The GC-45 ( Gun, Canada, 45- calibre ) is a 155 mm howitzer designed by Gerald Bull 's Space Research Corporation (SRC) in the 1970s. Versions were produced by a number of companies during the 1980s, notably in Austria and South Africa.
116-761: The most publicized use of the design was in Iraq , where the GHN-45 variant used by some Iraqi artillery units had a longer range than any coalition cannon systems. This initially caused considerable worry on the part of the allied forces in the Persian Gulf War . The GC-45's general design followed several decades of work by Bull with fin-stabilized artillery shells, starting at the Canadian Armament Research and Development Establishment (CARDE) and later at Project HARP . In these efforts accuracy
232-718: A coalition of Ba'athist and Sunni militants launched an offensive against the government, initiating full-scale war in Iraq . The climax of the campaign was an offensive in Northern Iraq by the Islamic State (ISIS) that marked the beginning of the rapid territorial expansion by the group, prompting an American-led intervention . By the end of 2017, ISIS had lost all its territory in Iraq. Iran has also intervened and expanded its influence through sectarian Khomeinist militias. In 2014, Sunni insurgents belonging to
348-399: A democratic , federal parliamentary republic . The federal government is composed of the executive , legislative , and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are regions (made of one or more governorates), governorates, and districts within Iraq with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law. The president is
464-521: A mandate over Syria . In Iraq, under British mandate, tensions were rising as local forces increasingly resisted foreign control. A rebellion erupted , challenging British authority, and the need for a new strategy became clear. In 1921, the Cairo Conference , led by British officials including Winston Churchill and T.E. Lawrence , decided that Faisal, now exiled in London , would become
580-475: A 100-hour-long ground assault against Iraqi forces in southern Iraq and Kuwait. Iraq also attempted to invade Saudi Arabia and attacked Israel. Iraq's armed forces were devastated during the war. Sanctions were imposed on Iraq, following the invasion of Kuwait, which resulted economic decline. After the end of the war in 1991, Iraqi Kurds and Shi'ite Muslims in northern and southern Iraq, led several uprisings against Saddam's regime , but these were repressed. It
696-521: A 105 mm gun, the G7 howitzer , which allows artillery to be downsized to improve mobility. Bharat Forge , an Indian firm of Kalyani Group , has recently purchased Noricum and brought the entire manufacturing workshop to India. It has made Bharat-52 , a 52 caliber variant of the 155mm howitzer to meet the Indian Army 's long delayed field artillery requirement. Iraq Iraq , officially
812-781: A 1970 report, small arms and ammunition were being produced not only at defence ordnance facilities, but also at the South African mint and the African Explosive and Chemical Industries plant, which had previously confined its market to civil mining operations. South Africa began acquiring large quantities of NATO arms in 1960, after the Sharpeville Massacre prompted the African National Congress to abandon its traditional non-violent tactics in favour of armed struggle. The government
928-697: A coastline measuring 58 km (36 miles) on the northern Persian Gulf . Further north, but below the main headwaters only, the country easily encompasses the Mesopotamian Alluvial Plain . Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates , run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab , thence the Persian Gulf. Broadly flanking this estuary (known as arvandrūd : اروندرود among Iranians) are marshlands, semi-agricultural. Flanking and between
1044-567: A decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires. Since its independence, Iraq has experienced spells of significant economic and military growth alongside periods instability and conflict . The region remained a part of the Ottoman Empire until the end of World War I, after which Mandatory Iraq was established by the British Empire in 1921. It gained indepdence as
1160-514: A driving band would result in a longer-range weapon. However, such a design was never achieved. After years of research at his Quebec firing range, Bull could never settle on to a solution. The resulting Extended Range, Full Bore (ERFB) ammunition was key to SRC's designs: a "pointy" looking shell with much lower drag at supersonic speeds. For longer range applications he added a base bleed system (invented in Sweden) that could be screwed onto
1276-836: A few citizens and having the state redistribute the land. In 1959, Abd al-Wahab al-Shawaf led an uprising in Mosul against Qasim. The uprising was crushed by the government forces. He claimed Kuwait as part of Iraq, when it the former was granted independence in 1961. The United Kingdom deployed its army on Iraq–Kuwait border , which forced Qasim to back down. He was overthrown by the Ba'ath Party in February 1963 coup . However internal division with Ba'athist factions caused another coup in November, which brought Colonel Abdul Salam Arif to power. The new regime recognized Kuwait's independence. After
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#17328022936601392-505: A hot arid climate with subtropical influence. Summer temperatures average above 40 °C (104 °F) for most of the country and frequently exceed 48 °C (118.4 °F). Winter temperatures infrequently exceed 15 °C (59.0 °F) with maxima roughly 5 to 10 °C (41.0 to 50.0 °F) and night-time lows 1 to 5 °C (33.8 to 41.0 °F). Typically, precipitation is low; most places receive less than 250 mm (9.8 in) annually, with maximum rainfall occurring during
1508-570: A larger and more sophisticated variant of the Panhard AML armoured car. Armscor oversaw a vast military, industrial and technological empire that consumed tens of billions of dollars. It was able to draw on both civilian and military resources, and had both legitimate and clandestine networks as a means of obtaining defence technology. Armscor's powers included the authority to integrate military and civilian industrial projects: this allowed for an ambitious dual-use production effort. According to
1624-479: A member of the League of Nations . Faisal's reign was marked by his efforts to balance the pressures of external influence and internal demands for sovereignty. He was admired for his diplomatic skill and his commitment to steering Iraq toward self-determination. Untimely, he died from a heart attack on 8 September 1933, leaving his son Ghazi to inherit the throne. King Ghazi’s reign was brief and turbulent, as Iraq
1740-611: A million and 1.5 million people. Kuwait's refusal to waive Iraq's debt and reducing oil prices pushed Saddam to take military action against it. On 2 August 1990, the Iraqi forces invaded and annexed Kuwait as its 19th governorate , starting the Gulf War . This led to military intervention by the United States-led alliance . The coalition forces proceeded with a bombing campaign targeting military targets and then launched
1856-821: A one-sided referendum was held in Iraq’s Kurdistan Region regarding Kurdish independence , which resulted in 92% (of those participating in the region) voting in favor of independence. The referendum was rejected by the federal government and regarded as illegal by the Federal Supreme Court . Following this, an armed conflict ensued between the federal government and the Kurdistan Regional Government which resulted in Kurdish defeat and capitulation; Kurdistan Region subsequently lost territory it had previously occupied, and
1972-512: A peace treaty was signed between Saddam and Barzani, granting autonomy to Kurds . He introduced free healthcare and education, nationalized oil, promoted women's rights and developed infrastructure. Within few years, Iraq became one of the most developed countries in the world. In 1974, the second Iraqi–Kurdish war began and border clashes with Iran took place on Shatt al-Arab . Iran supported Kurdish militants. The Algiers Agreement signed in 1975, by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Saddam solved
2088-513: A railway and an oil pipeline to the Mediterranean . Although Faisal succeeded in securing greater autonomy for Iraq, British influence remained strong, particularly in the country’s oil industry. In 1930, Iraq signed a treaty with Britain that gave the country a measure of political independence while maintaining British control over key aspects, including military presence and oil rights. By 1932, Iraq gained formal independence, becoming
2204-524: A referendum with a 78% overall majority, although the percentage of support varied widely between the country's territories. The new constitution was backed by the Shia and Kurdish communities, but was rejected by Arab Sunnis. Under the terms of the constitution, the country conducted fresh nationwide parliamentary elections on 15 December 2005. All three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lines, as did Assyrian and Turcoman minorities. Law no. 188 of
2320-622: A response to the international sanctions by the United Nations against South Africa due to apartheid which began in 1963 and were formalised in 1977. Until the 1970s, South Africa's apartheid government had placed a disproportionate emphasis on civilian law enforcement and the maintenance of internal security. However, a Cuban intervention in Angola , and the escalation of the South African Border War convinced
2436-422: A small arms producing capacity during World War II , and unlike most African states it possessed exceptionally competent scientists and engineers adept at substituting local manufacture for imports. Generally Armscor proceeded by studying specimens of foreign equipment, sometimes through one of its third parties, then applying these skills to their improvement. By the 1990s it could boast of being "a world leader" in
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#17328022936602552-802: A variety of names, the Soltam 845P in Israel, ODE FH-88 from Singapore, and PLL01/WA021 in China. Once out of prison, Bull was soon contacted by China. The Chinese People's Liberation Army also used the Noricum version, producing it as the PLL01, which entered service in 1987. They also mounted it on a locally designed tracked chassis to produce the PLZ-45 (also known as the Type 88), along with an ammo-carrier based on
2668-400: Is among global centers for oil and gas industry . In addition, the country has been popular for its agriculture and tourism. Since its independence, it has experienced spells of significant economic and military growth alongside periods instability and conflict . The country is putting efforts to rebuild after the war with foreign support . There are several suggested origins for
2784-460: Is at risk of desertification . Nearly 40% of Iraq "has been overtaken by blowing desert sands that claim tens of thousands of acres of arable land every year". However, in 2023, Mohammed Shia al-Sudani announced that government was working on a wider "Iraqi vision for climate action". The plan would include promoting clean and renewable energy, new irrigation and water treatment projects and reduced industrial gas flaring, he said. Sudani said Iraq
2900-548: Is based on French civil law as well as Sunni and Jafari ( Shi'ite ) interpretations of Sharia. Armscor (South Africa) Armscor (stylized as ARMSCOR ), the Armaments Corporation of South Africa is the arms procurement agency of the South African Department of Defence . It was originally established in 1968 as an arms production company, by Freve and Rapelang. primarily as
3016-819: Is either / ɪ ˈ r ɑː k / (the only pronunciation listed in the Oxford English Dictionary and the first one in Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary ) or / ɪ ˈ r æ k / (listed first by MQD ), the American Heritage Dictionary , and the Random House Dictionary . When the British established the Hashemite king on 23 August 1921, Faisal I of Iraq , the official English name of
3132-676: Is estimated that as many as 100,000 people, including many civilians were killed. During the uprisings, the United States, the United Kingdom, Turkey and France, claiming authority under UNSC Resolution 688 , established the Iraqi no-fly zones to protect Kurdish population from attacks and autonomy was given to Kurds. raq was also affected by the Iraqi Kurdish Civil War from 1994 to 1997. Around 40,000 fighters and civilians were killed. Between 2001 and 2003,
3248-503: Is more than three times that of the FH-70 field howitzer at its maximum range of only 5 km less, and is twice as great as FH-70s at 20 km (66,000 ft; 12 mi). Its maximum range with the M107 projectile is the same as any 39 calibre 155-mm gun and its dispersion about the same. (The "dispersion" figure means that 50% of shells will fall up to the stated distance either side of
3364-510: The 14 July Revolution in 1958 was led by the Brigadier General and nationalist Abd al-Karim Qasim . This revolt was strongly anti-imperial and anti-monarchical in nature and had strong socialist elements. King Faysal II , Prince Abd al-Ilah , and Nuri al-Sa'id , along with the royal family were killed brutally. Qasim controlled Iraq through military rule and in 1958 he began a process of forcibly reducing surplus land owned by
3480-407: The 6th millennium BC , the fertile alluvial plains between Iraq's Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, referred to as the region of Mesopotamia , gave rise to some of the world's earliest cities , civilizations , and empires . It was known as a " Cradle of Civilisation " that saw the inventions of a writing system , mathematics , timekeeping , a calendar , astrology , and a law code . Following
3596-813: The Aermacchi MB-326 . Armscor also purchased systems abroad which were designed to SADF specifications. The most prominent of these were the Mirage III series of fighter aircraft, which were modified in France for South African requirements. Armscor's predecessor, the Munitions Board, had also imported the AML-60 and AML-90 armoured scout cars from France. The vehicles saw action against Cuban T-34-85 tanks in Angola during Operation Savannah , and
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3712-496: The Fragile States Index , Iraq was the world's 31st most politically unstable country. Transparency International ranks Iraq's government as the 23rd most corrupt government in the world. Under Saddam, the government employed 1 million employees, but this increased to around 7 million in 2016. In combination with decreased oil prices, the government budget deficit is near 25% of GDP as of 2016 . In September 2017,
3828-745: The G6 howitzer , and won major export sales to the United Arab Emirates and Oman . In response to an Indian requirement, the G5 was mounted on a 4x4 truck, resulting in the T5 , though as of 2012 none had been ordered. It is also fitted into a turret that can fit on any suitable vehicle. The turret is marketed as the T6 which has already been fitted on the T-72 . Denel also used the basic ERFB ammunition concept to develop
3944-643: The Iraqi National Alliance . The Iraqi National Movement is led by Iyad Allawi , a secular Shia widely supported by Sunnis. The party has a more consistent anti-sectarian perspective than most of its rivals. The Kurdistan List is dominated by two parties, the Kurdistan Democratic Party led by Masood Barzani and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan headed by Jalal Talabani . Baghdad is Iraq's capital, home to
4060-422: The Islamic State group seized control of large swathes of land including several major cities, like Tikrit , Fallujah and Mosul , creating hundreds of thousands of internally displaced persons amid reports of atrocities by ISIL fighters. An estimated 500,000 civilians fled from Mosul. Around 5,000 Yazidis were killed in the genocide by ISIS, as a part of the war. With the help of US-led intervention in Iraq ,
4176-525: The Kingdom of Iraq in 1932. Following a coup d'état in 1958 , Iraq became a republic, led by Abdul Karim Qasim followed by Abdul Salam Arif and then Abdul Rahman Arif. The Ba'ath Party came to power in the 1968 and ruled as one-party state , under the leadership of Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr , followed by Saddam Hussein , who started major wars against Iran and Kuwait . In 2003, the Iraq War started after
4292-628: The Kurdistan Regional Government and Ansar al-Islam engaged in conflict, which would merge with the upcoming war. After the September 11 attacks , George W. Bush began planning the overthrow of Saddam in what is now widely regarded as a false pretense . Saddam's Iraq was included in Bush's " axis of evil ". The United States Congress passed joint resolution , which authorized the use of armed force against Iraq. In November 2002. The UN Security Council passed resolution 1441 . On 20 March 2003,
4408-729: The Muslim conquest , Baghdad became the capital and the largest city of the Abbasid Caliphate . During the time of the Islamic Golden Age , the city evolved into a significant cultural and intellectual center, and garnered a worldwide reputation for its academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom . It was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258 during the siege of Baghdad , resulting in
4524-806: The Neo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great , who declared himself the " King of Babylon ." The city of Babylon , the ancient seat of Babylonian power, became one of the key capitals of the Achaemenid Empire. Ancient Iraq, known as the Mesopotamia, is home to world's first Jewish diaspora community, which emerged during the Babylonian exile. The Babylonians were defeated by
4640-637: The Republic of Iraq , is a country in West Asia and a core country in the geopolitical region known as the Middle East . With a population exceeding 46 million, it is the 35th-most populous country. It consists of 18 governorates . The country is bordered by Turkey to the north , Saudi Arabia to the south , Iran to the east , the Persian Gulf and Kuwait to the southeast , Jordan to
4756-539: The Sharif of Makkah , the European powers had different plans for the region. Following the British withdrawal of support for a unified Arab state , Hussein's son, Faisal , briefly declared the Kingdom of Syria in 1920, encompassing parts of what are now Lebanon , Palestine , Jordan , and Syria . However, the kingdom was short-lived, crushed by local opposition and the military might of France, which had been granted
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4872-606: The Umayyads in 661. Karbala is considered as one of the holiest cities in Shia Islam, following the Battle of Karbala , which took place in 680. With the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate in the mid-8th century, Iraq became the center of Islamic rule, with Baghdad , founded in 762, serving as the capital. Baghdad flourished during the Islamic Golden Age , becoming a global center for culture, science, and intellectualism. However,
4988-412: The alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. As an Arabic word, عراق ʿirāq means "hem", "shore", "bank", or "edge", so that the name by folk etymology came to be interpreted as "the escarpment ", such as at the south and east of the Jazira Plateau, which forms the northern and western edge of the "al-Iraq arabi" area. The Arabic pronunciation is [ʕiˈrɑːq] . In English, it
5104-410: The king of Iraq . This decision was seen as a way to maintain British influence in the region while placating local demands for leadership. Upon his coronation, he focused on unifying a land formerly divided into three Ottoman provinces — Mosul , Baghdad , and Basra . He worked hard to gain the support of Iraq's diverse population, including both Sunnis and Shiites , and paid special attention to
5220-430: The withdrawal of US troops in 2011, the occupation ceased and war ended. The war in Iraq has resulted in between 151,000 and 1.2 million Iraqis being killed . The subsequent efforts to rebuild the country amidst sectarian violence and the rise of the Islamic State began after the war. Iraq was galvanized by the civil war in Syria. Continuing discontent over Nouri al-Maliki 's government led to protests , after which
5336-426: The 2003–2011, flow is restored and the ecosystem has begun to recover. Iraqi corals are some of the most extreme heat-tolerant as the seawater in this area ranges between 14 and 34 °C. Aquatic or semi-aquatic wildlife occurs in and around these, the major lakes are Lake Habbaniyah , Lake Milh , Lake Qadisiyah and Lake Tharthar . The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as
5452-477: The Ammunition Section of the South African Mint became its first full subsidiaries. Over the next few years, Armscor took over various private sector companies, such as Atlas Aircraft Corporation, and established a number of new production and R&D facilities (Cawthra, 1986:98). In 1973, the government established the Defence Advisory Council (DAC) to co-ordinate the private sector's involvement in domestic arms production (Philip, 1989:205). Armscor continued in
5568-447: The Ba'ath Army and expelling Ba'athists from the new government. The insurgents fought against the coalition forces and the newly installed government. Saddam was captured and executed. The Shia–Sunni civil war took place from 2006 to 2008. The coalition forces were criticized for war crimes such as the Abu Ghraib torture , the Fallujah massacre , the Mahmudiyah rape and killings and the Mukaradeeb wedding party massacre . Following
5684-474: The French Minister of Armies , Pierre Messmer . The Portuguese contacted Messmer and achieved his written blessing on the condition that the loan was kept secret. Only then could South Africa agree. However, it became increasingly difficult for suppliers to exert control over indigenous weapons produced under licence. Once established, Armscor absorbed the Atlas Aircraft Corporation . The Atlas Aircraft Corporation of South Africa (also known as Atlas Aviation)
5800-403: The G5 had in Angola, stopping any push by the Iranians deeper into Iraq. They became desperate to get more of these guns into the field as soon as possible, and requested that Bull improve deliveries any way he could. Bull then arranged a deal to deliver the G5, which fired the same ammunition as the GHN-45, from South Africa. By the time of the Gulf War, about 124 of these weapons had been added to
5916-402: The GC-45, producing a much more practical version known as the FGH-155 . In addition to a number of detail changes and deeper rifling, the FGH-155 allowed standard M107 ammunition to be fired using a plastic adaptor ring. Bull also felt that the FGH-155's carriage was suitable for a larger gun, and worked on the FGH-203 , an 8" (203 mm) gun adapted from U.S. standards in a fashion similar to
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#17328022936606032-428: The Iraqi command and control facilities, and because most of their gun tractors had been withdrawn to serve with logistics units in an attempt to re-supply the front line troops, they were unable to withdraw when under fire. Immobile and unsupported, the majority of the guns were destroyed at their positions either by air strikes or Multiple Launch Rocket Systems (MLRS) counter-battery fire . Bull continued work on
6148-476: The Iraqi forces successfully defeated ISIS. The war officially ended in 2017, with the Iraqi government declaring victory over ISIS. In October 2022, Abdul Latif Rashid was elected president after winning the parliamentary election. In 2022, Mohammed Shia al-Sudani became Prime Minister . The electrical grid faces systemic pressures due to climate change, fuel shortages, and an increase in demand. Corruption remains endemic throughout Iraqi governance while
6264-463: The Iraqi long-range artillery, supplanting their older 130 mm M-46s and chaotic mix of other weapons. Bull and Saddam Hussein became partners in a number of future ventures . These ventures are generally believed to be the cause of Bull's assassination , for which the Israeli Mossad or Iranian agencies are the prime suspects . During the Gulf War, however, the GHN-45s proved less effective than anticipated by either side. Air strikes had disrupted
6380-411: The Mamluk regime and reimposed their direct control over Iraq. Iraq's modern history began in the wake of World War I, as the region emerged from the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Arab forces, inspired by the promise of independence, had helped dismantle the Ottoman hold on the Middle East, but the dream of a united, sovereign Arab state was soon dashed. Despite agreements made with Hussein ibn Ali ,
6496-448: The Mirage III and F1 interceptors became the mainstay of the South African Air Force (SAAF). Although the French supplied relatively modern and advanced weaponry to South Africa, they imposed some restraint on deployment and training. During the Angolan War of Independence , Portugal's request for a loan of SA.316 helicopters and Panhard armoured cars from South Africa to supplement their own limited resources had to be routed through
6612-408: The Persian Empire, under the leadership of Cyrus the Great . Following the fall of Babylon, the Achaemenid Empire took control of the Mesopotamian region. Enslaved Jews were freed from the Babylonian captivity, though many remained in the land and thus the Jewish community grew in the region. Iraq is the location of numerous Jewish sites, which are also revered by the Muslims and Christians. In
6728-416: The SADF's preexisting hardware was trying to maintain, and any national defence establishment would encounter hurdles in keeping these systems operational without access to foreign technical support as well as new deliveries of parts and equipment. Armscor pursued both covert arms deals and black market purchases in an effort to acquire restricted defence technologies as rapidly as possible. The experience of
6844-496: The UN Security Council passed a resolution calling on all states to stop supplying arms to South Africa. In 1968, the Armaments Production Board's name was changed to the Armaments Board . It was tasked with the procurement of armaments for the SADF and ensuring the optimal utilisation of the private sector for arms production (Simpson, 1989:222). In the same year, the government established the Armaments Development and Production Corporation (Armscor) . The Defence Ordnance Workshop and
6960-419: The United States-endorsed sectarian political system has driven increased levels of violent terrorism and sectarian conflicts. Climate change is driving wide-scale droughts while water reserves are rapidly depleting. The country has been in a prolonged drought since 2020 and experienced its second-driest season in the past four decades in 2021. Water flows in the Tigris and Euphrates are down 30-40%. Half
7076-402: The United States-led coalition forces invaded Iraq and overthrew Saddam. The war subsequently turned into an insurgency and sectarian civil war , with American troops withdrawing in 2011. Between 2013 and 2017, Iraq was once more in a state of war, with the rise and subsequent fall of Islamic State . Today post-war conflict in Iraq continues at a lower scale, which has been an obstacle to
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#17328022936607192-463: The United States-led coalition invaded Iraq, as part of global war on terror . Within weeks, coalition forces occupied much of Iraq, with the Iraqi Army adopting guerrilla tactics to confront coalition forces. Following the fall of Baghdad in the first week of April, Saddam's regime had completely lost control of Iraq. A statue of Saddam was toppled in Baghdad, symbolizing the end of his rule. The Coalition Provisional Authority began disbanding
7308-446: The carriage to take the four wheels off the ground. The chassis had the option of being powered by a small diesel engine acting as an auxiliary power unit , driving hydraulics that could set up the gun in two minutes, and move it short distances. This feature had previously been included in the 1960s design FH-70 carriage by Vickers . Bull, meanwhile, started production of $ 30 million worth of rounds, shipping them via Spain to avoid
7424-422: The case was ended by direct intervention of the White House . Bull pleaded guilty and was sentenced to a year in prison, serving six months. Having expected some sort of "slap on the wrist", he was embittered and made statements to different newspapers that he would never set foot in North America again. He left Canada and moved to Brussels where he continued his work. Armscor continued work on their version of
7540-427: The city's prosperity declined following the Buwayhid and Seljuq invasions in the 10th century and suffered further with the Mongol invasion of 1258. Iraq later came under the control of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. During the years 1747–1831, Iraq was ruled by a Mamluk dynasty of Georgian origin, who succeeded in obtaining autonomy from the Ottoman Empire. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow
7656-448: The country changed from Mesopotamia to the endonymic Iraq . Since January 1992, the official name of the state is "Republic of Iraq" ( Jumhūriyyat al-ʿIrāq ), reaffirmed in the 2005 Constitution . Iraq largely coincides with the ancient region of Mesopotamia , often referred to as the cradle of civilization . The history of Mesopotamia extends back to the Lower Paleolithic period, with significant developments continuing through
7772-569: The country's Shiite communities, symbolically choosing the date of his coronation to coincide with Eid al-Ghadeer , a key day for Shiite Muslims. His reign laid the foundations of modern Iraq. Faisal worked to establish key state institutions and fostered a sense of national identity. His education reforms included the founding of Ahl al-Bayt University in Baghdad, and he encouraged the migration of Syrian exiles to Iraq to serve as doctors and educators. Faisal also envisioned infrastructural links between Iraq, Syria, and Jordan , including plans for
7888-411: The country's capacity to produce energy with four oil, gas and renewables projects. According to experts, the project will "accelerate Iraq’s path to energy self-sufficiency and advance Iraq’s collective climate change objectives". The wildlife of Iraq includes its flora and fauna and their natural habitats . Iraq has multiple and diverse biomes which include the mountainous region in the north to
8004-408: The country's farmland is at risk of desertification . Nearly 40% of Iraq "has been overtaken by blowing desert sands that claim tens of thousands of acres of arable land every year." Iraq lies between latitudes 29° and 38° N , and longitudes 39° and 49° E (a small area lies west of 39°). Spanning 437,072 km (168,754 sq mi), it is the 58th-largest country in the world. It has
8120-412: The country's stability. A federal parliamentary republic country, Iraq is considered an emerging middle power . It is a founding member of the United Nations , the OPEC as well as of the Arab League , the Organization of Islamic Cooperation , Non-Aligned Movement , and the International Monetary Fund . With a strategic location, the country has one of the largest oil reserves in the world and
8236-504: The design rights to the GC-45 after SRC moved to Europe. They made a number of detail changes to improve mass production, resulting in the GHN-45 (Gun, Howitzer, Noricum), which was offered in a variety of options like the APU and fire control systems. The first foreign sale was an order for eighteen guns with ammunition to the Royal Thai Navy for use by their Marine Corps. Other "aboveboard" customers included China, Singapore and Israel. All of these companies worked on local production under
8352-647: The dispute and Iran withdrew support for the Kurds, resulting their defeat in the war. In 1973, Iraq participated in the Yom Kippur War against Israel, alongside Syria and Egypt . An attempt to ban an annual pilgrimage Karbala caused an uprising by Shia Muslims across Iraq . Another Shia uprising took place from 1979 to 1980, as a followup to the Islamic Revolution in Iran. On 16 July 1979, Saddam
8468-642: The eastern part of the Syrian Desert . Rocky deserts cover about 40 percent of Iraq. Another 30 percent is mountainous with bitterly cold winters. The north of the country is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3,611 m (11,847 ft). Iraq is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: Zagros Mountains forest steppe , Middle East steppe , Mesopotamian Marshes , Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests , Arabian Desert , Mesopotamian shrub desert , and South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert . Much of Iraq has
8584-549: The embargo encouraged South African efforts in diversifying suppliers while assuming indigenous production of some paraphernalia. Availability of Western-style equipment and spares from Israel in particular helped compensate for the military effects of the UN embargo. Armscor officials used aggressive covert techniques to acquire technology, bartering through other public sector enterprises, front companies, foreign agents, and even civil organisations. South Africa had already maintained
8700-545: The establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD, after which the region became known as Iraq. Within its borders lies the ancient land of Sumer , which emerged between 6000 and 5000 BC during the Neolithic Ubaid period . Sumer is recognized as the world's earliest civilization, marking the beginning of urban development, written language, and monumental architecture. Iraq's territory also includes
8816-482: The federal government has been severely punishing it both politically and economically. In gradual steps, the federal government has consistently weakened Kurdistan Region’s ability to administer its own affairs by revoking crucial authorities that had previously defined its autonomy. Furthermore, since it won a pivotal ICC arbitration case, the federal government has also been refusing Kurdistan Region access to its most important source of income, namely, oil exports, and
8932-572: The field of upgrading obsolete weapons. Thus, Armscor's Olifant Mk1As were rebuilt from elderly British Centurion tanks purchased from India and Jordan . Its Atlas Cheetah interceptors were based on Mirage III airframes and inspired by the IAI Kfir . A French armoured personnel carrier , the Berliet VXB , inspired the six-wheeled Ratel IFV ; Armscor also developed the Eland Mk7 ,
9048-517: The following centuries, the regions constituting modern Iraq came under the control of several empires, including the Greeks , Parthians , and Romans , establishing new centers like Seleucia and Ctesiphon . By the 3rd century AD, the region fell under Persian control through the Sasanian Empire , during which time Arab tribes from South Arabia migrated into Lower Mesopotamia, leading to
9164-617: The formation of the Sassanid-aligned Lakhmid kingdom . The Arabic name al-ʿIrāq likely originated during this period. The Sasanian Empire was eventually conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century, bringing Iraq under Islamic rule after the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah in 636. The city of Kufa , founded shortly thereafter, became a central hub for the Rashidun dynasty until their overthrow by
9280-533: The government that it faced a serious external threat. In 1978, the premiership was accepted by PW Botha , a former South African security chief, and defence expenditure spiraled upwards. Armscor, then a relatively new entity, was charged with modernising the arsenal of the South African Defence Force (SADF). This was a difficult task, as a United Nations arms embargo on South Africa, promulgated in 1964, became mandatory in 1977. Some of
9396-721: The gun, and these were put into service in South Africa in 1982 as the G5 . They started replacing a variety of older guns, such as locally-built World War II-era Ordnance QF 25 pounders . The G5s saw service against Cuban and People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola forces in the Angolan conflict , where they were used very effectively. Noricum , the arms division of the Austrian steel company Voest-Alpine , purchased
9512-537: The head of state, the prime minister is the head of government, and the constitution provides for two deliberative bodies, the Council of Representatives and the Council of Union. The judiciary is free and independent of the executive and the legislature. The National Alliance is the main Shia parliamentary bloc, and was established as a result of a merger of Prime Minister Nouri Maliki's State of Law Coalition and
9628-622: The heartlands of the Akkadian , Neo-Sumerian , Babylonian , Neo-Assyrian , and Neo-Babylonian empires, which dominated Mesopotamia and much of the Ancient Near East during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Iraq was a center of innovation in antiquity, producing early written languages , literary works , and significant advancements in astronomy , mathematics , law , and philosophy . This era of indigenous rule ended in 539 BC when
9744-666: The international arms embargo against South Africa . At first, the U.S. chose to overlook Bull's actions and, according to him, the Central Intelligence Agency actively mediated the deal between Space Research and the South Africans. However, when the Carter administration joined the international efforts to sanction South Africa's apartheid government , Bull was arrested by U.S. Customs agents in 1980. The investigation did not go far, and active work on
9860-458: The latter has had no other option but to concede. Some have argued that this signals the Iraqi government’s intention to abandon federalism and return to a centralized political system , and in a leaked letter sent in 2023 to the U.S president, the prime minister of Kurdistan region wrote of an impending collapse of Kurdistan Region. In October 2005, the new Constitution of Iraq was approved in
9976-598: The latter's death in 1966, he was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif . Under his rule, Iraq participated in the Six Day War in 1967. Arif was overthrown in the 17 July Revolution in 1968. The Ba'ath Party came to power, with Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr as the president of Iraq. However, the government gradually came under the control of Saddam Hussein , Iraq's then vice-president. Saddam sought to achieve stability between Iraq's ethnic and religious groups. The first Iraqi–Kurdish war ended in 1970, after which
10092-461: The mean point of impact, but 100% will fall within 4 times the probable error either side.) Dispersion of this magnitude significantly reduces the tactical value of the equipment. In 1977, Bull's work put him in touch with (what is today) the Denel SOC Ltd company of South Africa. Denel designed a new mobile mounting that was able to handle the increased recoil. It used a sole-plate to lift
10208-562: The name. One dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin. Another possible etymology for the name is from the Middle Persian word erāq , meaning "lowlands." An Arabic folk etymology for the name is "deeply rooted, well-watered; fertile ". During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī ("Arabian Iraq") for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿAjamī ("Persian Iraq"), for
10324-514: The nation remained divided. Iraq's Sunni-dominated monarchy struggled to reconcile the diverse ethnic and religious groups, particularly the Shiite, Assyrian, Jewish and Kurdish populations, who felt marginalized. In 1958, these tensions culminated in a military coup, inspired by the revolutionary wave sweeping across the Arab world, particularly the 1952 Egyptian Revolution . A coup d'état known as
10440-592: The next six years Iran was on the offensive. The Sunni-led Arab countries and the United States supported Iraq throughout the war . In 1981, Israel destroyed a nuclear reactor of Iraq. In midst of the war, between 1983 to 1986, Kurds led rebellion against the regime . In retaliation, the government coordinated Anfal campaign , led to the killing of 50,000–100,000 civilians. During the war, Saddam extensively used chemical weapons against Iranians. The war, which ended in stalemate in 1988, killed between half
10556-530: The original GC-45 work. The increase in projectile weight gave the new weapon a range of over 50,000 meters with normal ERFB-BB ammunition, making it one of the longest-range artillery pieces in the world. The gun was also purchased by the Iraqis, who mounted it in a self-propelled form to create the Al-Fao . The Denel G5 version has also seen continued development. The gun has been placed on an OMC 6x6 chassis as
10672-404: The political system has exacerbated sectarian conflict. Climate change is driving wide-scale droughts across the country while water reserves are rapidly depleting. The country has been in a prolonged drought since 2020 and experienced its second-driest season in the past four decades in 2021. Water flows in the Tigris and Euphrates are down between 30 and 40%. Half of the country's farmland
10788-400: The post-apartheid era. In 1992, with the establishment of Denel , the new South African government dominated military-industrial and technological conglomerate, many parts of Armscor's missions and functions were changed and redirected. With the establishment of Denel the manufacturing subsidiaries of Armscor were split from Armscor in order for Armscor to be solely the procurement arm of
10904-483: The president of Kurdistan Region officially resigned, and finally, the regional government announced that it would respect the Federal Supreme Court's ruling that no Iraqi province is allowed to secede, effectively abandoning the referendum. According to a report published by The Washington Institute for Near East Policy , a U.S-based think tank, since Kurdistan Region’s failed bid to gain independence,
11020-526: The regime purchased arms from France , West Germany , Italy , Jordan , and Switzerland during the 1964-1977 period. In 1964 a Belgian licence was obtained for South African manufacture of the FN FAL battle rifle; a year later, a modified version of this weapon and its ammunition was being manufactured in Pretoria 's assembly plants. Similarly, Italy granted a licence for production of an advanced trainer,
11136-523: The region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the plain south of the Hamrin Mountains and did not include the northernmost and westernmost parts of the modern territory of Iraq. Prior to the middle of the 19th century, the term Eyraca Arabica was commonly used to describe Iraq. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of
11252-827: The same chassis.The PLZ-45 did not enter service with the PLA primarily because their existing artillery was all based on Soviet-standard 152 mm ammunition. However, two major batches of PLZ-45s were sold to the Kuwait and Saudi Arabia . Also Bull was contacted by Iraq , which was constantly being attacked by Iranian artillery during the Iran–Iraq War . Iraq placed a US$ 300 million contract for 110 guns from Noricum in Austria and 41,000 rounds subcontracted by SRC to PRB in Belgium. Deliveries were made in 1984 and 1985. The number of guns
11368-580: The seat of government. Located in the Green Zone , which contains governmental headquarters and the army, in addition to containing the headquarters of the American embassy and the headquarters of foreign organizations and agencies for other countries. According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Iraq was the third most electoral democratic country in the Middle East . In 2023, according to
11484-601: The southwest , and Syria to the west . The capital and largest city is Baghdad . Iraqi people are diverse; mostly Arabs , as well as Kurds , Turkmen , Yazidis , Assyrians , Armenians , Mandaeans , Persians and Shabakis with similarly diverse geography and wildlife . Most Iraqis are Muslims – minority faiths include Christianity , Yazidism , Zoroastrianism , Mandaeism , Yarsanism and Judaism . The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish ; others also recognized in specific regions are Assyrian , Turkish , and Armenian . Starting as early as
11600-525: The standard shell, as well as an even longer-ranged system with a rocket booster. The gun designed to fire it had a 23,000 cm (1,400 cu in) chamber, a 45-calibre rifled barrel with 1/20 right hand twist fitted with a conventional muzzle brake . Its breech was a conventional screw with interrupted thread. Key performance data, from the Firing Table are: The dispersion of the EFRB shell
11716-548: The subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War , the United Kingdom invaded Iraq for fear that the government might cut oil supplies to Western nations because of its links to the Axis powers . The war started on 2 May, and the British, together with loyal Assyrian Levies , defeated the forces of Al-Gaylani, forcing an armistice on 31 May. Regency of King Faisal II began in 1953. The hopes for Iraq’s future under Faisal II were high, but
11832-465: The two major rivers are fertile alluvial plains , as the rivers carry about 60,000,000 m (78,477,037 cu yd) of silt annually to the delta . The central part of the south, which slightly tapers in favour of other countries, is natural vegetation marsh mixed with rice paddies and is humid, relative to the rest of the plains. Iraq has the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range and
11948-514: The war, most of the wartime arms factories converted to their pre-war civilian activities. During the 1950s and early 1960s, South Africa relied heavily on arms imports (mainly from Britain). However, South Africa's withdrawal from the Commonwealth in 1961, and the imposition of a voluntary United Nations arms embargo in 1963, provided the impetus for a shift towards the establishment of a domestic arms industry. The Armaments Production Board
12064-473: The wet marshlands along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, while western part of the country comprises mainly desert and some semi-arid regions. Many of Iraq's bird species were endangered, including seven of Iraq's mammal species and 12 of its bird species. The Mesopotamian marches in the middle and south are home to approximately 50 species of birds, and rare species of fish. At risk are some 50% of
12180-665: The winter months. Rainfall during the summer is rare, except in northern parts of the country. The northern mountainous regions have cold winters with occasional heavy snows, sometimes causing extensive flooding. Iraq is highly vulnerable to climate change . The country is subject to rising temperatures and reduced rainfall, and suffers from increasing water scarcity for a human population that rose tenfold between 1890 and 2010 and continues to rise. The country's electrical grid faces systemic pressures due to climate change, fuel shortages, and an increase in demand. Corruption remains endemic throughout all levels of Iraqi governance while
12296-473: The world's marbled teal population that live in the marshes, along with 60% of the world's population of Basra reed-warbler . The Asiatic lion , in the present-day extinct in the region, has remained a prominent symbol of the country throughout history. Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes , during the time of Saddam's government, caused there a significant drop in biological life. Since
12412-474: The year 1959 (Personal Status Law) made polygamy extremely difficult, granted child custody to the mother in case of divorce, prohibited repudiation and marriage under the age of 16. Article 1 of Civil Code also identifies Islamic law as a formal source of law. Iraq had no Sharia courts but civil courts used Sharia for issues of personal status including marriage and divorce. In 1995 Iraq introduced Sharia punishment for certain types of criminal offences. The code
12528-420: Was "moving forward to conclude contracts for constructing renewable energy power plants to provide one-third of our electricity demand by 2030". In addition, Iraq will plant 5 million trees across the country and will create green belts around cities to act as windbreaks against dust storms. In the same year, Iraq and TotalEnergies signed a $ 27 billion energy deal that aims to increase oil production and boost
12644-550: Was acceded to the presidency and chairmanship of the supreme executive body in July 1979. Following months of cross-border raids with Iran, Saddam declared war on Iran in September 1980, initiating the Iran–Iraq War (or First Persian Gulf War). Taking advantage of the post- Iranian Revolution chaos in Iran, Iraq captured some territories in southwest Iran, but Iran recaptured all of the lost territories within two years, and for
12760-599: Was established in 1964 to control the manufacture, procurement and supply of all armaments for the South African Defence Force (Simpson, 1989:222). The board also took over the Department of Defence's workshops and the ammunition section of the South African Mint, and was authorised to co-ordinate arms production in the private sector. By the mid-1960s, nearly a thousand private sector firms were involved in various aspects of domestic arms production. In 1967,
12876-492: Was established in 1965 to manufacture sophisticated military aircraft and avionics equipment for the South African Air Force , as well as for export. It was also established primarily to circumvent an international arms embargo implemented in 1963. The development of a domestic arms industry was one of the most significant aspects of the militarisation of the apartheid economy. South Africa's arms industry
12992-710: Was established with British aid just prior to the Second World War , when training aircraft were assembled locally and the Pretoria branch of the Royal Mint manufactured small arms ammunition (Cawthra, 1986:89). During the war, the arms industry manufactured a substantial amount of basic weaponry for the Union Defence Force and the Allied forces , including armoured cars, bombs and ammunition. After
13108-402: Was eventually raised to 200. Iran and Iraq were under arms embargo at the time, so the guns were shipped to Jordan , and from there to Iraq. These sales led to the " Noricum affair " in 1990, when eighteen of Noricum's managers were placed on trial for illegal arms sales. A further 100 guns were manufactured in South Africa. In Iraq the guns had a similar effect on the ongoing Iran–Iraq War as
13224-501: Was impacted by numerous coup attempts. He died in a motor accident in 1939, passing the throne to his young son, Faisal II , who ascended to the throne at just 3 years old. Faisal II’s uncle, Crown Prince Abdullah , assumed regency until the young king came of age. On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the Golden Square staged a coup d'état and installed a pro-German and pro-Italian government. During
13340-462: Was initially dependent on its largest trade partner, the United Kingdom for arms, spares, and munitions; however, this preference was disrupted by British revulsion at South Africa's domestic and foreign policy. Although British legislation restricting the transmission of certain types of technical armaments to South Africa barely affected the SADF's defence posture, it spurred diversification efforts, as
13456-436: Was not a huge concern, the objective was muzzle velocity , and the test articles were finned darts representing missiles, a low-cost alternative to wind tunnels . Yet with the removal of the rifling and the soft-metal driving band on the shell itself, the shell could be designed purely for ballistics, as opposed to having the external constraint of the driving band. A system combining some sort of rifling for accuracy without
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