118-622: Goewin ( Welsh pronunciation: [ˈɡɔɨwɪn] ) is a figure in Welsh mythology , where she has a small but crucial role in the Math fab Mathonwy , one of the Four Branches of the Mabinogi . At the beginning of the tale, the eponymous Math fab Mathonwy will die if his feet are not always held in the lap of a virgin or he is at war; Goewin is the virgin who performs this duty until Math
236-441: A Christian addition to the poem. In stanza 66, the völva ends her account with a description of the dragon Níðhöggr , corpses in his jaws, flying through the air. The völva then "sinks down." It is unclear if stanza 66 indicates that the völva is referring to the present time or if this is an element of the post- Ragnarök world. The Vanir god Njörðr is mentioned in relation to Ragnarök in stanza 39 of
354-532: A King of Britain. The Second Branch of the Mabinogi name Beli as the father of Penarddun , though this may be a mistake for brother. Beli's more prominent children include: While Arthurian literature grew to become a broadly European phenomenon, the Welsh can claim the earliest appearances of Arthur. Before Arthur became an international figure, writings and oral tales concerning him were more or less restricted to
472-632: A balance between his marital and social duties and rejoins his wife. The narrative is related to Chrétien de Troyes ' French romance Yvain, the Knight of the Lion . The narrative corresponds to Chrétien's romance Perceval, the Story of the Grail , although, as with the other Welsh romances, scholars still debate the work's exact relationship to Chrétien's poem. It is possible that this romance preserves some of
590-429: A beautiful maiden whose horse cannot be caught up with. He manages to win her hand at the expense of Gwawl , to whom she is betrothed, and she bears him a son, but the child disappears soon after his birth. Rhiannon is accused of killing him and forced to carry guests on her back as punishment. The child has been taken by a monster, and is rescued by Teyrnon and his wife, who bring him up as their own, calling him Gwri of
708-478: A bowl, unable to speak. The same fate befalls her, and the castle disappears. Manawydan and Cigfa return to England as shoemakers, but once again the locals drive them out and they return to Dyfed. They sow three fields of wheat, but the first field is destroyed before it can be harvested. The next night the second field is destroyed. Manawydan keeps watch over the third field, and when he sees it destroyed by mice he catches their leader and decides to hang it. A scholar,
826-591: A breeding pair of deer, then pigs, then wolves. After three years they are restored to human form and return. Math needs a new footholder, and Gwydion suggests his sister, Arianrhod , but when Math magically tests her virginity she gives birth to two sons. One, Dylan , immediately takes to the sea. The other child is raised by Gwydion, but Arianrhod tells him he will never have a name or arms unless she gives them to him, and refuses to do so. Gwydion tricks her into naming him Lleu Llaw Gyffes ("Bright, of deft hand"), and giving him arms. She then tells him he will never have
944-466: A chieftain based at Segontium ( Caernarfon ), and lead the Emperor to her. Everything he finds is exactly as in his dream. The maiden, whose name is Helen or Elen, accepts and loves him. Because Elen is found a virgin, Macsen gives her father sovereignty over the island of Britain and orders three castles built for his bride. In Macsen's absence, a new emperor seizes power and warns him not to return. With
1062-530: A daughter at least as beautiful as she, and this daughter will follow the same path as her mother. Vafþrúðnismál stanza 47 is quoted, and so ends the foretelling of Ragnarök in Gylfaginning . Various objects have been identified as depicting events from Ragnarök . Thorwald's Cross , a partially surviving runestone erected at Kirk Andreas on the Isle of Man , depicts a bearded human holding
1180-492: A daughter of Beli Mawr , though this may be an error for sister. Penarddun and Llŷr's children include: Other figures associated with the Children of Llŷr include: Beli Mawr is an ancestor figure mentioned in various sources. Though obscure as a character, several of the many descendants attributed to him figure strongly in Welsh tradition. Works derived from Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae name him as
1298-418: A hare and a greyhound, a fish and an otter, and a bird and a hawk. Exhausted, Gwion finally turns himself into a single grain of corn, but Ceridwen becomes a hen and eats him. Ceridwen becomes pregnant, and when she gives birth she throws the child into the ocean in a leather bag. The bag is found by Elffin , son of Gwyddno Garanhir , who sees the boy's beautiful white brow and exclaims " dyma dal iesin " ("this
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#17328015872791416-483: A hundred bags, telling Efnysien they contain flour, when in fact they conceal armed warriors. Efnysien kills the warriors by squeezing the bags. Later, at the feast, Efnysien throws Gwern on the fire and fighting breaks out. Seeing that the Irish are using the cauldron to revive their dead, Efnysien hides among the corpses and destroys the cauldron, although the effort costs him his life. Only seven men, all Britons , survive
1534-558: A kitchen maid, thus preserving Elffin's claim. Taliesin then humiliates Maelgwn's bards with his skill, and frees his foster-father. While Culhwch and Olwen , also found in the Mabinogion , is primarily an Arthurian tale, in which the hero Culhwch enlists Arthur 's aid in winning the hand of Olwen , daughter of Ysbaddaden the Giant, it is full of background detail, much of it mythological in nature. Characters such as Amaethon ,
1652-408: A living by making, successively, saddles, shields and shoes. Each time their products are of such quality that local craftsmen cannot compete, and drive them from town to town. Eventually they return to Dyfed and become hunters again. A white boar leads them to a mysterious castle. Against Manawydan's advice, Pryderi goes inside, but does not return. Rhiannon goes to investigate and finds him clinging to
1770-497: A long and dangerous trip and commands her not to speak to him. Enid disregards this command several times to warn her husband of danger. Several adventures follow that prove Enid's love and Geraint's fighting ability. The couple is happily reconciled in the end, and Geraint inherits his father's kingdom. The Spoils of Annwfn is a cryptic early medieval poem of sixty lines found in the Book of Taliesin . The text recounts an expedition to
1888-561: A magical cauldron that can restore the dead to life. Matholwch and Branwen have a son, Gwern , but Matholwch proceeds to mistreat Branwen, beating her and making her a drudge . Branwen trains a starling to take a message to Brân, who goes to war against Matholwch. His army crosses the Irish Sea in ships, but Brân is so huge that he wades across. The Irish offer to make peace, and build a house big enough to entertain Bran, but inside they hang
2006-451: A priest and a bishop in turn offer him gifts if he will spare the mouse, but he refuses. When asked what he wants in return for the mouse's life, he demands the release of Pryderi and Rhiannon, and the lifting of the enchantment over Dyfed. The bishop agrees, because the mouse is in fact his wife. He has been waging magical war against Dyfed because he is a friend of Gwawl, whom Pwyll, Pryderi's father, humiliated. While Pryderi rules Dyfed, in
2124-677: A quote from Völuspá to highlight that the dragon Níðhöggr harasses the corpses of the dead there. Chapter 53 begins with Gangleri asking if any of the gods will survive and if there will be anything left of the earth or the sky. High responds that the earth will appear once more from the sea, beautiful and green, where self-sown crops grow. The field Iðavöllr exists where Asgard once was, and, there, untouched by Surtr's flames, Víðarr and Váli reside. Now possessing their father's hammer Mjölnir , Thor's sons Móði and Magni will meet them there, and, coming from Hel , Baldr and Höðr also arrive. Together, they all sit and recount memories, later finding
2242-480: A scene interpreted as Víðarr fighting Fenrir. The 11th-century Ledberg stone in Sweden , similarly to Thorwald's Cross, features a figure with his foot at the mouth of a four-legged beast, and this may also be a depiction of Odin being devoured by Fenrir at Ragnarök . Below the beast and the man is a depiction of a legless, helmeted man, with his arms in a prostrate position. The Younger Futhark inscription on
2360-399: A servant to the enchantress Ceridwen . Ceridwen had a beautiful daughter and a horribly ugly son named Avagddu (elsewhere known as Morfran). Ceridwen determines to help her son by brewing a magic potion, the first three drops of which will give him the gift of wisdom and inspiration ( awen ). The potion has to be cooked for a year and a day, so Ceridwen enlists a blind man named Morda to tend
2478-559: A spear downward at a wolf, his right foot in its mouth, while a large bird sits at his shoulder. Rundata dates it to 940, while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century. This depiction has been interpreted as Odin, with a raven or eagle at his shoulder, being consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök . On the other side of the stone is a depiction of a large cross and another image parallel to the Odin figure that has been described as Christ triumphing over Satan. These combined elements have led to
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#17328015872792596-612: A wife of any race living on Earth, so Gwydion and Math make him a wife from flowers, called Blodeuwedd (possibly "Flower face", though other etymologies have been suggested). Blodeuwedd falls in love with a hunter, Gronw Pebr , and they plot to kill Lleu. Blodeuwedd tricks Lleu into revealing the means by which he can be killed, but when Gronw attempts to do the deed Lleu escapes, transformed into an eagle. Gwydion finds Lleu and transforms him back into human form, and turns Blodeuwedd into an owl, renaming her Blodeuwedd and cursing her. Gronw offers to compensate Lleu, but Lleu insists on returning
2714-571: Is Pryderi fab Pwyll , the king of Dyfed , who is born in the first Branch, is killed in the fourth, and is probably a reflex of the Celtic god Maponos . The only other recurring characters are Pryderi's mother Rhiannon , associated with the peaceful British prince Manawydan , who later becomes her second husband. Manawydan and his siblings Brân the Blessed ( Welsh : Bendigeidfran or Brân Fendigaidd "Blessed Crow"), Branwen and Efnysien are
2832-455: Is "a case of reduplication of the anthropogeny , understandable from the cyclic nature of the Eddic eschatology ." Simek says that Hoddmímis holt "should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden, but rather as an alternative name for the world-tree Yggdrasill . Thus, the creation of mankind from tree trunks ( Askr, Embla ) is repeated after
2950-640: Is Irish festival of the start of summer, and the Gaulish god Belenus was associated with the Greek sun god Apollo . Aryanrhot (Arianrhod) means "silver wheel" and is associated with the moon; her one son, "Lleu," means light ("lleuad" is the Modern Welsh word for moon), while her other son, Dylan ail Don , is associated with the waves/tides (which are, of course, connected to the moon). Euron (Gronw, Gwyronwy, Gwyron): gwron means "hero" or "warrior," while
3068-430: Is a foretold series of impending events, including a great battle in which numerous great Norse mythological figures will perish (including the gods Odin , Thor , Týr , Freyr , Heimdall , and Loki ); it will entail a catastrophic series of natural disasters, including the burning of the world, and culminate in the submersion of the world underwater. After these events, the world will rise again, cleansed and fertile,
3186-491: Is a radiant brow") Taliesin, thus named, begins to recite beautiful poetry. Elffin raises Taliesin as his son, and the two become involved in several adventures. In the presence of Maelgwn , king of Gwynedd , Elffin claims that his wife is as virtuous as the king's wife, and that Taliesin is a better bard than the king's. Maelgwn locks Elffin up and sends his boorish son Rhun to defile Elffin's wife and steal her ring as evidence. However, Taliesin has Elffin's wife replaced with
3304-399: Is aroar, and that the Æsir are in council. The dwarfs groan by their stone doors. Surtr advances from the south, his sword brighter than the sun. Rocky cliffs open and the jötnar women sink. The gods then do battle with the invaders: Odin is swallowed whole and alive fighting the wolf Fenrir , causing his wife Frigg her second great sorrow (the first being the death of her son,
3422-477: Is built from the spines of snakes, and resembles "a house with walls woven from branches"; the heads of the snakes face the inside of the house and spew so much venom that rivers of it flow throughout the hall, in which oath breakers and murderers must wade. Third here quotes Völuspá stanzas 38 to 39, with the insertion of original prose stating that the worst place of all to be is in Hvergelmir , followed by
3540-524: Is celebrated as a hero. This narrative corresponds to Chrétien's Erec and Enide , in which the hero is Erec . The romance concerns the love of Geraint , one of King Arthur's men, and the beautiful Enid . The couple marry and settle down together, but rumors spread that Geraint has gone soft. Upset about this, Enid cries to herself that she is not a true wife for keeping her husband from his chivalric duties, but Geraint misunderstands her comment to mean she has been unfaithful to him. He makes her join him on
3658-436: Is dealing with none other than Odin, whom he refers to as "the wisest of beings," adding that Odin alone could know this. Odin's message has been interpreted as a promise of resurrection to Baldr after Ragnarök . Ragnarök is briefly referenced in stanza 40 of the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana II . Here, the valkyrie Sigrún 's unnamed maid is passing the deceased hero Helgi Hundingsbane 's burial mound . Helgi
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3776-582: Is harsh in the world, whoredom rife —an axe age, a sword age —shields are riven— a wind age, a wolf age— before the world goes headlong. No man will have mercy on another. The "sons of Mím " are described as being "at play," though this reference is not further explained in surviving sources. Heimdall raises the Gjallarhorn into the air and blows deeply into it, and Odin converses with Mím's head. The world tree Yggdrasil shudders and groans. The jötunn Hrym comes from
3894-544: Is king of France . Lludd's kingdom is beset by three menaces: the Coraniaid , a demonic people who can hear everything; a terrible scream that is heard every May Eve that terrifies the people; and the continual disappearance of the provisions of the king's court. Lludd asks Llefelys for help, speaking to him through a brass tube so the Coraniaid can't hear. Llefelys creates a potion of crushed insects in water which destroys
4012-480: Is never specifically named. Other figures associated with the Children of Dôn include: Llŷr , the patriarch of the other family, is possibly a borrowing of the Irish sea-god Ler . A foreign origin is further suggested by his epithet Llediaith ("half-speech"). His wife was Penarddun . According to the Mabinogion she was the mother of his three children, plus two others by Euroswydd . The Mabinogi name her as
4130-454: Is not as productive as Manu's, and Nisien is not a sacrificial character like Yemo. Alternatively, Nisien may be the Manu figure, since Efnisien is associated with death as Yemo sometimes is. Llŷr is likely a sea god, and may be cognate with the Irish god Lir (meaning "sea"; note that his son, Manannán son of Lir, may be cognate with Manawydan son of Llŷr). Unlike the section above, we find
4248-542: Is often a god of death in other related Indo-European systems. He is also a protector god, as his head (buried in London) protects the Island of Britain from invasion. Efnisien is the brother of Nisien and half-brother of Manawydan and Brân . Efnesian sows death, chaos, and destruction, while Nisien is more peaceful. The connection to the opposite twins of Proto-Indo-European myth is overt here, but Efnesian's destruction
4366-535: Is poisoned by the serpent, and manages to walk only nine steps before falling to the earth dead. Fenrir swallows Odin, though immediately afterwards his son Víðarr kicks his foot into Fenrir's lower jaw, grips the upper jaw, and rips apart Fenrir's mouth, killing the great wolf. Loki fights Heimdallr and the two kill each other. Surtr covers the earth in fire, causing the entire world to burn. High quotes stanzas 46 to 47 of Völuspá , and additionally stanza 18 of Vafþrúðnismál (the latter relating information about
4484-691: Is the brother of Manawydan . His name means "crow," and bird often associated with death. Hence, he may serve as a God of death , also given his connection to the Brittonic Brennos (associated with the Dis Pater of the Gauls and that he lives on after being decapitated and hosts the living in Gwales, an island realm outside of time, in the Second Branch of The Mabinogion . The Twin figure
4602-476: Is there with a retinue of men, surprising the maid. The maid asks if she is witnessing a delusion since she sees dead men riding, or if Ragnarök has occurred. In stanza 41, Helgi responds that it is neither. Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda quotes heavily from Völuspá and elaborates extensively in prose on the information there, though some of this information conflicts with that provided in Völuspá . In
4720-592: Is tricked into going to war by his nephews Gwydion and Gilfaethwy , who proceed to rape Goewin. Once Math returns, Goewin reveals the crime and Math punishes the two by transforming them into a series of animals. He then marries Goewin, giving her power over his kingdom, in order to make amends. This article relating to a European folklore is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Welsh mythology Welsh mythology consists of both folk traditions developed in Wales , and traditions developed by
4838-409: Is unable to assist Odin because he has engaged Jörmungandr in combat. According to High, Freyr fights fiercely with Surtr, but falls because he lacks the sword he once gave to his messenger, Skírnir . The hound Garmr (described here as the "worst of monsters") breaks free from his bonds in front of Gnipahellir , and fights the god Týr, resulting in both of their deaths. Thor kills Jörmungandr but
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4956-522: The Ragnarök as well." Simek says that in Germanic regions , the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient, and additionally points out legendary parallels in a Bavarian legend of a shepherd who lives inside a tree, whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague (citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder). In addition, Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in
5074-452: The Ragnarök story, even by a scholar as cautious of such interpretations as David M. Wilson . The Ragnarök battle itself may be depicted on the north side. The cross features various figures depicted in Borre style , including a man with a spear facing a monstrous head, with one foot thrust into the beast's forked tongue and on its lower jaw, and the other is against its upper jaw,
5192-644: The Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In the Prose Edda and in a single poem in the Poetic Edda , the event is referred to as Ragnarøkkr ( Old Norse for 'Twilight of the Gods';), a usage popularised by 19th-century composer Richard Wagner with the title of the last of his Der Ring des Nibelungen operas, Götterdämmerung (1876), which is "Twilight of
5310-690: The Brythonic nations of Wales , Cornwall and Brittany . These tales in turn are divided roughly into Pre-Galfridian Traditions and those of Geoffrey of Monmouth . Wales also contributed to the Arthur of the Romance Tradition after the titular heir became an international sensation. Ragnarok In Norse mythology , Ragnarök ( / ˈ r æ ɡ n ə r ɒ k / RAG -nə-rok or / ˈ r ɑː ɡ -/ RAHG - ; Old Norse : Ragnarǫk [ˈrɑɣnɑˌrɒk] )
5428-495: The Celtic Britons elsewhere before the end of the first millennium. As in most of the predominantly oral societies Celtic mythology and history were recorded orally by specialists such as druids ( Welsh : derwyddon ). This oral record has been lost or altered as a result of outside contact and invasion over the years. Much of this altered mythology and history is preserved in medieval Welsh manuscripts , which include
5546-540: The Otherworld , led by King Arthur, to retrieve a magical cauldron . The speaker relates how he journeyed with Arthur and three boatloads of men into Annwfn, but only seven returned. Annwfn is apparently referred to by several names, including "Mound Fortress," "Four-Peaked Fortress," and "Glass Fortress", though it is possible the poet intended these to be distinct places. Within the Mound Fort's walls Gweir, one of
5664-401: The Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , various references are made to Ragnarök . Ragnarök is first mentioned in chapter 26, where the throned figure of High , king of the hall, tells Gangleri (King Gylfi in disguise) some basic information about the goddess Iðunn , including that her apples will keep the gods young until Ragnarök . In chapter 34, High describes the binding of
5782-642: The Red Book of Hergest , the White Book of Rhydderch , the Book of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin . Other works connected to Welsh mythology include the ninth-century Latin historical compilation Historia Brittonum ("History of the Britons") and Geoffrey of Monmouth 's twelfth-century Latin chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain"), as well as later folklore , such as
5900-508: The Taliesin poems (especially Cad Goddeu ), contain hints of the cyclicality of cosmogonic progressions. With this in mind, the transformations of various characters (especially Lleu and Taliesin) hint not just at reincarnation but perhaps even reconfigurations of the cosmos itself (along the lines of the Norse concept of Ragnarok as not merely signaling the end of existence, but heralding
6018-546: The Vedic god Vishnu in that both have a "cosmic stride" with a special shoe used to tear apart a beastly wolf. Larger patterns have also been drawn between "final battle" events in Indo-European cultures, including the occurrence of a blind or semi-blind figure in "final battle" themes, and figures appearing suddenly with surprising skills. Hilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that the events in Völuspá occurring after
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#17328015872796136-411: The White Book of Rhydderch and the Red Book of Hergest . Subsequent scholarship has identified the tale as post-medieval and it is left out of most modern editions of the Mabinogion . Still, elements of the tale predate this presentation. The tale is distinct from the Book of Taliesin , which is a collection of poems attributed to Taliesin . According to the story, Taliesin began life as Gwion Bach,
6254-581: The oak , a "valiant door keeper against the enemy". The bluebells combine and cause a "consternation" but the hero is the holly , tinted with green. A warrior fighting alongside Arawn cannot be vanquished unless his enemies can guess his name. Gwydion guesses the warrior's name, identifying him from the sprigs of alder on his shield, and sings two englyns : This account is so different from Geoffrey of Monmouth's account of Maximian (as Geoffrey calls him) in Historia regum Britanniae that scholars agree that
6372-782: The Æsir in Valhalla , and the third, unnamed soot-red rooster crows in the halls of the underworld location of Hel in stanza 43. After these stanzas, the völva further relates that the hound Garmr produces deep howls in front of the cave of Gnipahellir . Garmr's bindings break and he runs free. The völva describes the state of humanity: Brœðr muno beriaz ok at bǫnom verða[z] muno systrungar sifiom spilla. Hart er í heimi, hórdómr mikill —skeggǫld, skálmǫld —skildir ro klofnir— vindǫld, vargǫld— áðr verǫld steypiz. Mun engi maðr ǫðrom þyrma. Brothers will fight and kill each other, sisters' children will defile kinship. It
6490-535: The "Three Exalted Prisoners of Britain" known from the Welsh Triads , is imprisoned in chains. The narrator then describes the cauldron of the Chief of Annwn; it is finished with pearl and will not boil a coward's food. Whatever tragedy ultimately killed all but seven of them is not clearly explained. The poem continues with an excoriation of "little men" and monks, who lack in various forms of knowledge possessed by
6608-700: The Arthurian Lady of the Lake, Ceridwen in Hanes Taliesin , etc.). Rather than being separate from nature, the Celts likely saw the Otherworld as being a mysterious but essential aspect of nature and a parallel to Elfydd. While the sky and its celestial bodies are clearly separate from the earth, there does not seem to be an association between gods and the sky in extant Welsh myth (though as we see in
6726-553: The British "wirowonos" means "man-slaying"; as a "First Man" type, he slays the "Twin" figure of Lleu Llaw Gyffes in the Fourth Branch of The Mabinogion (note: while Gronw Pebr is not Lleu's literal twin, they are foils in that Gronw persues Lleu's wife, the flower-maiden Blodeuwedd ). In Cad Goddeu , Gwron is paired with Madrud/Modron, the mother of the divine son Mabon. Manawydan may be cognate with "Manu." Brân
6844-465: The Coraniaid when sprinkled on them. The scream, he discovers, comes from two dragons fighting. He gets the dragons drunk on mead and buries them in Dinas Emrys in what is now North Wales. He then overcomes the wizard who is stealing all of Lludd's provisions and makes him serve Lludd. Guest included Hanes Taliesin in her translation of the Mabinogion , despite the absence of this tale from
6962-581: The Dream cannot be based purely on Geoffrey's version. The Dream's account also seems to accord better with details in the Triads, so it perhaps reflects an earlier tradition. Macsen Wledig, the Emperor of Rome, dreams one night of a lovely maiden in a wonderful, far-off land. Awakening, he sends his men all over the earth in search of her. With much difficulty they find her in a rich castle in Britain, daughter of
7080-427: The Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi. Amaethon , one of the sons of Dôn, steals a white roebuck and a whelp from Arawn , king of the otherworld, leading to a great battle. Gwydion fights alongside his brother and, assisted by Lleu, enchants the "elementary trees and sedges" to rise up as warriors against Arawn's forces. The alder leads the attack, while the aspen falls in battle, and heaven and earth tremble before
7198-570: The German reception of Norse mythology ). Other terms used to refer to the events surrounding Ragnarök in the Poetic Edda include aldar rök ( aldar means age, 'end of an age') from a stanza of Vafþrúðnismál , tíva rök from two stanzas of Vafþrúðnismál , þá er regin deyja ('when the gods die') from Vafþrúðnismál , unz um rjúfask regin ('when the gods will be destroyed') from Vafþrúðnismál , Lokasenna , and Sigrdrífumál , aldar rof ('destruction of
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#17328015872797316-526: The Gods" in German. The Old Norse compound word ragnarok has a long history of interpretation. Its first element is clear: ragna , the genitive plural of regin (n. pl.) 'the ruling powers, gods.' The second element is more problematic, as it occurs in two variants, -rök and -røkkr . Writing in the early 20th century, philologist Geir Zoëga treats the two forms as two separate compounds, glossing ragnarök as 'the doom or destruction of
7434-516: The Golden hair, until his resemblance to Pwyll becomes apparent. They return him to his real parents, Rhiannon is released from her punishment, and the boy is renamed Pryderi . In the second branch Branwen , sister of Brân the Blessed, king of Britain, is given in marriage to Matholwch , king of Ireland. Branwen's half-brother Efnysien insults Matholwch by mutilating his horses, and in compensation Brân gives Matholwch new horses and treasure, including
7552-457: The House of Llŷr may have figures from each house that occupy a similar role, and other variations may occur as well. Such inconsistencies are common in Indo-European myths, however, given the natural evolutions and variations that occur over time. Dôn may originate from ghdhonos, meaning "the earth" (see above). Beli Mawr is one of her consorts and is associated with the sky and sun. Beltane
7670-763: The Pantheon below, there likely would have been at some earlier point). Sharon Paice Macleod proposes that the ancient Celts had a concept of the World Tree that links the various realms of the world (akin to the Norse Yggdrasil ), given the centrality of trees in Celtic knowledge, but there is no clear evidence for this. The simplified chart above can be complicated by the fact that, as with other mythological systems, figures that descend from Proto-Indo-European mythology can fragment and split into several individual characters over time. The House of Dôn and
7788-498: The Serpent's venom. The god Freyr fights Surtr and loses. After this, people flee their homes, and the sun becomes black while the earth sinks into the sea, the stars vanish, steam rises, and flames touch the heavens. The völva sees the earth reappearing from the water and an eagle over a waterfall hunting fish on a mountain. The surviving Æsir meet together at the field of Iðavöllr . They discuss Jörmungandr, great events of
7906-451: The age') from Helgakviða Hundingsbana II , regin þrjóta ('end of the gods') from Hyndluljóð , and, in the Prose Edda , þá er Muspellz-synir herja ('when the sons of Muspell move into battle') can be found in chapters 18 and 36 of Gylfaginning . The Poetic Edda contains various references to Ragnarök : In the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá , references to Ragnarök begin from stanza 40 until 58, with
8024-526: The battle, including Pryderi , Manawydan and Bran, who is mortally wounded by a poisoned spear. Brân asks his companions to cut off his head and take it back to Britain. Branwen dies of grief on returning home. Five pregnant women survive to repopulate Ireland. Pryderi and Manawydan return to Dyfed , where Pryderi marries Cigfa and Manawydan marries Rhiannon. However, a mist descends on the land, leaving it empty and desolate. The four support themselves by hunting at first, then move to England, where they make
8142-529: The battlefield Vígríðr). At the beginning of chapter 52, Gangleri asks "what will be after heaven and earth and the whole world are burned? All the gods will be dead, together with the Einherjar and the whole of mankind. Didn't you say earlier that each person will live in some world throughout all ages?" The figure of Third, seated on the highest throne in the hall, responds that there will be many good places to live, but also many bad ones. Third states that
8260-471: The beginning of a subsequent existence for the cosmos). -Elfydd: The Earth; the realm of humans - Annwn : The Otherworld; the realm(s) of the gods. Depending on the source, this could be a more typical Indo-European underworld (i.e. a realm below the earth), or the "deep" areas within the natural realm (e.g. deep within the woods, as with the First Branch of The Mabinogion , or within/near lakes, e.g.
8378-642: The beliefs of other related Indo-European peoples . Subsequently, theories have been put forth that Ragnarök represents a later evolution of a Proto-Indo-European belief along with other cultures descending from the Proto-Indo-Europeans. These parallels include comparisons of a cosmic winter motif between the Norse Fimbulwinter , the Iranian Bundahishn and Yima . Víðarr's stride has been compared to
8496-531: The best place to be is Gimlé in the heavens, where a place exists called Okolnir that houses a hall called Brimir —where one can find plenty to drink. Third describes a hall made of red gold located in Niðafjöll called Sindri , where "good and virtuous men will live." Third further relates an unnamed hall in Náströnd , the beaches of the dead, that he describes as a large repugnant hall facing north that
8614-619: The blow that was struck against him. Gronw pleads to be allowed to hide behind a rock when he attempts to kill him. Lleu agrees. He kills Gronw with his spear, which is thrown so hard it pierces him through the stone he is hiding behind. A large tradition seems to have once surrounded the Battle of the Trees , a mythological conflict fought between the sons of Dôn and the forces of Annwn , the Welsh Otherworld , and seemingly connected to
8732-412: The bridge will then break. The sons of Muspell (and their shining battle troop) advance to the field of Vígríðr , described as an expanse that reaches "a hundred leagues in each direction," where Fenrir, Jörmungandr, Loki (followed by "Hel's own"), and Hrym (accompanied by all frost jötnar ) join them. While this occurs, Heimdallr stands and blows the Gjallarhorn with all his might. The gods awaken at
8850-545: The broader Proto-Indo-European system in both the names of the deities themselves and in the later written tales that likely preserve remnants of the earlier orally transmitted narratives (see the "Pantheon" section below). Legends were not written down until after the Christianization of Britain, however, so these accounts are rather indirect; additionally, they likely evolved quite a bit over time anyway, as narrative systems typically do. John T. Koch proposes that
8968-582: The court of Nuada Airgetlám in Cath Maige Tuired . The hero of Owain, or the Lady of the Fountain , is based on the historical figure Owain mab Urien . He appears as Ywain in later continental tradition. The romance consists of a hero marrying his love, the Lady of the Fountain, but losing her when he neglects her for knightly exploits. With the aid of a lion he saves from a serpent, he finds
9086-570: The cross as being described as " syncretic art ," a mixture of pagan and Christian beliefs. The Gosforth Cross (920–950), in Cumbria , England, is a standing cross of a typical Anglo-Saxon form, carved on all sides of the long shaft, which is nearly square in section. Apart from panels of ornament, the scenes include a Christian crucifixion , and possibly another scene in Hell, but the other scenes are generally interpreted as narrative incidents from
9204-474: The death of the gods (the sun turning black, steam rising, flames touching the heavens, etc.) may be inspired by the volcanic eruptions on Iceland. Records of eruptions in Iceland bear strong similarities to the sequence of events described in Völuspá , especially the eruption at Laki that occurred in 1783. Bertha Phillpotts theorizes that the figure of Surtr was inspired by Icelandic eruptions and that he
9322-414: The divine ploughman, Mabon ap Modron , the divine son, and the psychopomp Gwyn ap Nudd make appearances, the latter in an endless seasonal battle with Gwythyr ap Greidawl for the hand of Creiddylad . The conditions placed on Culhwch by his mother are similar to those placed on Lleu Llaw Gyffes by Arianrhod , and Culhwch's arrival at Arthur's court is reminiscent of the Irish god Lug 's arrival at
9440-410: The east, his shield before him. The Midgard serpent Jörmungandr furiously writhes, causing waves to crash. "The eagle shrieks, pale-beaked he tears the corpse," and the ship Naglfar breaks free thanks to the waves made by Jormungandr and sets sail from the east. The fire jötnar inhabitants of Muspelheim come forth. The völva continues that Jötunheimr , the land of the jötnar ,
9558-617: The encounter with the woman who was to be his true love, Angharad Golden-Hand. Peredur returns to Arthur's court, but soon embarks on another series of adventures that do not correspond to material in Percival (Gawain's exploits take up this section of the French work.) Eventually the hero learns the severed head at his uncle's court belonged to his cousin, who had been killed by the Nine Witches of Gloucester. Peredur avenges his family, and
9676-502: The figure of Örvar-Oddr , "who is rejuvenated after living as a tree-man ( Ǫrvar-Odds saga 24–27)." Theories have been proposed about the relation between Ragnarök and the 9th-century Old High German epic poem Muspilli about the Christian Last Judgment , where the word Muspille appears, and the 9th-century Old Saxon epic poem Heliand about the life of Christ , where various other forms of
9794-409: The fire beneath the cauldron, while Gwion Bach stirs. Three hot drops spill onto Gwion's thumb as he stirred, and he instinctively puts his thumb in his mouth, instantly gaining wisdom and knowledge. The first thought that occurs to him is that Ceridwen will kill him, so he runs away. Soon enough Ceridwen engages Gwion in a transformation chase in which they turn themselves into various animals –
9912-529: The first plays the role of Percival's Gornemant and educates him in arms and warns him not to ask the significance of what he sees. The second replaces Chrétien's Fisher King, but instead of showing Peredur the Holy Grail he reveals a salver containing a man's severed head. The young knight does not ask about this and proceeds to further adventure, including a stay with the Nine Witches of Gloucester and
10030-483: The first sign of Ragnarök will be Fimbulwinter , during which time three winters will arrive without a summer, and the sun will be useless. High details that, before these winters, three earlier winters will have occurred, marked with great battles throughout the world. During this time, greed will cause brothers to kill brothers, and fathers and sons will suffer from the collapse of kinship bonds. High then quotes stanza 45 of Völuspá . Next, High describes that
10148-398: The following engraving: Iarð skal rifna ok upphiminn Earth shall be riven and the over-heaven. Jansson (1987) notes that at the time of the inscription, everyone who read the lines would have thought of Ragnarök and the allusion that the father found fitting as an expression of his grief. Rudolf Simek theorizes that the survival of Líf and Lífþrasir at the end of Ragnarök
10266-416: The following legends in actual literary texts instead of etymological and mythical reconstructions by academic scholars. Four of the mythological stories contained in the Mabinogion are collectively known as the Four Branches of the Mabinogi . They concentrate largely on the exploits of various British deities who have been Christianized into kings and heroes. The only character who appears in every branch
10384-500: The forest of Hoddmímis holt , that they will consume the morning dew, and will produce generations of offspring. In stanza 46, Odin asks what sun will come into the sky after Fenrir has consumed the sun that exists. Vafþrúðnir responds that Sól will bear a daughter before Fenrir assails her and that after Ragnarök this daughter will continue her mother's path. In stanza 51, Vafþrúðnir states that, after Surtr's flames have been sated, Odin's sons Víðarr and Váli will live in
10502-458: The god Baldr ). Odin's son Víðarr avenges his father by rending Fenrir's jaws apart and stabbing it in the heart with his spear, thus killing the wolf. The serpent Jörmungandr opens its gaping maw, yawning widely in the air, and is met in combat by Thor . Thor, also a son of Odin and described here as protector of the earth, furiously fights the serpent, defeating it, but Thor is only able to take nine steps afterwards before collapsing dead from
10620-442: The gods' and ragnarøkkr as 'the twilight of the gods.' The plural noun rök has several meanings, including 'development', 'origin', 'cause', 'relation', 'fate.' The word ragnarök as a whole is then usually interpreted as the 'final destiny of the gods.' The singular form ragnarøk(k)r is found in a stanza of the Poetic Edda poem Lokasenna , and in the Prose Edda . The noun røk(k)r means 'twilight' (from
10738-416: The gold game pieces the Æsir once owned. Völuspá stanza 51 is then quoted. High reveals that two humans, Líf and Lífþrasir , will have also survived the destruction by hiding in the wood Hoddmímis holt . These two survivors consume the morning dew for sustenance, and from their descendants, the world will be repopulated. Vafþrúðnismál stanza 45 is then quoted. The personified sun, Sól, will have
10856-471: The great serpent Jörmungandr , also described as a child of Loki in the same source, will breach land as the sea violently swells onto it. The ship Naglfar, described in the Prose Edda as being made from the human nails of the dead, is released from its mooring and sets sail on the surging sea, steered by a jötunn named Hrym . At the same time, Fenrir, eyes and nostrils spraying flames, charges forward with his mouth wide open, his upper jaw reaching to
10974-422: The heavens, and his lower jaw touching the earth. At Fenrir's side, Jörmungandr sprays venom throughout the air and the sea. During all of this, the sky splits into two. From the split, the "sons of Muspell " ride forth. Surtr rides first, surrounded by flames, his sword brighter than the sun. High says that "Muspell's sons" will ride across Bifröst , described in Gylfaginning as a rainbow bridge, and that
11092-426: The help of men from Britain led by Elen's brother Conanus (Welsh: Kynan Meriadec, French: Conan Meriadoc), Macsen marches across Gaul and Italy and recaptures Rome. In gratitude to his British allies, Macsen rewards them with a portion of Gaul that becomes known as Brittany. Another mythological story included in the Mabinogion is the tale of Lludd and Llefelys . Lludd is king of Britain, and his brother, Llefelys,
11210-431: The key players of the second branch, while the fourth branch concerns itself with the exploits of the family of Dôn , which includes the wizard Gwydion , his nephew, Lleu Llaw Gyffes , and his sister, Arianrhod . The first branch tells of how Pwyll , prince of Dyfed , exchanges places for a year with Arawn , the ruler of Annwn (the otherworld), defeats Arawn's enemy Hafgan , and on his return encounters Rhiannon ,
11328-617: The material found in Chrétien's source. The sequence of some events is altered and many original episodes appear, including the hero's 14-year sojourn in Constantinople reigning with the Empress, which contains remnants of a sovereignty tale. The Holy Grail is replaced with a severed head on a platter. Despite the differences, however, the influence of the French romance cannot be discounted, particularly as its first part hardly matches
11446-496: The materials collected in The Welsh Fairy Book by William Jenkyn Thomas (1908). As with other Insular Celts , no direct written accounts of the origins of the cosmos survive. We can assume that these Celts did have a complex cosmogony, given the accounts from classical authors about the depth of knowledge of the druids who passed down their knowledge via orature . However, scholars can find connections to
11564-498: The name of the goddess Dôn, for instance, likely comes from ghdhonos , meaning "the earth." In this sense she serves as the Welsh version of the dheghom figure from Proto-Indo-European mythology , i.e. the primordial Earth Goddess from which all other gods originate. According to this theory, the Children of Dôn would be comparable to the Greek Titans. John Carey suggests that the Fourth Branch of The Mabinogion , along with
11682-419: The night within a cave. Inside the cave they hear noises, witness a pair of immense burning eyes, and then the being with burning eyes recites a poem of 12 stanzas. The poem the being recites contains references to Norse mythology (including a mention of Thor) and also prophecies (including that "mountains will tumble, the earth will move, men will be scoured by hot water and burned by fire"). Surtr's fire receives
11800-434: The past, and the runic alphabet . In stanza 61, in the grass, they find the golden game pieces that the gods are described as having once happily enjoyed playing games with long ago (attested earlier in the same poem). The reemerged fields grow without needing to be sown. The gods Höðr and Baldr return from Hel and live happily together. The völva says that the god Hœnir chooses wooden slips for divination and that
11918-560: The poem Vafþrúðnismál . In the poem, Odin, disguised as Gagnráðr , faces off with the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir in a battle of wits. Vafþrúðnismál references Njörðr's status as a hostage during the earlier Æsir–Vanir War , and that he will "come back home among the wise Vanir" at "the doom of men." In stanza 44, Odin poses the question to Vafþrúðnir as to who of mankind will survive the "famous" Fimbulwinter ("Mighty Winter" ). Vafþrúðnir responds in stanza 45 that those survivors will be Líf and Lífþrasir and that they will hide in
12036-545: The poet. The Welsh had been Christian for several centuries before their former mythology was written down, and their gods had long been transformed into kings and heroes of the past. Many of the characters who exhibit divine characteristics fall into two rival families, the Plant Dôn ("Children of Dôn ") and the Plant Llŷr ("Children of Llŷr "). Dôn , daughter of Mathonwy, was the matriarch of one family. Her husband
12154-407: The prophecies foretold that he would be the death of Odin." As a consequence of his role in the death of the god Baldr, Loki (described as father of Fenrir) is bound on top of three stones with the internal organs of his son Narfi (which are turned into iron) in three places. There, venom drops onto his face periodically from a snake placed by the jötunn Skaði . Loki's wife Sigyn collects
12272-457: The rest of the poem describing the aftermath. In the poem, a völva (a female seer) recites information to Odin . In stanza 41, the völva says: Fylliz fiǫrvi feigra manna, rýðr ragna siǫt rauðom dreyra. Svǫrt verða sólskin of sumor eptir, veðr ǫll válynd. Vitoð ér enn, eða hvat? It sates itself on the life-blood of fated men, paints red the powers' homes with crimson gore. Black become
12390-419: The second. The hero's father dies when he is young, and his mother takes him into the woods and raises him in isolation. Eventually he meets a group of knights and determines to become like them, so he travels to King Arthur's court. There he is ridiculed by Cei and sets out on further adventures, promising to avenge Cei's insults to himself and those who defended him. While travelling he meets two of his uncles,
12508-512: The sons of two brothers will widely inhabit the windy world. She sees a hall thatched with gold in Gimlé , where nobility will live and spend their lives pleasurably. Stanzas 65, found in the Hauksbók version of the poem, refers to a "powerful, mighty one" that "rules over everything" and who will arrive from above at the court of the gods (Old Norse regindómr ), which has been interpreted as
12626-465: The sound, and they meet. Odin rides to Mímisbrunnr in search of counsel from Mímir. Yggdrasil shakes, and everything, everywhere fears. High relates that the Æsir and the Einherjar dress for war and head to the field. Odin, wearing a gold helmet and an intricate coat of mail , carries his spear Gungnir and rides before them. Odin advances against Fenrir, while Thor moves at his side, though Thor
12744-523: The south of Wales, Gwynedd in the north of Wales is ruled by Math , son of Mathonwy. His feet must be held by a virgin except while he is at war. Math's nephew, Gilfaethwy , is in love with Goewin , his current footholder, and Gilfaethwy's brother Gwydion tricks Math into going to war against Pryderi so Gilfaethwy can have access to her. Gwydion kills Pryderi in single combat, and Gilfaethwy rapes Goewin. Math marries Goewin to save her from disgrace, and banishes Gwydion and Gilfaethwy, transforming them into
12862-412: The stone bears a commonly seen memorial dedication, but is followed by an encoded runic sequence that has been described as "mysterious," and "an interesting magic formula which is known from all over the ancient Norse world." On the early 11th-century Skarpåker Stone , from Södermanland , Sweden, a father grieving his dead son used the same verse form, fornyrðislag , as in the Poetic Edda in
12980-423: The sun's beams in the summers that follow, weathers all treacherous. Do you still seek to know? And what? The völva then describes three roosters crowing: In stanza 42, the jötunn herdsman Eggthér sits on a mound and cheerfully plays his harp while the crimson rooster Fjalar ( Old Norse "hider, deceiver" ) crows in the forest Gálgviðr . The golden rooster Gullinkambi crows to
13098-457: The surviving and returning gods will meet, and the world will be repopulated by two human survivors, Líf and Lífþrasir . Ragnarök is an important event in Norse mythology and has been the subject of scholarly discourse and theory in the history of Germanic studies . The event is attested primarily in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and
13216-439: The temples of the gods, and that Thor's sons Móði and Magni will possess the hammer Mjolnir. In stanza 52, the disguised Odin asks the jötunn about his fate. Vafþrúðnir responds that "the wolf" will consume Odin, and that Víðarr will avenge him by sundering its cold jaws in battle. Odin ends the duel with one final question: what did Odin say to his son before preparing his funeral pyre? With this, Vafþrúðnir realizes that he
13334-458: The venom into a bucket, but whenever she leaves to empty it, the drops reach Loki's face, and the pain he experiences causes convulsions, resulting in earthquakes . Loki is further described as being bound this way until the onset of Ragnarök . Chapter 51 provides a detailed account of Ragnarök interspersed with various quotes from Völuspá , while chapters 52 and 53 describe the aftermath of these events. In Chapter 51, High states that
13452-465: The verb røkkva 'to grow dark'), suggesting a translation 'twilight of the gods.' This reading was widely considered a result of folk etymology , or a learned reinterpretation of the original term due to the merger of / ɔ / (spelled ǫ) and / ø / (spelled ø) in Old Icelandic after c. 1200 (nevertheless giving rise to the calque Götterdämmerung 'Twilight of the Gods' in
13570-402: The wolf will swallow the sun, then his brother will swallow the moon, and mankind will consider the occurrence as a great disaster resulting in much ruin. The stars will disappear. The earth and mountains will shake so violently that the trees will come loose from the soil, the mountains will topple, and all restraints will break, causing Fenrir to break free from his bonds. High relates that
13688-414: The wolf Fenrir by the gods, causing the god Týr to lose his right hand, and that Fenrir remains there until Ragnarök . Gangleri asks High why, since the gods could only expect destruction from Fenrir, they did not simply kill Fenrir once he was bound. High responds that "the gods hold their sacred places and sanctuaries in such respect that they chose not to defile them with the wolf's blood, even though
13806-417: The word appear. In both sources, the word is used to signify the end of the world through fire. Old Norse forms of the term also appear throughout accounts of Ragnarök , where the world is also consumed in flames, and, though various theories exist about the meaning and origins of the term, its etymology has not been solved. Parallels have been pointed out between the Ragnarök of Norse religion and
13924-462: Was a volcano demon. Surtr's name occurs in some Icelandic place names, among them the lava tube Surtshellir , a number of dark caverns in the volcanic central region of Iceland. Parallels have been pointed out between a poem spoken by a jötunn found in the 13th-century þáttr Bergbúa þáttr ("the tale of the mountain dweller"). In the tale, Thórd and his servant get lost while travelling to church in winter, and so take shelter for
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