130-630: Gothic Kingdom or Kingdom of the Goths (Latin: Regnum Gothorum , Gothic: 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰 𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌹𐌽𐌰𐍃𐍃𐌿𐍃 , Gutþiuda Þiudinassus ) Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy Visigothic Kingdom in Spain See also [ edit ] Oium Gothia (disambiguation) Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
260-492: A bloody, but crushing, Gothic victory. Odoacer fled to his capital at Ravenna , while the larger part of his army under Tufa surrendered to the Goths. Theodoric then sent Tufa and his men against Odoacer, but he changed his allegiance again and returned to Odoacer. In 490, Odoacer was thus able to campaign against Theodoric, take Milan and Cremona and besiege the main Gothic base at Ticinum ( Pavia ). At that point, however,
390-546: A campaign to recover Pannonia and the strategically important town of Sirmium , formerly parts of the praetorian prefecture of Italy , which were now occupied by the Gepids . The campaign was successful, but it also led to a brief conflict with imperial troops, where the Goths and their allies were victorious. Domestically, the Acacian schism between the patriarchates of Rome and Constantinople, caused by imperial support for
520-675: A central position among the barbarian states of the West. As Jordanes states: "...there was no race left in the western realms which Theodoric had not befriended or brought into subjection during his lifetime." This was in part meant as a defensive measure, and in part as a counterbalance to the influence of the Empire. His daughters were wedded to the Visigothic king Alaric II and the Burgundian prince Sigismund , his sister Amalfrida married
650-639: A life of dissipation and excess, which would send him to a premature death. Eventually, a conspiracy started among the Goths to overthrow her. Amalasuntha resolved to move against them, but as a precaution, she also made preparations to flee to Constantinople, and even wrote to Justinian asking for protection. In the event she managed to execute the three leading conspirators, and her position remained relatively secure until, in 533, Athalaric's health began to seriously decline. Amalasuntha then turned for support to her only relative, her cousin Theodahad , while at
780-647: A military leader whose influence was similar to Aspar's, may have been involved in these negotiations, as he was given the high-ranking court title of patrician upon Marcian's accession. Marcian was elected and inaugurated on 25 August 450. Marcian reversed many of the actions of Theodosius II in the Eastern Roman Empire 's relationship with the Huns under Attila and in religious matters. Marcian almost immediately revoked all treaties with Attila, ending all subsidy payments to him. In 452, while Attila
910-457: A more conservative stance on it; Ernst Stein suggests that it is merely a reflection of West Roman propaganda, whereas Norman Baynes believes it indicates that Marcian was cordial to Avitus, neither hostile nor friendly. Classicist Courtenay Edward Stevens interprets the phrase as meaning only that the meeting of the diplomats was amicable, rather than reflecting a relationship between the two states. The historian Geoffrey Nathan suggests
1040-480: A peaceful disposition, immediately sent envoys to announce his ascension to Justinian and to reassure him of Amalasuntha's safety. Justinian immediately reacted by offering his support to the deposed queen, but in early May 535, she was executed. This crime served as a perfect pretext for Justinian, fresh from his forces' victory over the Vandals, to invade the Gothic realm in retaliation. Theodahad tried to prevent
1170-408: A position recognized by the new Emperor Anastasius in 497. At the same time, he was the king of his own people, who were not Roman citizens. In reality, he acted as an independent ruler, although unlike Odoacer, he meticulously preserved the outward forms of his subordinate position. The administrative machinery of Odoacer's kingdom, in essence that of the former Empire, was more or less retained by
1300-512: A potential rival. Although it is generally dismissed by historians such as Gibbon and Charles Diehl, Bury (Ch. XVIII, pp. 165-167) considers that the story is corroborated by circumstantial evidence. Marcian Marcian ( / ˈ m ɑːr ʃ ən / ; Latin: Marcianus ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Μαρκιανός Markianos ; c. 392 – 27 January 457) was Roman emperor of the East from 450 to 457. Very little of his life before becoming emperor
1430-585: A reflection of their influence." Almost immediately after becoming emperor, Marcian revoked Theodosius' treaties with Attila and proclaimed the end of subsidies. He stated that he might grant gifts if Attila was friendly, but Attila would be repelled if he attempted to raid the Eastern Roman Empire. At this time Attila was preparing to invade the Western Roman Empire, under the guise of helping Emperor Valentinian III against
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#17327659323911560-609: A remission of all debts owed to the state. Marcian attempted to improve the efficiency of the state in multiple ways. He laid out legal reforms in his novels , or codes of law, containing 20 laws, many of which were targeted at reducing the corruption and abuses of office that had existed during the reign of Theodosius; five of which are preserved in full. Marcian mandated that the office of praetorship (officer in charge of public games and works) could only be given to senators who resided in Constantinople, attempted to curb
1690-616: A siege of Orléans , before meeting Aetius' forces at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains , in northeast Gaul . This battle involved around 100,000 men and resulted in very large losses on both sides. After the battle, Attila retreated to the Great Hungarian Plain , and Aetius dismissed his coalition of tribes, sending them back to their own territories. In spring 452, Attila again launched a raid into Italy, which
1820-742: A staunch Chalcedonian Christian cultivated close ties to Constantinople. Theodoric perceived this as a threat and intended to campaign against him, but the Franks acted first and invaded Burgundy in 523, quickly subduing it. Theodoric could only react by expanding his domains in the Provence north of the river Durance up to the Isère . The peace with the Vandals, secured in 500 with the marriage alliance with Thrasamund, and their common interests as Arian powers against Constantinople, collapsed after Thrasamund's death in 523. His successor Hilderic showed favour to
1950-454: A tougher stance against the Huns and a more direct role in ecclesiastical affairs. Byzantist Constance Head considers Marcian to be "an independent-minded emperor." Lee states that Marcian "can appear as a stronger figure than many other fifth-century incumbents of the imperial office", but notes that "Flavius Zeno and Pulcheria had both been opponents of Chrysaphius, so the changes may be more
2080-528: A unit in one of the praesental armies—two field armies based near Constantinople. A later source claims that the Eastern Roman Senate offered to elect Aspar himself, but he declined, with the cryptic comment: "I fear that a tradition in ruling might be initiated through me". This comment has often been interpreted to be a reference to the fact that he was an Arian , or else to his Alanic heritage. Anthemius would later be sent by Leo to become
2210-515: A widow or caused a fire. They could not legally marry people and were not allowed to be assigned to peasants. Slavery would continue in Italy after the Ostrogoths. ^ a: The exact date and circumstances surrounding Amalasuntha's execution remain a mystery. In his Secret History , Procopius proposes that Empress Theodora might have had a hand in the affair, wishing to get rid of
2340-586: Is almost certain that the Gepid king Ardaric came to an agreement with Marcian. Ardaric had formed a coalition of the Rugians, Sciri, Heruli, and his own Gepids, which he led against the remaining Hunnic confederation. Ardaric, alongside the Ostrogoth leaders Theodemir , Valamir and Videmir , decisively defeated Attila's oldest son, Ellac , at the Battle of Nedao in 455, where he was slain. After this battle,
2470-461: Is debated. The Roman historian Hydatius states that in 455 Avitus sent ambassadors to Marcian "for the sake of unanimity of power," and that, "Marcian and Avitus make use of Roman power in concord". The exact usage of concord ( concordia in the original Latin) has led to debate among scholars. Some such as Thomas Hodgkin , J. B. Bury , and William Bayless consider it grounds for the belief that Marcian may have recognized Avitus. Most scholars take
2600-580: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Ostrogothic Kingdom Timeline The Ostrogothic Kingdom , officially the Kingdom of Italy ( Latin : Regnum Italiae ), was a barbarian kingdom established by the Germanic Ostrogoths that controlled Italy and neighbouring areas between 493 and 553. Led by Theodoric the Great ,
2730-600: Is disputed; Lee states that Valentinian recognized Marcian in March 452, whereas historian Timothy E. Gregory states that Marcian was recognized by Valentinian on 30 March 451. Marcian ' s appointment marked a further stage of separation between the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. One source, John of Antioch's Excerpta de insidiis , even suggest that Valentinian would have attempted to depose Marcian, but for Aetius ' opposition. Valentinian also did not recognize
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#17327659323912860-424: Is known, other than that he was a domesticus (personal assistant) who served under the commanders Ardabur and his son Aspar for fifteen years. After the death of Emperor Theodosius II on 28 July 450, Marcian was made a candidate for the throne by Aspar, who held much influence because of his military power. After a month of negotiations Pulcheria , Theodosius' sister, agreed to marry Marcian. Zeno ,
2990-403: Is not mentioned again until the death of the eastern emperor, Theodosius II . The Eastern Roman Empire was plagued by external threats during the reign of Theodosius II . In 429, the Vandals, led by Gaiseric , began to conquer Roman Africa . Theodosius immediately organized a response, sending Aspar and three other commanders to attempt to repel them in the summer of 431 . To the north,
3120-601: Is the observance of law. It is this which makes life in communities possible, and which separates man from the brutes. We therefore gladly accede to your request that all the privileges which the foresight of antiquity conferred upon the Jewish customs shall be renewed to you..." and "We cannot order a religion, because no one can be forced to believe against his will." It is in his foreign policy rather than domestic affairs that Theodoric appeared and acted as an independent ruler. By means of marriage alliances, he sought to establish
3250-411: Is thought to be propaganda created by Marcian's supporters after his election. Marcian had served Aspar and his father Ardabur loyally for fifteen years. Aspar conspired to have Marcian elected and was able to negotiate with other powerful figures to have him made the emperor, despite his relative obscurity. There was a one-month interregnum where negotiations for the succession took place, one of which
3380-564: The magister officiorum (master of offices), Palladius the praetor, and Anatolius of Constantinople . In 453, Marcian had his daughter from a previous marriage, Marcia Euphemia , marry Anthemius , an aristocrat and talented general. Marcian patronized the Blues, who were one of the two circus teams , the other being the Greens. The two teams had become more like political parties than sports teams by his time, wielding large influence in
3510-542: The laeti had been replaced by foederati , although the distinction between the two was increasingly breaking down. Marcian's successors would grant the status of foederati to multiple peoples and ceding them lands in the recovered European provinces: the Rugians in eastern Thrace, Sciri in Lower Moesia and Scythia , Gepids in Dacia . This network of subject peoples, who were generally reliable and manageable,
3640-568: The Henotikon , as well as Anastasius' Monophysite beliefs, played into Theodoric's hands, since the clergy and the Roman aristocracy of Italy, headed by Pope Symmachus , vigorously opposed them. Thus, for a time, Theodoric could count on their support. The war between the Franks and Visigoths led to renewed friction between Theodoric and the Emperor, as Clovis successfully portrayed himself as
3770-633: The Blemmyes in Egypt . During the 5th century, a central religious issue was the debate concerning how the human and divine nature of Jesus Christ were associated, following the Arian controversy . The School of Alexandria , including theologians such as Athanasius , asserted the equality of Christ and God, and therefore focused upon the divinity of Christ. The School of Antioch , including theologians such as Theodore of Mopsuestia , determined not to lose
3900-664: The Burgundians and almost evicting the Visigoths from their last holdings in southern Gaul. The position of predominance which the Ostrogothic Kingdom had enjoyed under Theodoric in the West now passed irrevocably to the Franks. This dangerous external climate was exacerbated by the regency's weak domestic position. Amalasuntha was Roman-educated and intended to continue her father's policies of conciliation between Goths and Romans. To that end, she actively courted
4030-633: The East–West Schism . Marcian's reign ended on 27 January 457, when he died, aged 65, possibly of gangrene . Theodorus Lector and Theophanes the Confessor say that Marcian died after a long religious procession from the Grand Palace to the Hebdomon , where he made the journey on foot, despite the fact that he could barely walk because of severe foot inflammation , possibly gout . He
Gothic Kingdom - Misplaced Pages Continue
4160-456: The Mausoleum of Theodoric displays purely Gothic elements, such as its construction not from the usual brick , but of massive slabs of Istrian limestone, or the 300-ton single-piece roof stone. Maintenance, restoration, and in some cases new construction of functioning water systems in many cities outside of Ravenna also occurred in the Ostrogothic Kingdom. An official, the comes formarum
4290-689: The Sassanian Empire . The separation of the Miaphysites from the churches accepting Chalcedonian doctrine would be made final after the failed attempts of reconciliation under Emperor Justinian I ( r. 527–565 ), the Miaphysites splitting the Oriental Orthodox Churches from the main body of Christians. Marcian also funded Pulcheria's extensive building projects until her death in July 453. All of them focused on
4420-536: The Visigoths intervened, the siege of Ticinum was lifted, and Odoacer was decisively defeated at the river Adda on 11 August 490. Odoacer fled again to Ravenna, while the Senate and many Italian cities declared themselves for Theodoric. The Goths now turned to besiege Ravenna, but since they lacked a fleet and the city could be resupplied by sea, the siege could be endured almost indefinitely, despite privations. It
4550-726: The Visigoths . Attila reacted angrily to Marcian's proposal, demanding tribute, but did not alter his invasion plans. He led his horde from Pannonia in spring 451 into the Western Roman Empire. Flavius Aetius , who was the supreme commander of the Western Roman army as Comes et Magister Utriusque Militiae , organized a defense and called upon the Visigoths, Franks , Burgundians , Alans, Saxons, Celtic Armoricans , and other tribal groups numbering about 60,000 to aid him. Attila's forces were made up of Gepids , Alans, Sciri , Heruli , Rugians , along with some Franks, Burgundians, and Ostrogoths . Attila sacked Metz and attempted
4680-574: The Western Roman emperor ; Leo nominated him to be Western Emperor in the spring of 467, to fill the vacancy left by the death of Emperor Libius Severus since 465. Leo sent Anthemius to Rome with an army, headed by Marcellinus , the magister militum of Dalmatia ; upon nearing Rome, Anthemius was installed as emperor on 12 April 467. Marcian was regarded favorably by Eastern Roman and Byzantine sources, often compared to Emperors Constantine I and Theodosius I . Marcian's reign
4810-536: The 10th century encyclopedia Suda states that Emperor Justin II built it, a view with which most historians agree. The Byzantine historian Joannes Zonaras states that Justin II actually rebuilt an older construction, which some historians identify as the Heptaconch Hall of Emperor Justinian. Marcian is played by the Hollywood star Jeff Chandler in the 1954 period adventure Sign of
4940-531: The 554 invasion by the Franks and Alamanni . In the same year, Justinian promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction which prescribed Italy's new government. Several cities in northern Italy continued to hold out, however, until the early 560s. The war had its roots in the ambition of Justinian to recover the provinces of the former Western Roman Empire , which had been lost to invading barbarian tribes in
5070-466: The Confessor mentions him commanding a military unit. He did not see action in the war, having become ill in Lycia . There he was cared for by Tatianus , who would be made praefectus urbi (prefect of Constantinople) by Marcian, and Tatianus' brother Iulius . Marcian eventually rose to become the domesticus (personal assistant) of Aspar , the magister militum (commander-in-chief) of
5200-655: The Coptic Pope Dioscorus ;I of Alexandria , who had overseen the Second Council of Ephesus, and revoke the condemnations of Ibas of Edessa and Theodoret , which had taken place during this council. The council also repeated the importance of the See of Constantinople , placing it firmly in second place behind the See of Rome, and giving it the right to appoint bishops in the Eastern Roman Empire, over
5330-591: The Danube frontier. The Council of Chalcedon met in October 451. About 500 bishops attended it, most of them Eastern Roman, although two African bishops and two Papal legates sent by Pope Leo I attended. This council condemned the Second Council of Ephesus and agreed that Jesus had a divine nature ( physis ) and a human nature, united in one person ( hypostasis ), "without confusion, change, division, or separation." The council also agreed to condemn
Gothic Kingdom - Misplaced Pages Continue
5460-595: The Eastern Empire to retake any European provinces it might lose. This campaign never came to fruition, as Attila died unexpectedly in 453, either from hemorrhaging or alcoholic suffocation , after celebrating a marriage to one of his many wives. After his death, his tribal confederation rapidly fell apart, starting first with rebellions of the Ostrogoths. This fragmentation allowed the Eastern Empire to resume its policy of playing off barbarians against each other, to stop any one tribe from becoming too powerful. It
5590-555: The Eastern Roman Empire. Despite being half- Alanic and half- Gothic , Aspar held much influence in the empire. In the early 430s, Marcian served under Aspar in Roman Africa , where he was captured by Vandals . Evagrius Scholasticus , Procopius and later authors give a likely false account in which Marcian, while in captivity, met the Vandal king Gaiseric , who predicted he would later become emperor. After his capture, Marcian
5720-576: The Eastern Roman Empire. Vasiliev states that this would lead to long-lasting disloyalty toward the Eastern Roman government among the eastern provinces, ultimately facilitating the loss of these provinces to the Sassanians and later to the Arabs . Another result of the council and the subsequent edicts was that many Christians who disagreed with the council, including many Nestorians, migrated to
5850-471: The Eastern Roman consuls for 451 or 452. The Western Roman chronicler Hydatius suggests that Marcian made Eastern Roman troops available to Valentinian to repel the Huns, confusingly led by a man named Aetius, which may simply be a muddling of Aetius' campaign against Attila and Marcian's campaign against the Huns on the Danube. When Marcian granted part of Pannonia to the Ostrogoths, and the Tisza region to
5980-569: The Eastern Roman forces was a huge gamble on Theodosius' part. He was betting the fortified cities along the Danube could delay the Huns long enough for the invasion force to gain a secure foothold in Africa, allowing troops to be withdrawn back to the northern frontier. This gamble worked until 442 when the bishop of Margus led a raiding party into the Huns' territory and desecrated their royal tombs. In response to this desecration, Attila demanded that
6110-552: The Eastern Romans was home to Ostrogoths and Gepids, two groups bitterly opposed to Hunnic rule, and was the breadbasket of the Hunnic Empire. The loss of food supply from Attila's own land coupled with a famine that Italy was suffering at the time, along with a plague that followed it, placed yet more strain upon Attila, allowing the Western Roman Empire to bribe him into retreating to his homeland. After returning to
6240-490: The Elder, were retained in the new kingdom's top positions. The close cooperation between Theodoric and the Roman elite began to break down in later years, especially after the healing of the ecclesiastical rift between Rome and Constantinople (see below), as leading senators conspired with the Emperor. This resulted in the arrest and execution of the magister officiorum Boethius and his father-in-law, Symmachus, in 524. On
6370-496: The Gepids, he was accused of encroaching upon the border of Western Roman land. Marcian avoided involving himself with the affairs of the Western Roman Empire when possible. When the Vandals sacked Rome in 455, after Petronius Maximus assassinated Valentinian III and broke an engagement treaty with the Vandals, Marcian did not respond violently, possibly because of the influence of Aspar. He merely sent an envoy demanding that
6500-520: The Goths, and Theodoric was named magister militum praesentalis and consul for 484. Barely a year later, Theodoric and Zeno fell out, and again Theodoric's Goths ravaged Thrace . It was then that the thought occurred to Zeno and his advisors to direct Theodoric against another troublesome neighbour of the Empire - the Italian kingdom of Odoacer . In 476, Odoacer , leader of the foederati in
6630-573: The Great Hungarian Plain, he threatened to invade the Eastern Empire the following spring and conquer it entirely. Marcian and Aspar ignored his threats. They reasoned, based upon the previous treaties that Attila had broken, that he could not be permanently deterred even by tons of gold. The pair believed the gold would be better spent building up armies, not appeasing threats. Also, the rich Asian and African provinces, which were protected behind Constantinople, were secure enough to allow
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#17327659323916760-666: The Hunnic Confederation, busy campaigning to the north, Theodosius refused to pay the tribute and continued to refuse to until 439. On 19 October 439, the Vandals defeated the weakened Eastern Roman armies and captured the major city of Carthage . Both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires began preparing a massive counter-offensive, stripping the Balkan provinces of protection. In the spring of 440, 1,100 ships set sail from Constantinople for Africa; sending away so many of
6890-700: The Hunnic confederation could no longer sustain the cohesion of its previous days, although they still remained prominent. In the wake of the reduced power of the Hunnic Empire, Marcian accepted the Ostrogoths, who had established themselves in Pannonia Prima and Valeria —nominally two Western Roman provinces—as foederati . This marked the continuation of the tacit abandonment of a rigid Danube barrier , which had previously been manned by Roman laeti , barbarians settled directly in Roman land in exchange for military service. For some time before Marcian,
7020-406: The Huns, who had customarily attacked the empire whenever its armies were preoccupied, withdrawing as those forces returned, sent ambassadors to Theodosius in 431, demanding tribute. He agreed to their demand to pay 350 pounds (160 kg) of gold each year. In 434, the Eastern Roman armies were still campaigning against the Vandals in Africa, having faced initial defeats and the withdrawal of many of
7150-485: The Italian coast still received their trade from North Africa and places on the Eastern Mediterranean. In the Ostrogothic Kingdom chattel slavery was practiced with it primarily being seen in the rural areas. Slaves had a harsh life enjoying little rights or privileges and "could be transferred at will from one estate to another." A slave could be killed by their owner if they had sexual relations with
7280-617: The Nicaean Christians, and when Amalfrida protested, he had her and her entourage murdered. Theodoric was preparing an expedition against him when he died. Theodoric's relations with his nominal suzerain, the Eastern Roman Emperor, were always strained, for political as well as for religious reasons. Especially during the reign of Anastasius, these led to several collisions, none of which however escalated into general warfare. In 504-505, Theodoric's forces launched
7410-459: The Ostrogothic kingdom was overwhelmingly of those who had lived prior to the Ostrogoths arriving with a minority being Ostrogothic. Little Ostrogothic settlement appears to have happened in Italy south from Rome and Pescara . Picenum and the northern part of Samnium were areas of heavy Ostrogothic settlement while the same was true of places west of Ravenna near Milan and Pavia along with
7540-481: The Ostrogoths killed Odoacer , a Germanic soldier and erstwhile leader of the foederati . Odoacer had previously become the de facto ruler of Italy following his deposition of Romulus Augustulus , the final emperor of the Western Roman Empire , in 476. Under Theodoric, the Ostrogothic kingdom reached its zenith, stretching from modern Southern France in the west to the modern western Serbia in
7670-428: The Ostrogoths. According to the analysis of Jonathan J. Arnold, Theodoric presented himself - and was more or less accepted as - a Roman Emperor. But despite this rhetoric, Italy had undergone significant structural changes in the fifth century, which required that Roman administrative traditions had to be adapted by Theodoric's court. The Senate continued to function normally and was consulted on civil appointments, and
7800-430: The Roman church, although questions of relative jurisdiction, especially in controversies involving clerics, remained potentially fraught. Jews in Theoderic's kingdom were both disadvantaged and protected as they had been under Roman law, which among other things, provided legal protections for their places of worship. Theodoric's view was clearly expressed in his letters to the Jews of Genoa : "The true mark of civilitas
7930-507: The Vandal king Thrasamund , while he himself married Audofleda, sister of the Frankish king Clovis I . These policies were not always successful in maintaining peace: Theodoric found himself at war with Clovis when the latter attacked the Visigoth dominions in Gaul in 506. The Franks were rapidly successful, killing Alaric in the Battle of Vouillé and subduing Aquitania by 507. However, starting in 508, Theodoric's generals campaigned in Gaul, and were successful in saving Septimania for
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#17327659323918060-454: The Vandals return the Dowager Empress , Licinia Eudoxia and her daughters by Valentinian III, Placidia and Eudocia . A likely false account is given that Marcian, while captured by the Vandals in his youth, was shaded by an eagle while the other prisoners suffered the hot sun. According to this account, the Vandal King Gaiseric recognized that Marcian would later be emperor. In exchange for being released, he made Marcian pledge not to attack
8190-476: The Vandals should he become emperor. This account originates from Priscus , who served as an advisor to Marcian's confidant, Euphemius. Because of Euphemius' influence over foreign policy, some historians, such as Edward Arthur Thompson , have suggested that this account was a part of official imperial propaganda, which was generated to excuse Marcian's lack of retribution towards the Vandals, and quell any discontent. Marcian made several diplomatic attempts to have
8320-410: The Visigoths, as well as extending Ostrogothic rule into southern Gaul ( Provence ) at the expense of the Burgundians. There in 510 Theodoric reestablished the defunct praetorian prefecture of Gaul . Now Theodoric had a common border with the Visigothic kingdom, where, after Alaric's death, he also ruled as regent of his infant grandson Amalaric . Family bonds also served little with Sigismund, who as
8450-538: The West, had staged a coup against the rebellious magister militum Orestes , who was seeking to have his son Romulus Augustulus recognized as Western Emperor in place of Emperor Julius Nepos . Orestes had reneged on the promise of land in Italy for Odoacer's troops, a pledge made to ensure their neutrality in his attack on Nepos. After executing Orestes and putting the teenage usurper in internal exile, Odoacer paid nominal allegiance to Nepos (now in Dalmatia) while effectively operating autonomously, having been raised to
8580-399: The Western Roman soldiers. In the face of Eastern Roman weakness, the Huns doubled their demand, asking for 700 pounds (320 kg) of gold per year, which Theodosius agreed to. The threat the Huns posed to his weakly protected empire was enough that Theodosius recalled many of his forces from Africa. With large numbers of the Eastern Roman armies home, and Attila , who had just taken power in
8710-532: The accession of Marcian. Marcian was counseled by the diplomat Anatolius and patricius Florentius not to make war with the Sassanians, as it would engulf a large amount of the Eastern Roman military resources, and thus Marcian did not agree to help them. King Gubazes I of Lazica —a Caucasian state in theory under Eastern Roman suzerainty—was attempting to form an alliance with the Sassanians to break free of Roman control in 456. Marcian's troops invaded Lazica and restored Roman rule. In 455, Marcian banned
8840-461: The beginning of Alps. Small amounts of Ostrogothic settlement happened in Dalmatia , west Pannonia and some areas of Tuscia . Villas that existed in the countryside would be abandoned or repurposed. Agriculture also became more diversified with woodland crops and animal husbandry becoming more common. Inland cities during the Ostrogothic period became more cut off from the outside world and became more reliant on local production areas. Cities along
8970-408: The belief in miaphysis as heretical . To repudiate the Second Council of Ephesus, Marcian convened a new council of the imperial church, deemed to pass universally respected canons , in 451. Pulcheria may have influenced this decision or even made the convention of a council a requirement during her negotiations with Aspar to marry Marcian. The council was to take place near Constantinople so that
9100-430: The bishop be handed over. To ensure his own safety, the bishop struck a deal with Attila, surrendering the city of Margus to him in exchange for his own life. With control of Margus, Attila had a foothold across the Danube, which he aggressively exploited, capturing and destroying the cities of Viminacium , Singidunum , and Sirmium . Theodosius recalled Aspar to Constantinople and launched a counter-attack. After his force
9230-430: The champion of the Western Church against the "heretical" Arian Goths, gaining the Emperor's support. This even led to the dispatch of a fleet by Anastasius in 508, which ravaged the coasts of Apulia . With the ascension of Justin I in 518, a more harmonious relationship seemed to be restored. Eutharic , Theodoric's son-in-law and designated successor, was appointed consul for the year 519, while in 522, to celebrate
9360-405: The citizens of Constantinople, respectively. He further decreed that only a vir illustris (a high-ranking man) could hold either office. He also partially repealed a marriage law enacted by Constantine I , which decreed that a man of senatorial status could not marry a slave, freedwoman , actress, or woman of no social status ( humilis ), which had been created in an attempt to preserve
9490-805: The construction of religious buildings, including the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae and the Hodegon Monastery . Marcian was compared to both Paul the Apostle and the Biblical king David , by the legates at the Council of Chalcedon. At the beginning of Marcian's reign, the Eastern Roman treasury was almost bankrupt, the result of the huge tributes paid to Attila by Theodosius. Marcian reversed this near bankruptcy, not by levying new taxes, but by cutting expenditure. Upon his accession, he declared
9620-537: The court of Constantinople. The period 477-483 saw a complex three-way struggle among Theodoric the Amal, who had succeeded his father in 474, Theodoric Strabo, and the new Eastern Emperor Zeno . In this conflict, alliances shifted regularly, and large parts of the Balkans were devastated by it. In the end, after Strabo's death in 481, Zeno came to terms with Theodoric. Parts of Moesia and Dacia ripensis were ceded to
9750-480: The court of the Eastern Roman Empire. This influence was enhanced by the promotion of his son Ardabur to magister militum per Orientem . It is unknown if Aspar and Ardabur influenced Marcian ' s policies directly, but if so, they were extremely careful to avoid upsetting the ruling elites of Constantinople. Despite Aspar's great influence, the Eastern Roman elites retained much of their anti-German sentiment. Marcian's principal advisors were Pulcheria, Euphemius
9880-419: The dominion of the Huns . After the collapse of the Hunnic empire in 454, large numbers of Ostrogoths were settled by Emperor Marcian in the Roman province of Pannonia as foederati . Unlike most other foederati formations, the Goths were not absorbed into the structure and traditions of the Roman military but retained a strong identity and cohesion of their own. In 460, during the reign of Leo I , because
10010-465: The emperor's representative. Theodoric with his people set out from Moesia in the autumn of 488, passed through Dalmatia and crossed the Julian Alps into Italy in late August 489. The first confrontation with the army of Odoacer was at the river Isonzo (the battle of Isonzo ) on August 28. Odoacer was defeated and withdrew towards Verona , where a month later another battle was fought, resulting in
10140-729: The empire; both vied for power. After the Greens responded angrily to his patronage, Marcian censured them, forbidding any of them to hold any public office for three years. Marcian's patronage of the Blues may have had personal motivations, as the once powerful Chrysaphius had been favorable to the Greens. The Armenian king Vardan II Mamikonian , who was leading a revolt against the Sassanian Empire, sent an embassy to Theodosius in 450, composed of his brother Hmayeak Mamikonian , along with Atom Gnuni , Vardan Amatuni , and Meruzhan Artsruni , to ask for assistance. Theodosius received it favorably. Any plans were cut short by his death and
10270-496: The export to barbarian tribes of weapons and the tools used to manufacture them. Marcian was elected without any consultation with the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III , a clear indication of further separation between the Eastern and Western Roman Empires than before his reign. Valentinian would later recognize Marcian as the Eastern Roman Emperor, although the date of this recognition
10400-508: The fact that only two Western delegates attended the Council of Chalcedon points to a new level of Western Roman self-absorption in their own political and religious affairs. He mentions that the canon from this council delegating authority over the whole east to the See of Constantinople marks a religious separation. Authority over the Church in the Eastern Roman Empire would prove a point of contention between Rome and Constantinople, leading up to
10530-492: The fall of Ravenna and the apparent reconquest of Italy by the Byzantines. With the fall of Ravenna, the capital of the kingdom was brought to Pavia , which it became the last centres of Ostrogothic resistance that continued the war and opposed Eastern Roman rule. During the second phase (540/541–553), Gothic resistance was reinvigorated under Totila and put down only after a long struggle by Narses , who also repelled
10660-486: The government could watch the proceedings closely. Initially, it was to be held at the city of Nicaea , which held enormous religious importance to the early church, as it was the site of its first council, the First Council of Nicaea in 325. However, Marcian successfully requested the transfer of the location to Chalcedon . This was closer to Constantinople and would allow him to respond quickly to any events along
10790-505: The healing of the Acacian schism, Justin allowed both consuls to be appointed by Theodoric. Soon, however, renewed tension would result from Justin's anti-Arian legislation, and tensions grew between the Goths and the Senate, whose members, as Chalcedonians, now shifted their support to the Emperor. The suspicions of Theodoric were confirmed by the interception of compromising letters between leading senators and Constantinople, which led to
10920-705: The hostages. Around this time, Marcian made peace with Lazica, which would allow him to direct his attention elsewhere. The East Roman historian Theodorus Lector speaks of Marcian's sudden reversal of policy, and Evagrius Scholasticus, a Roman historian writing a century after the event, states that the Vandals released Licinia Eudoxia, Placidia, and Eudocia to Marcian after he threatened them with war, in either late 456 or early 457. Marcian did not recognize any Western Emperor after Valentinian, denying Petronius Maximus, now Western Emperor, when he sent an embassy requesting it, and similarly refusing to recognize Avitus , who succeeded Maximus. Marcian's exact treatment of Avitus
11050-631: The human aspect of Christ, focused upon his humanity. Shortly before Marcian became emperor, the Second Council of Ephesus was held in 449. The council stated that Jesus had one divine united nature, a position called miaphysis ; this was rejected by the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople because of disputes on the matter of Christology , as the Pope and Patriarch of Constantinople saw
11180-467: The imprisonment and execution of Boethius in 524. Pope John I was sent to Constantinople to mediate on the Arians' behalf, and, although he achieved his mission, on his return he was imprisoned and died shortly after. These events further stirred popular sentiment against the Goths. After the death of Theodoric on 30 August 526, his achievements began to collapse. Since Eutharic had died in 523, Theodoric
11310-416: The inner workings of the Gothic state. Boethius is another prominent figure of the period. Well-educated and also from a distinguished family, he wrote works on mathematics, music and philosophy. His most famous work, Consolatio philosophiae , was written while imprisoned on charges of treason. In Germanic languages, King Theodoric inspired countless legends of questionable veracity. The population of
11440-481: The kingdom successfully and was finally captured when the capital Ravenna fell. The Ostrogoths rallied around a new leader, Totila , and largely managed to reverse the conquest, but were eventually defeated. The last king of the Ostrogothic Kingdom was Teia . The Ostrogoths were the eastern branch of the Goths . They settled and established a powerful state in Dacia , but during the late 4th century, they came under
11570-469: The laws of the Empire were still recognized as ruling the Roman population, though Goths were ruled under their own traditional laws. Indeed, as a subordinate ruler, Theodoric did not possess the right to issue his own laws ( leges ) in the system of Roman law , but merely edicts ( edicta ), or clarifications on certain details. The continuity in administration is illustrated by the fact that several senior ministers of Odoacer, like Liberius and Cassiodorus
11700-470: The massive subsidies they received under Theodosius. Although Marcian had a son-in-law, Anthemius , he did not have any connection to the Theodosians, which Marcian himself had gained through his marriage to Pulcheria, and thus would not be considered a legitimate dynastic heir, so Aspar was once again left to play the role of emperor-maker. He selected Leo I , a fifty-year-old officer commanding
11830-729: The military to suppress monks in Palestine and placing troops in Alexandria to ensure the installation of Proterius of Alexandria , who was to replace the deposed Pope Dioscorus I. According to the Byzantist Alexander Vasiliev , even after these revolts were put down, the popular dissatisfaction with the state church among the Miaphysite and Nestorian population remained, as the eastern provinces became increasingly convinced of their need for independence from
11960-439: The new official Christology . Marcian died on 27 January 457, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire with a treasury surplus of seven million solidi coins, an impressive achievement considering the economic ruin inflicted upon the Eastern Roman Empire by the Huns and Theodosius' tribute payments. After his death, Aspar passed over Marcian's son-in-law, Anthemius , and had a military commander, Leo I , elected as emperor. Marcian
12090-642: The north branch of the Mese , though the statue of Marcian that originally topped it has been lost. Marcian also had a statue in the Forum of Arcadius , which contained the statues of several of the successors of Emperor Arcadius . Marcian may have been the sponsor of the Chrysotriklinos of the Great Palace of Constantinople. The Patria of Constantinople states that Marcian constructed it, whereas
12220-536: The objection of Pope Leo I; the Patriarchs of Alexandria also objected to the elevation of the See of Constantinople. The council ended in November 451, after which Marcian issued numerous edicts confirming the outcomes of the council; showing that the outcome of the council was not universally accepted. One such edict ordered the repression of Eutychianists , who did not believe in the hypostatic union of
12350-448: The other hand, the army and all military offices remained the exclusive preserve of the Goths. The Goths were settled mostly in northern Italy, and kept themselves largely apart from the Roman population, a tendency reinforced by their different faiths: the Goths were mostly Homoian Christians (' 'Arians") , while the people they ruled over were adherents of Chalcedonian Christianity . Despite this fact, Theoderic enjoyed good relations with
12480-492: The patronage of Theodoric and Amalasuntha, large-scale restoration of ancient Roman buildings was undertaken, and the tradition of Roman civic architecture continued. In Ravenna, new churches and monumental buildings were erected, several of which survive. The Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo , its baptistry , and the Archiepiscopal Chapel follow the typical late Roman architectural and decorative motifs, but
12610-487: The payment of annual sums had ceased, they ravaged Illyricum . Peace was concluded in 461, whereby the young Theodoric Amal , son of Theodemir of the Amals , was sent as a hostage to Constantinople, where he received a Roman education. In previous years, a large number of Goths, first under Aspar and then under Theodoric Strabo , had entered service in the Roman army and were a significant political and military power in
12740-492: The practice of selling administrative offices, and decreed that consuls should be responsible for the maintenance of Constantinople's aqueducts . He repealed the follis , a tax on senators' property that amounted to seven pounds of gold per annum. Marcian removed the financial responsibilities of the consuls and praetors, held since the time of the Roman Republic , to fund public sports and games or give wealth to
12870-544: The previous century (the Migration Period ). By the end of the conflict Italy was devastated and considerably depopulated. As a consequence, the victorious Byzantines found themselves unable to resist the invasion of the Lombards in 568, which resulted in the loss of large parts of the Italian peninsula. Because of the kingdom's short history, no fusion of the two peoples and their art was achieved. However, under
13000-404: The prisoners returned, before finally beginning to plan an invasion of the Vandal's territory shortly before his death. The historian Frank Clover has suggested that this sudden reversal of policy was caused by the marriage of Eudocia to Huneric , the son of Gaiseric, which led to such pressure from Eastern Roman elites that Marcian was forced to begin preparations for war to ensure the return of
13130-679: The public baths in Spoleto . Some older works were copied in Greek and Gothic (e.g. the Codex Argenteus ), and the literature is solidly in the Greco-Roman tradition. Cassiodorus , hailing from a distinguished background, and himself entrusted with high offices (consul and magister officiorum ) represents the Roman ruling class. Like many others of his background, he served Theodoric and his heirs loyally and well, something expressed in
13260-591: The purity of the senatorial class. Marcian adjusted this law by declaring that the law should not exclude a woman of good character, regardless of her social status or wealth. By the time of his death, Marcian's shrewd cutting of expenditures and his avoidance of large-scale wars left the Eastern Roman treasury with a surplus of 100,000 pounds (45,000 kg) of gold. In 451, Marcian decreed that anyone who performed pagan rites would lose their property and be condemned to death and that no pagan temples, which had previously been closed, could be reopened. To ensure this law
13390-527: The rank of patrician by Zeno. Odoacer retained the Roman administrative system, cooperated actively with the Roman Senate , and his rule was efficient and successful. He evicted the Vandals from Sicily in 477, and in 480 he occupied Dalmatia after the murder of Julius Nepos . An agreement was reached between Zeno and Theodoric, stipulating that Theodoric, if victorious, was to rule in Italy as
13520-457: The regnal name of Imperator Caesar Flavius Marcianus Augustus upon his coronation. The election of Marcian in 450 resulted in large changes to eastern imperial policy. Chrysaphius , the eunuch and spatharios (guard of the imperial chambers), who had exercised much influence over Theodosius, was either murdered or executed. Both Pulcheria and Zeno were opposed to Chrysaphius' influence, which may have motivated Marcian's actions. Marcian took
13650-502: The resulting fragmentation of the Hunnic confederation by settling Germanic tribes within Roman lands as foederati ("federates" providing military service in exchange for benefits). Marcian also convened the Council of Chalcedon , which declared that Jesus had two " natures ": divine and human. This led to the alienation of the population of the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt , as many of them were miaphysites , rejecting
13780-403: The same time sending ambassadors to Justinian and proposing to cede Italy to him. Justinian indeed sent an able agent of his, Peter of Thessalonica , to carry out the negotiations, but before he had even crossed into Italy, Athalaric had died (on 2 October 534), Amalasuntha had crowned Theodahad as king in an effort to secure his support, and he had deposed and imprisoned her. Theodahad, who was of
13910-493: The southeast. Most of the social institutions of the late Western Roman Empire were preserved during his rule. Theodoric called himself Gothorum Romanorumque rex 'King of the Goths and Romans', demonstrating his desire to be a leader for both peoples. Under Justinian I , the Byzantine Empire embarked on a campaign to reconquer Italy in 535. Witiges , who was the Ostrogothic ruler at that time, could not defend
14040-566: The support of the Senate and the newly ascended Emperor Justinian I , even providing him with bases in Sicily during the Vandalic War . However, these ideas did not find much favour with the Gothic nobles, who in addition resented being ruled by a woman. They protested when she resolved to give her son a Roman education, preferring that Athalaric be raised as a warrior. She was forced to discharge his Roman tutors, but instead Athalaric turned to
14170-523: The throne for himself; Zeno would ultimately die within a year of Marcian ' s accession. Aspar 's son, Ardabur , was promoted to command the army of the Prefecture of the East as the new magister militum per Orientem , soon after Marcian's accession. Marcian was elevated on 25 August 450, and Pulcheria's agreement to marry him likely boosted Marcian's legitimacy further. Marcian took
14300-426: The title Gothic Kingdom . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gothic_Kingdom&oldid=1254542271 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Articles containing Latin-language text Articles containing Gothic-language text Short description
14430-535: The two greatest external threats to Rome, the Sassanian Empire and the Huns, were absorbed with their own internal problems. Further, no natural disasters or plagues occurred during his reign. He was remembered fondly by the people of Constantinople, who would shout "Reign like Marcian!" at the installation of future emperors. The Prefect of Constantinople Tatianus built a column dedicated to Marcian , sometime between 450 and 452. It still stands in Istanbul, near
14560-661: The two natures of Jesus, barring them from holding state offices, forbidding them from criticizing the Council of Chalcedon, and ordering their literature, along with that of the Nestorians , to be burned. The anti-Miaphysite resolutions of the council led to a large increase in civil disruption in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt, where the majority of the population was Miaphysitic. Several violent revolts were put down with military force after significant bloodshed, in Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch; as well as sending
14690-421: The vow of virginity she had made in 413, at age 14, during her three years of marriage to him. Historian Doug Lee proposes that negotiations were also needed between Aspar and Flavius Zeno , who was in a similar position of military power. Zeno was given the prestigious rank of patrician upon Marcian's ascension in 450, suggesting a deal whereby Zeno was rewarded for supporting Marcian instead of claiming
14820-436: The walls of which were weaker than those of some cities he had already captured. During this period, other than cutting his lines of communication and harassing his rear forces, Aetius did not launch a direct attack on Attila. Despite the plunder he now had from capturing Aquileia, Milan, and other cities, Attila was quickly placed in a precarious situation, because of the actions of both Eastern and Western Rome. In Italy, he
14950-504: The war, sending his envoys to Constantinople, but Justinian was already resolved to reclaim Italy. Only by renouncing his throne in the Empire's favour could Theodahad hope to avert war. The Gothic War between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Ostrogothic Kingdom was fought from 535 until 554 in Italy , Dalmatia , Sardinia , Sicily and Corsica . It is commonly divided into two phases. The first phase lasted from 535 to 540 and ended with
15080-500: The writings of the period. In his Chronica , used later by Jordanes in his Getica , as well as in the various panegyrics written by him and other prominent Romans of the time for the Gothic kings, Roman literary and historical tradition is put in the service of their Gothic overlords. His privileged position enabled him to compile the Variae Epistolae , a collection of state correspondence, which gives great insight into
15210-441: Was almost entirely undefended. He was likely motivated by a desire for revenge, along with a need to raid to stabilize his tribal state, which was dependent upon raiding for loot and resources. Attila captured the city of Aquileia after a long and difficult siege, and sacked it. He then raided across northern Italy, taking Mediolanum ( Milan ) and other important cities. There was much fear that Attila would attack Rome itself,
15340-406: Was appointed to oversee the kingdom's aqueducts , which were of particular importance to Theodoric. Public bathing culture also continued in earnest under Ostrogothic administration, and there are numerous instances of Theodoric encouraging the practice through the restoration and construction of bathhouses in cities such as Verona and Pavia , and even subsidization of admission fees in the case of
15470-541: Was beneficial to the Eastern Empire. The tribal peoples generally kept each other's power in check without Roman intervention. They could also be induced to serve the empire against its enemies by way of gifts, subsidies, and treaties. With the Hunnic empire's diminished might after the death of Attila, Marcian enjoyed a relatively peaceful reign, although he won some small campaigns against the Saracens in Syria and against
15600-563: Was born in c. 392, in either Thrace or Illyria . The ancient historian John Malalas describes him as being tall and having some sort of foot impediment. Little of Marcian's early life is known. His father had served in the military and at a young age Marcian enlisted at Philippopolis in Thrace. By the time of the Roman–Sassanian War of 421–422 , Marcian had likely reached the military rank of tribune —the historian Theophanes
15730-547: Was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles , in Constantinople, next to his wife Pulcheria, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis . He left the Eastern Empire with seven million solidi in its treasury, an impressive achievement considering the economic ruin inflicted upon Eastern Rome by the Huns, both through warfare and
15860-427: Was decisively defeated, Theodosius undertook to pay tribute to the Huns every year, which he did until his death in 450. After Theodosius II died unexpectedly in a riding accident on 28 July 450, the Eastern Roman Empire faced its first succession crisis in 60 years. Theodosius had no sons, nor had he designated a successor. Some later sources state that he willed the throne to Marcian on his deathbed, but this
15990-401: Was implemented, he set a penalty of 50 pounds (23 kg) of gold for any judge, governor or official who did not enforce the law. When Marcian became emperor, he was influenced by Flavius Zeno , Pulcheria , and Aspar . Flavius Zeno died soon after Marcian ascended the throne, possibly as early as the end of 451, and Pulcheria died in July 453, leaving Aspar as the only major influence in
16120-405: Was not until 492 that Theodoric was able to procure a fleet and capture Ravenna's harbours, thus entirely cutting off communication with the outside world. The effects of this appeared six months later, when, with the mediation of the city's bishop, negotiations started between the two parties. An agreement was reached on 25 February 493, whereby the two should divide Italy between them. A banquet
16250-412: Was organised in order to celebrate this treaty. It was at this banquet, on March 15, that Theodoric, after making a toast, killed Odoacer with his own hands. A general massacre of Odoacer's soldiers and supporters followed. Theodoric and his Goths were now masters of Italy. Like Odoacer, Theodoric was ostensibly a patricius and subject of the emperor in Constantinople, acting as his viceroy for Italy,
16380-431: Was raiding Roman Italy , then a part of the Western Roman Empire , Marcian launched expeditions across the Danube into the Great Hungarian Plain , defeating the Huns in their own heartland. This action, accompanied by the famine and plague that broke out in northern Italy, allowed the Western Roman Empire to bribe Attila into retreating from the Italian peninsula. After Attila's death in 453, Marcian took advantage of
16510-472: Was seen by many later Byzantine writers, such as Theophanes the Confessor, as a golden age: Marcian secured the Eastern Empire both politically and financially, set an orthodox religious line that future emperors would follow, and stabilized the capital city politically. Some later scholars attribute his success not just to his skill, but also to a large degree of luck. Not only had he been fortunate enough to have Pulcheria to legitimize his rule, but for much of it
16640-418: Was seriously lacking in funds, having not received subsidies from either Eastern or Western Rome for two years. Constant warfare had depleted his forces. As well, Attila's homeland was threatened by the Eastern Empire which, despite the punitive raids he ordered, took the offensive against the Great Hungarian Plain in mid-452, attacking across the Danube and inflicting a defeat upon the Huns. The area attacked by
16770-469: Was succeeded by his infant grandson Athalaric , supervised by his mother, Amalasuntha , as regent. The lack of a strong heir caused the network of alliances that surrounded the Ostrogothic state to disintegrate: the Visigothic kingdom regained its autonomy under Amalaric, the relations with the Vandals turned increasingly hostile, and the Franks embarked again on expansion, subduing the Thuringians and
16900-482: Was with Pulcheria, Theodosius II's sister, who agreed to marry Marcian; it is thought that Pulcheria agreed to marry Marcian on the condition that he would abandon Theodosius II ' s religious policies and convoke a Church council. Their marriage helped to legitimize Marcian's rule, as Pulcheria's family, the Theodosian dynasty , had direct ties to the throne. Despite being married to Marcian, Pulcheria kept
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