satellites in geostationary orbit must all occupy a single ring above the equator . The requirement to space these satellites apart, to avoid harmful radio-frequency interference during operations, means that there are

576-431: A geosynchronous equatorial orbit ( GEO ), is a circular geosynchronous orbit 35,786 km (22,236 mi) in altitude above Earth's equator , 42,164 km (26,199 mi) in radius from Earth's center, and following the direction of Earth's rotation . An object in such an orbit has an orbital period equal to Earth's rotational period, one sidereal day , and so to ground observers it appears motionless, in

672-514: A 5,000 km × 3,000 km (3,100 mi × 1,900 mi) area centered on the continental United States every five minutes at a resolution of 0.5–2 km (0.31–1.24 mi). Where possible, the ABI can also image mesoscale phenomena over two selected 1,000 km × 1,000 km (620 mi × 620 mi) areas every 60 seconds at a resolution of 0.5–2 km (0.31–1.24 mi). The variable scanning modes make GOES-16

768-634: A backup for successive GOES spacecraft. The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) program began as a joint effort between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration  (NOAA) in 1975 to develop geostationary weather satellites following the success of the Applications Technology Satellite (ATS) and Synchronous Meteorological Satellite programs beginning in 1966. In

864-437: A final longitude of 75.2°W; during this time, the spacecraft's instruments were kept in a diagnostic mode without data collection or transmission. GOES-16 reached the GOES East position by 11 December, and following a calibration period, resumed instrument data collection and transmission three days later. On 18 December 2017, GOES-16 was declared fully operational. In addition to its primary science payload, GOES-16 also features

960-455: A fixed position in the sky. The concept of a geostationary orbit was popularised by the science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke in the 1940s as a way to revolutionise telecommunications, and the first satellite to be placed in this kind of orbit was launched in 1963. Communications satellites are often placed in a geostationary orbit so that Earth-based satellite antennas do not have to rotate to track them but can be pointed permanently at

1056-415: A geostationary orbit in particular, it ensures that it holds the same longitude over time. This orbital period, T , is directly related to the semi-major axis of the orbit through the formula: where: The eccentricity is zero, which produces a circular orbit . This ensures that the satellite does not move closer or further away from the Earth, which would cause it to track backwards and forwards across

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1152-579: A geostationary satellite to globalise communications. Telecommunications between the US and Europe was then possible between just 136 people at a time, and reliant on high frequency radios and an undersea cable . Conventional wisdom at the time was that it would require too much rocket power to place a satellite in a geostationary orbit and it would not survive long enough to justify the expense, so early efforts were put towards constellations of satellites in low or medium Earth orbit. The first of these were

1248-552: A higher graveyard orbit to avoid collisions. In 1929, Herman Potočnik described both geosynchronous orbits in general and the special case of the geostationary Earth orbit in particular as useful orbits for space stations . The first appearance of a geostationary orbit in popular literature was in October 1942, in the first Venus Equilateral story by George O. Smith , but Smith did not go into details. British science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke popularised and expanded

1344-399: A known position) and providing an additional reference signal. This improves position accuracy from approximately 5m to 1m or less. Past and current navigation systems that use geostationary satellites include: Geostationary satellites are launched to the east into a prograde orbit that matches the rotation rate of the equator. The smallest inclination that a satellite can be launched into

1440-408: A large area of the earth's surface, extending 81° away in latitude and 77° in longitude. They appear stationary in the sky, which eliminates the need for ground stations to have movable antennas. This means that Earth-based observers can erect small, cheap and stationary antennas that are always directed at the desired satellite. However, latency becomes significant as it takes about 240 ms for

1536-459: A launch date slated for October 2015 from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 41 . Combined with the subsequent GOES-S, launch operations were expected to cost US$ 446 million. The launch date was chosen relatively early to maintain the operation of the GOES satellite constellation despite there being only a 48% confidence in meeting the October 2015 launch date; an audit by

1632-516: A limited number of orbital slots available, and thus only a limited number of satellites can be operated in geostationary orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing access to the same orbital slots (countries near the same longitude but differing latitudes ) and radio frequencies . These disputes are addressed through the International Telecommunication Union 's allocation mechanism under

1728-549: A potential concern on another rocket had delayed the launch by an hour towards the end of the 19 November launch window. The Atlas V was in the 541 configuration with tail number AV-069 and was administered by United Launch Alliance ; the launch was the 100th of the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle program and 138th of the Atlas program . The Atlas V's ascent was directed slightly south of east over

1824-406: A signal to pass from a ground based transmitter on the equator to the satellite and back again. This delay presents problems for latency-sensitive applications such as voice communication, so geostationary communication satellites are primarily used for unidirectional entertainment and applications where low latency alternatives are not available. Geostationary satellites are directly overhead at

1920-412: A spatial resolution of 8 km (5.0 mi) at the nadir and 14 km (8.7 mi) near the edge of the instrument's field-of-view, resulting in a spatial resolution averaging roughly 10 km (6.2 mi). The 777.4 nm band was chosen as lightning strikes have three prominent spectral lines originating from atomic oxygen centered at 777.4 nm. The latitudinal coverage of the instrument

2016-756: A stable precision-pointed platform isolated from the rest of the spacecraft. The Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI) is the primary imaging instrument on GOES-16, providing over 65 percent of all GOES-16 data products. A multi-channel passive imaging radiometer , ABI takes images of the Earth with 16 spectral bands, including two visible channels, four near-infrared channels, and ten infrared channels. The individual bands are optimized for various atmospheric phenomena, including cloud formation, atmospheric motion, convection , land surface temperature, ocean dynamics, flow of water, fire, smoke, volcanic ash plumes, aerosols and air quality , and vegetative health. ABI's "red" visible band 2 ( λ = 0.64 μm) has

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2112-638: A swath of visible and infrared wavelengths. In September 2006, NOAA dropped plans to include the HES aboard GOES-R, citing a lack of sufficient testing and major cost overruns in the development of the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS). Although the GOES-R series was expected to cost US$ 6.2 billion in total, increased instrument complexity, revised inflation assumptions, and program reserves led to

2208-641: A synthesized green band; the simulated green band is created by applying algorithms based on MODIS and AHI onto existing ABI spectral bands. The GOES-16 Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM) is a single-channel near-infrared detector that monitors for the short-lived light emitted by lightning . In mapping lightning, GLM data can be used to alert forecasters to nascent severe weather as developing storms or tornado progenitors often exhibit an increase in lightning activity due to updraft intensification; by extension, such information can also reduce false alarm rates of severe thunderstorm and tornado warnings . GOES-16

2304-521: Is a list of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites . GOES spacecraft are operated by the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , with NASA responsible for research and development, and later procurement of spacecraft. Manufactured by Ford Aerospace Built on a Hughes Space and Communications HS-371 spacecraft bus Built on a Space Systems/Loral LS-1300 spacecraft bus Built on

2400-542: Is a tri-axial fluxgate magnetometer that measures the Earth's magnetic field at the outer extents of the magnetosphere from geostationary orbit. MAG provides general data on geomagnetic activity , which can be used to detect solar storms and validate large-scale space environment modelling; charged particles associated with the interaction of the solar wind and the magnetosphere present dangerous radiation hazards to spacecraft and human spaceflight. The magnetometer samples

2496-593: Is also distributed through other channels. The National Weather Service receives data directly from GOES-16 through the Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS) interface, which integrates meteorological and hydrological data with the agency's forecast and warning issuance systems . Real-time GOES-16 data is available through the Product Distribution and Access (PDA) system, while archived data

2592-411: Is limited to between 52°N and 52°S. To limit interference of undesired light, a solar blocking filter and solar rejection filter are affixed to the front of the instrument's aperture. The GLM can take an image every 2 ms, or 500  frames per second , with a data downlink of 7.7 Mbit/s. Information from GLM is used to determine the frequency, location, and extent of lightning strikes. Data from

2688-534: Is stored on the Comprehensive Large Array-data Stewardship System (CLASS). The GOES-R Proving Ground was established in 2008 as a collaboration between the GOES-R series program office and a number of NOAA and NASA centers to prepare forecasters and other interests for new products that would be available with the GOES-R generation of weather satellites. The technological proving ground addressed recommendations from

2784-452: Is that of the launch site's latitude, so launching the satellite from close to the equator limits the amount of inclination change needed later. Additionally, launching from close to the equator allows the speed of the Earth's rotation to give the satellite a boost. A launch site should have water or deserts to the east, so any failed rockets do not fall on a populated area. Most launch vehicles place geostationary satellites directly into

2880-403: Is the gravitational constant , (6.674 28 ± 0.000 67 ) × 10  m kg s . The magnitude of the acceleration, a , of a body moving in a circle is given by: where v is the magnitude of the velocity (i.e. the speed) of the satellite. From Newton's second law of motion , the centripetal force F c is given by: As F c = F g , so that Replacing v with the equation for

2976-781: Is typically 70°, and in some cases less. Geostationary satellite imagery has been used for tracking volcanic ash , measuring cloud top temperatures and water vapour, oceanography , measuring land temperature and vegetation coverage, facilitating cyclone path prediction, and providing real time cloud coverage and other tracking data. Some information has been incorporated into meteorological prediction models , but due to their wide field of view, full-time monitoring and lower resolution, geostationary weather satellite images are primarily used for short-term and real-time forecasting. Geostationary satellites can be used to augment GNSS systems by relaying clock , ephemeris and ionospheric error corrections (calculated from ground stations of

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3072-408: Is used to provide visible and infrared images of Earth's surface and atmosphere for weather observation, oceanography , and atmospheric tracking. As of 2019 there are 19 satellites in either operation or stand-by. These satellite systems include: These satellites typically capture images in the visual and infrared spectrum with a spatial resolution between 0.5 and 4 square kilometres. The coverage

3168-479: The Americas . GOES-16 provides high spatial and temporal resolution imagery of the Earth through 16  spectral bands at visible and infrared wavelengths using its Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI). GOES-16's Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM) is the first operational lightning mapper flown in geostationary orbit. The spacecraft also includes four other scientific instruments for monitoring space weather and

3264-655: The Atlantic Ocean . Following the rocket's first stage, additional burns in subsequent stages steered the spacecraft towards the altitude needed for geosynchronous orbit . Spacecraft separation from the launch vehicle occurred over Indonesia roughly 3.5 hours after launch, placing GOES-R in an elliptical low-inclination geostationary transfer orbit with a perigee of 5,038 mi (8,108 km) and an apogee of 21,926 mi (35,286 km). The spacecraft then initiated several burns using its own independent propulsion systems to refine its orbit to place it in

3360-459: The GOES-R generation of GOES satellites to commence with the expected launch of GOES-R in 2012, with the ABI and ABS as expected instrumentation. GOES-R and its sister satellites were to lead to substantial improvements in forecast accuracy and detail by providing new operational products for users. Four years later, the number of proposed spectral bands on the ABI instrument increased to 16, covering

3456-698: The Government Accountability Office estimating a much higher US$ 11.4 billion cost for the program in 2006. In December 2008, NASA and NOAA selected Lockheed Martin Space Systems as the contractor for the fabrication of the first two satellites of the GOES-R generation, including GOES-R, for an estimated value of contract at US$ 1.09 billion. Preliminary design review was completed just over two years later, with critical design review being completed in May 2012. Construction of

3552-630: The National Research Council in 2000 for NOAA to develop teams demonstrating the scope of new sensors like those on GOES-16 in concert with instrument design. The AWIPS-centric program was designed to allow for evaluation and development of simulated GOES-R products and provide training for forecasters. Experimental products were based on both contemporaneous and synthetic data. The first six years from 2008 to 2014 were primarily dedicated to algorithm development, simulation design, decision aid development, and end-to-end testing , while

3648-599: The Office of Inspector General of the Department of Commerce in April 2013 highlighted these concerns and projected a February 2016 launch which would reduce development stress at the cost of increasing the risk for gaps in satellite coverage should the operational backup satellites fail. Difficulties with GOES-R software and communications equipment caused the expected launch to be delayed to early 2016, and on 15 October 2015,

3744-481: The Radio Regulations . In the 1976 Bogota Declaration , eight countries located on the Earth's equator claimed sovereignty over the geostationary orbits above their territory, but the claims gained no international recognition. A statite is a hypothetical satellite that uses radiation pressure from the sun against a solar sail to modify its orbit. It would hold its location over the dark side of

3840-522: The Sun . GOES-16's design and instrumentation began in 1999 and was intended to fill key NOAA satellite requirements published that year. Following nearly a decade of instrument planning, spacecraft fabrication was contracted to Lockheed Martin Space Systems in 2008; construction of GOES-16 began in 2012 and lasted until 2014 when the satellite entered the testing phase. After several launch delays, GOES-16 launched from Cape Canaveral on 19 November 2016 aboard

3936-732: The USNS Kingsport docked in Lagos on August 23, 1963. The first satellite placed in a geostationary orbit was Syncom 3 , which was launched by a Delta D rocket in 1964. With its increased bandwidth, this satellite was able to transmit live coverage of the Summer Olympics from Japan to America. Geostationary orbits have been in common use ever since, in particular for satellite television. Today there are hundreds of geostationary satellites providing remote sensing and communications. Although most populated land locations on

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4032-973: The University of Wisconsin in Madison, Wisconsin ; the Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere (CIRA) and Regional and Mesoscale Meteorology Branch (RAMMB) at Colorado State University in Fort Collins, CO ; and NASA's Short-term Prediction Research and Transition Center (NASA SPoRT) in Huntsville, Alabama . GOES-R testbed and technology demonstrations were focused on a variety of applications including tropical cyclone intensity estimation, severe storm development, aviation , and air quality . Geostationary orbit A geostationary orbit , also referred to as

4128-430: The centripetal force required to maintain the orbit ( F c ) is equal to the gravitational force acting on the satellite ( F g ): From Isaac Newton 's universal law of gravitation , where F g is the gravitational force acting between two objects, M E is the mass of the Earth, 5.9736 × 10  kg , m s is the mass of the satellite, r is the distance between the centers of their masses , and G

4224-578: The ionosphere and thermosphere . The Extreme Ultraviolet Sensor (EUVS) monitors changes in solar extreme ultraviolet irradiance which shape upper atmospheric variability, with an ultraviolet wavelength range of 5–127 nm. Data from EUVS can anticipate radio blackouts for high frequency (HF) communications in low latitudes and the expansion of the thermosphere, which can induce increased drag and degrade instruments on satellites in low Earth orbit . The X-Ray Sensor (XRS) component of EXIS monitors solar flares through X-ray irradiance, allowing for

4320-530: The launch window to 19 November 2016. On 18 November 2016, the mated GOES-R spacecraft and the Atlas V launch vehicle were moved to the launch pad at Space Launch Complex 41. GOES-R was launched on 19 November 2016 at 23:42  UTC (6:42 p.m. EST ) from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 41 aboard an Atlas V rocket. An undisclosed issue on the Eastern Range and verification of

4416-552: The satellite bus was contracted out to Alliant Techsystems (ATK) and work began shortly thereafter, with the core structure becoming test-ready in January 2013. The Extreme Ultraviolet and X-ray Irradiance Sensors (EXIS) became the first installation-ready instruments for GOES-R in May 2013, while the ABI became integration-ready in February 2014; spacecraft propulsion and system modules were delivered three months later, finalizing

4512-427: The speed of an object moving around a circle produces: where T is the orbital period (i.e. one sidereal day), and is equal to 86 164 .090 54  s . This gives an equation for r : The product GM E is known with much greater precision than either factor alone; it is known as the geocentric gravitational constant μ = 398 600 .4418 ± 0.0008 km s . Hence List of GOES satellites This

4608-504: The 1999 Operational Requirements Document (ORD) for the Evolution of Future NOAA Operational Geostationary Satellites , NOAA listed instrument requirements for the next generation of GOES imager and sounder . Top priorities included continuous observation capabilities, the ability to observe weather phenomena at all spatial scales, and improved spatial and temporal resolution for both the imager and sounder. These specifications laid

4704-455: The ABI produces full-disk images of the Earth every 15 minutes, with a spatial resolution of 0.5–2 km (0.31–1.24 mi). However, the ABI can also operate on continuous disk mode (scan mode 4), whereby full disk images are recorded every 5 minutes. Full-disk images are composed of 26 image strips, making it more efficient than the preceding GOES imager, which was made with 1,300 image strips. The instrument also images

4800-626: The ABI, as opposed to the five on the previous GOES generation, represents a two-fold increase in spectral information. In addition, the ABI features up to four times greater spatial resolution and five times greater temporal resolution over the previous GOES imager. The ABI is nearly identical to the Advanced Himawari Imager (AHI) first used on the Japan Meteorological Agency 's Himawari 8 , which launched on 7 October 2014. The two instruments share 15 of

4896-483: The Advanced Baseline Sounder (ABS), which would form a part of a Hyperspectral Environmental Suite (HES) of instruments on the next generation GOES satellites. Like the ABI, the HES also marked significant improvements in resolution and spatial coverage. Initial forecasts were for the ABI to be included as part of GOES beginning with the projected launch of GOES-Q in 2008. In 2001, NOAA planned for

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4992-697: The EXIS and SUVI, which are located on a Sun Pointing Platform (SPP) on the spacecraft's solar array yoke ; the SPP tracks the seasonal and daily movement of the sun relative to GOES-16, and also supports GOES-16's Unique Payload Services. The Extreme Ultraviolet and X-ray Irradiance Sensors (EXIS) are a pair of sensors that monitor solar irradiance in the Earth's upper atmosphere. In monitoring irradiance, EXIS can detect solar flares which can disrupt power grids , communications, and navigational systems on Earth and satellites. Variability in irradiance influences conditions in

5088-424: The Earth at a latitude of approximately 30 degrees. A statite is stationary relative to the Earth and Sun system rather than compared to surface of the Earth, and could ease congestion in the geostationary ring. Geostationary satellites require some station keeping to keep their position, and once they run out of thruster fuel they are generally retired. The transponders and other onboard systems often outlive

5184-778: The GLM can be mapped in real-time using open-source software that has also been adapted by the United States National Weather Service Development of the GLM was contracted by the Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center in Palo Alto, California . Unforeseen during the instrument design, GLM is able to detect Bolides in the atmosphere and thereby facilitates meteor sciences. The Sun-facing, or solar-pointing, components of GOES-16 include

5280-821: The Sun's east limb, and analyze the complexity of active regions on the sun. The telescope is composed of six different wavelength bands centered between 94–304  Å specialized for different solar features. The GOES-16's ultraviolet imager is analogous to the Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope on the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory . GOES-16 features two instruments, the Magnetometer (MAG) and Space Environment In-Situ Suite (SEISS), that provide localized in-situ observations of high-energy particles and magnetic fields in geostationary orbit. The GOES-16 Magnetometer (MAG)

5376-574: The Unique Payload Services (UPS) suite which provide communications relay services ancillary to the mission's primary operations: An integrated ground system for data acquisition, processing, and dissemination was specially designed for GOES-16 and other satellites in the GOES-R generation of GOES spacecraft. The NOAA Satellite Operations Facility in Suitland, Maryland , serves as the point of command for GOES mission operations, while

5472-639: The Wallops Command and Data Acquisition Station at Wallops Flight Facility on Wallops Island, Virginia , handles GOES-16 telemetry, tracking, command, and instrument data. A second station in Fairmont, West Virginia , serves as the designated Consolidated Backup to the Wallops facility. The antennas at Wallops are designed to withstand sustained winds of 110 mph (180 km/h) and gusts of up to 150 mph (240 km/h), conditions expected in

5568-400: The absence of servicing missions from the Earth or a renewable propulsion method, the consumption of thruster propellant for station-keeping places a limitation on the lifetime of the satellite. Hall-effect thrusters , which are currently in use, have the potential to prolong the service life of a satellite by providing high-efficiency electric propulsion . For circular orbits around a body,

5664-538: The clearing of any contaminants in the spacecraft. The first science data from GOES-16 was received from the MAG instrument on 22 December 2016, while the first images from ABI were collected on 15 January 2017 and released on 23 January 2017. On 25 May 2017, NOAA announced that GOES-16 would occupy the GOES East position once operational, succeeding GOES-13. GOES-16's move to its operational position began at around 13:30 UTC on 30 November 2017, drifting about 1.41° per day to

5760-464: The collection of artificial satellites in this orbit is known as the Clarke Belt. In technical terminology the orbit is referred to as either a geostationary or geosynchronous equatorial orbit, with the terms used somewhat interchangeably. The first geostationary satellite was designed by Harold Rosen while he was working at Hughes Aircraft in 1959. Inspired by Sputnik 1 , he wanted to use

5856-520: The concept in a 1945 paper entitled Extra-Terrestrial Relays – Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio Coverage? , published in Wireless World magazine. Clarke acknowledged the connection in his introduction to The Complete Venus Equilateral . The orbit, which Clarke first described as useful for broadcast and relay communications satellites, is sometimes called the Clarke orbit. Similarly,

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5952-557: The conceptual foundations for the instruments that would eventually be included with GOES-16. More concrete development of GOES-16 began with the initial designs of an Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI), which started in June 1999 under the direction of Tim Schmitt of the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS). At its inception, ten spectral bands were considered for inclusion in

6048-435: The development and fabrication of the ABI, including BAE Systems , BEI Technologies, Babcock Corporation , DRS Technologies , L3 Technologies SSG-Tinsley , and Northrop Grumman Space Technology . The ABI takes images with three different geographic extents, with each image produced as a combination of stitched west-to-east narrow image scans made by the instrument. In the default "flex" mode (scan mode 3) of operation,

6144-496: The ensuing years up to spacecraft launch would deal primarily with tailoring products to user feedback. Participants in the proving ground program were classified as developers—those developing the satellite algorithms and training materials for GOES-R products—or users—the recipients of those products. The three primary developers in the program were the Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies (CIMSS) and Advanced Satellite Products Branch (ASPB) at

6240-659: The equator and appear lower in the sky to an observer nearer the poles. As the observer's latitude increases, communication becomes more difficult due to factors such as atmospheric refraction , Earth's thermal emission , line-of-sight obstructions, and signal reflections from the ground or nearby structures. At latitudes above about 81°, geostationary satellites are below the horizon and cannot be seen at all. Because of this, some Russian communication satellites have used elliptical Molniya and Tundra orbits, which have excellent visibility at high latitudes. A worldwide network of operational geostationary meteorological satellites

6336-474: The equilibrium points would (without any action) be slowly accelerated towards the stable equilibrium position, causing a periodic longitude variation. The correction of this effect requires station-keeping maneuvers with a maximal delta-v of about 2 m/s per year, depending on the desired longitude. Solar wind and radiation pressure also exert small forces on satellites: over time, these cause them to slowly drift away from their prescribed orbits. In

6432-481: The first GOES satellite to be configurable while in orbit. In addition, a solar diffuser new to GOES-16 allows for calibration of the ABI imaging data. On 2 April 2019, the GOES-16 ABI was reconfigured to use scan mode 6 as a default, allowing full disk scans every 10 minutes. The ABI onboard GOES-16 represents a significant improvement over the imager onboard previous GOES satellites. The sixteen spectral bands on

6528-553: The following properties: An inclination of zero ensures that the orbit remains over the equator at all times, making it stationary with respect to latitude from the point of view of a ground observer (and in the Earth-centered Earth-fixed reference frame). The orbital period is equal to exactly one sidereal day. This means that the satellite will return to the same point above the Earth's surface every (sidereal) day, regardless of other orbital properties. For

6624-523: The ground. All geostationary satellites have to be located on this ring. A combination of lunar gravity, solar gravity, and the flattening of the Earth at its poles causes a precession motion of the orbital plane of any geostationary object, with an orbital period of about 53 years and an initial inclination gradient of about 0.85° per year, achieving a maximal inclination of 15° after 26.5 years. To correct for this perturbation , regular orbital stationkeeping maneuvers are necessary, amounting to

6720-472: The highest resolution among the 16 bands at 0.5 km (0.31 mi) per pixel. The other visible light and near-infrared bands have a resolution of 1 km (0.62 mi), while the infrared bands have a resolution of 2 km (1.2 mi) per pixel. The sensors on the ABI are made of different materials depending on the spectral band, with silicon used for sensors operating in visible light and mercury cadmium telluride used for sensors operated in

6816-588: The initial construction phase and allowing for complete spacecraft integration and testing at Lockheed Martin's facilities in Colorado . The satellite was then transferred to Kennedy Space Center on 22 August 2016 to undergo additional tests and ready the spacecraft for launch. GOES-16 and other satellites of the GOES-R generation are based around a derivative of Lockheed Martin's A2100 spacecraft bus capable of supporting up to 2,800 kg (6,200 lb) dry mass with power capabilities exceeding 4 kW until

6912-671: The instrument was contracted by Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center based in Palo Alto, California . The electronic and sensor components of MAG were built by Macintyre Electronic Design Associates, Inc. (MEDA) in Sterling, Virginia , while the deployable boom was built by ATK in Goleta, California . The Space Environment In-Situ Suite (SEISS) consists of four sensors with a wide variance in field-of-view that monitor proton , electron , and heavy ion fluxes in

7008-545: The intended geostationary position, with eight days dedicated to increasing its orbital radius and four to orbital fine-tuning. During the first corrective burn, the truss holding the main engine nozzle warmed to anomalously high temperatures. Although the exceeded pre-flight temperature limits were revised, the subsequent four burns were limited to less than 41 minutes each in duration out of an abundance of caution, bringing it to its preliminary geostationary orbit ten days after launch. In reaching geostationary orbit, GOES-R

7104-501: The launch was pushed further to 13 October 2016. In early October 2016, GOES-R was secured in preparation for the close passage of Hurricane Matthew and did not sustain any damage. However, the tipping of a ground system rail van housing the spacecraft and the discovery of a booster fault on the Atlas ;V rocket—the same issue that had prevented the launch of WorldView-4 earlier in 2016—resulted in another delay of

7200-437: The magnetic field at a resolution of 0.016  nT at a frequency of 2.5 Hz. On GOES-16, MAG consists of two sensors positioned on an 8 m (26 ft) deployable boom, separating the instruments from the main spacecraft body to reduce the influence of the satellite's own magnetic signature. The tri-axial design allows for the measurement of the orthogonal vector components of the Earth's magnetic field. Development of

7296-500: The magnetosphere. Such protons in large quantities can cause biological effects on humans at high altitudes, as well as HF blackouts in the polar regions. Development of SEISS was contracted by Assurance Technology Corporation in Carlisle, Massachusetts , and subcontracted to the University of New Hampshire . NASA selected the Atlas V 541 operated by United Launch Services as the launch vehicle for GOES-R on 5 April 2012, with

7392-438: The magnetosphere. The suite monitors 27 differential electron energy channels and 32 differential proton energy channels, an increase over the six electron energy channels and 12 proton energy channels monitored by the previous GOES-N generation of satellites. The Energetic Heavy Ion Sensor (EHIS) specifically measures heavy ion fluxes, including those trapped in Earth's magnetosphere and particles originated from

7488-407: The near-infrared and infrared. An ABI electronics unit and cryocooler control electronics complement the sensor unit to power the imager and keep the instrument at cryogenic temperatures; all electronics and the sensor array are redundant to ensure operation longetivity. Development of the ABI was contracted to Harris Corporation of Fort Wayne, Indiana . Several other companies were involved in

7584-473: The new ABI, derived from six instruments on other satellites. In September 1999, the NOAA Research and Development Council endorsed the continued development of the instrument with the suggested bandwidths and frequencies. As the instrument became further realized, the number of potential spectral bands increased from the initial ten, to twelve by October 1999. Alongside the ABI, development also began on

7680-538: The passive Echo balloon satellites in 1960, followed by Telstar 1 in 1962. Although these projects had difficulties with signal strength and tracking, issues that could be solved using geostationary orbits, the concept was seen as impractical, so Hughes often withheld funds and support. By 1961, Rosen and his team had produced a cylindrical prototype with a diameter of 76 centimetres (30 in), height of 38 centimetres (15 in), weighing 11.3 kilograms (25 lb), light and small enough to be placed into orbit. It

7776-476: The planet now have terrestrial communications facilities ( microwave , fiber-optic ), with telephone access covering 96% of the population and internet access 90%, some rural and remote areas in developed countries are still reliant on satellite communications. Most commercial communications satellites , broadcast satellites and SBAS satellites operate in geostationary orbits. Geostationary communication satellites are useful because they are visible from

7872-485: The position in the sky where the satellites are located. Weather satellites are also placed in this orbit for real-time monitoring and data collection, and navigation satellites to provide a known calibration point and enhance GPS accuracy. Geostationary satellites are launched via a temporary orbit , and placed in a slot above a particular point on the Earth's surface. The orbit requires some stationkeeping to keep its position, and modern retired satellites are placed in

7968-639: The prediction of a solar particle event . The XRS detects X-rays with wavelengths between 0.05–0.8 nm. Together, the EXIS instrument weighs 30 kg (66 lb) and consumes 40 W of power. The Solar Ultraviolet Imager (SUVI) is an ultraviolet telescope onboard GOES-16 that produces full-disk images of the sun in the extreme ultraviolet range, succeeding the former GOES Solar X-ray Imager instrument onboard previous GOES satellite generations. The goals of SUVI are to locate coronal holes , detect and locate solar flares, monitor changes that indicate coronal mass ejections , detect active regions beyond

8064-524: The same plane, altitude and speed; however, the presence of satellites in eccentric orbits allows for collisions at up to 4 km/s. Although a collision is comparatively unlikely, GEO satellites have a limited ability to avoid any debris. At geosynchronous altitude, objects less than 10 cm in diameter cannot be seen from the Earth, making it difficult to assess their prevalence. Despite efforts to reduce risk, spacecraft collisions have occurred. The European Space Agency telecom satellite Olympus-1

8160-486: The same spectral bands and have one spectral band unique to either instrument, with the ABI featuring a 1.37 μm near-infrared band for cirrus cloud detection while the AHI uses a 0.51 μm band optimized for reflectance around the green portion of the visible spectrum . Lacking an explicit band for green light, true-color imagery for ABI is created using the combination of the ABI's red and blue visible bands along with

8256-405: The sky. A geostationary orbit can be achieved only at an altitude very close to 35,786 kilometres (22,236 miles) and directly above the equator. This equates to an orbital speed of 3.07 kilometres per second (1.91 miles per second) and an orbital period of 1,436 minutes, one sidereal day . This ensures that the satellite will match the Earth's rotational period and has a stationary footprint on

8352-564: The spacecraft at 10–100 Mbit/s. Spacecraft stability and accuracy is maintained by several reaction wheels , gyrometers, and a star tracker . GOES-16 is also the first geostationary civilian spacecraft to use GPS to assess its orbit . Such calibration equipment is intended to establish the satellite's position within a 100 m (330 ft) radius with a confidence of 3σ . The Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI) and Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM) make up GOES-16's Earth-facing, or nadir -pointing, instruments. These are positioned on

8448-423: The spacecraft's end-of-life . With propellant, GOES-16 had a total mass of 5,192 kg (11,446 lb), with a dry mass of 2,857 kg (6,299 lb). The spacecraft has dimensions of 6.1 m × 5.6 m × 3.9 m (20 ft × 18 ft × 13 ft). GOES-16 is powered by a solar array containing five solar panels that were folded at launch and unfurled after deployment. GOES-16

8544-894: The sun or in cosmic rays . There are two Magnetospheric Particle Sensors, Low and High (MPS-LO and MPS-HI, respectively) that measure electron and proton fluxes. MPS-LO measures low energy flux over a 30  eV –30 keV range; electrons with these energies can cause unintended charging of the spacecraft, causing electrostatic discharge or arcing across GOES-16 components, resulting in significant and permanent hardware damage. MPS-HI measures medium- to high-energy electrons with energies of up to 4 MeV and protons with energies of up to 12 MeV. Electrons at these energies easily penetrate spacecraft and may cause internal dielectric breakdown or discharge damage. The Solar and Galactic Proton Sensor (SGPS) instrument included in SEISS measures energetic protons from solar or galactic sources found in

8640-485: The thruster fuel and by allowing the satellite to move naturally into an inclined geosynchronous orbit some satellites can remain in use, or else be elevated to a graveyard orbit . This process is becoming increasingly regulated and satellites must have a 90% chance of moving over 200 km above the geostationary belt at end of life. Space debris at geostationary orbits typically has a lower collision speed than at low Earth orbit (LEO) since all GEO satellites orbit in

8736-566: Was spin stabilised with a dipole antenna producing a pancake shaped beam. In August 1961, they were contracted to begin building the real satellite. They lost Syncom 1 to electronics failure, but Syncom 2 was successfully placed into a geosynchronous orbit in 1963. Although its inclined orbit still required moving antennas, it was able to relay TV transmissions, and allowed for US President John F. Kennedy in Washington D.C., to phone Nigerian prime minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa aboard

8832-531: Was also awarded a US$ 130 million contract to develop the ground antenna system, including six new large-aperture transceiving antennas and upgrades to four existing antennas at the NOAA Satellite Operations Facility. To aid in systems engineering and data distribution tools for the ground segment, Boeing was awarded a $ 55 million subcontract. In addition to GRB, which can be accessed by any calibrated receiver, GOES data

8928-815: Was designed to have a service lifetime of 15 years, including 10 years as an operational satellite and 5 additional years as a backup for successive GOES satellites. GOES-16's command and data handling subsystem is based around the SpaceWire bus ; a modified version of the SpaceWire protocol was developed specifically for GOES-16 as a cost and risk reduction measure, with the associated application-specific integrated circuit being developed by British Aerospace . The GOES Reliable Data Delivery Protocol (GRDDP) complements preexisting SpaceWire capabilities and includes packet loss detection and recovery. The satellite's instruments collect and transfer payload data to

9024-410: Was redesignated as GOES-16 , beginning a yearlong extended checkout and validation phase. The spacecraft was initially positioned in a non-operational test position at 89.5°W, with GOES-13 and GOES-15 serving as the operational weather satellites in the traditional GOES East and GOES West positions, respectively. Instruments were initially kept dormant for a 30-day period to allow for outgassing and

9120-499: Was struck by a meteoroid on August 11, 1993, and eventually moved to a graveyard orbit , and in 2006 the Russian Express-AM11 communications satellite was struck by an unknown object and rendered inoperable, although its engineers had enough contact time with the satellite to send it into a graveyard orbit. In 2017, both AMC-9 and Telkom-1 broke apart from an unknown cause. A typical geostationary orbit has

9216-429: Was the first spacecraft to carry a lightning mapper in geostationary orbit. The GLM can detect both cloud-to-cloud and cloud-to-ground lightning during daytime and nighttime, complementing land-based lightning detection . GLM's sensitivity results in a detection rate of 70–90% of all lightning strikes in its viewing area. The camera is a 1372 × 1300 pixel staring CCD sensitive to 777.4 nm light with

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