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105-399: The building's main 12-story block has black tinted glass curtain walls on the north and south sides, while the windowless east and west sides and the protruding elevator shaft on the south side are faced with brick. It sits atop a larger one-story base, with a recessed second story in between. The architect was Willard C. Kruger . The Bank of New Mexico Building, as it was originally known,

210-419: A wind tunnel study is performed on large or unusually-shaped buildings. A scale model of the building and the surrounding vicinity is built and placed in a wind tunnel to determine the wind pressures acting on the structure in question. These studies take into account vortex shedding around corners and the effects of surrounding topography and buildings. Seismic loads in a curtain wall system are limited to

315-456: A 1.2 micron-thick their transparent radiative cooler (TRC) layer of silica , alumina , and titanium oxide upon glass coated with contact lens polymer . The layer permits only visible light to cross, cutting buildings’ cooling costs by as much as one-third. The developers used machine learning and quantum computing to rapidly test models and identify the best. alternative. The most current building code enforced in most jurisdictions in

420-416: A U-value of 0.2 or higher, which is equivalent to an R-value of 5 or lower. Infill refers to the large panels that are inserted into the curtain wall between mullions. Infills are typically glass but may be made up of nearly any exterior building element. Some common infills include metal panels, louvers, and photovoltaic panels. Infills are also referred to as spandrels or spandrel panels. Float glass

525-504: A combination of both. Their exterior walls were load-bearing , supporting much or all of the load of the entire structure. The nature of the materials resulted in inherent limits to a building's height and the maximum size of window openings. The development and widespread use of structural steel and later reinforced concrete allowed relatively small columns to support large loads. The exterior walls could be non-load bearing, and thus much lighter and more open than load-bearing walls of

630-404: A curtain wall. Water penetration is defined as water passing from the exterior of the building to the interior of the curtain wall system. Sometimes, depending on the building specifications , a small amount of controlled water on the interior is deemed acceptable. Controlled water penetration is defined as water that penetrates beyond the inner most vertical plane of the test specimen, but has

735-426: A designed means of drainage back to the exterior. AAMA Voluntary Specifications allow for controlled water penetration while the underlying ASTM E1105 test method would define such water penetration as a failure. To test the ability of a curtain wall to withstand water penetration in the field, an ASTM E1105 water spray rack system is placed on the exterior side of the test specimen, and a positive air pressure difference

840-403: A given curtain wall is anchored at 12-foot (144 in) floor heights. The allowable deflection would then be 144/175 = 0.823 inches, which means the wall is allowed to deflect inward or outward a maximum of 0.823 inches at the maximum wind pressure. However, some panels require stricter movement restrictions, or certainly those that prohibit a torque-like motion. Deflection in mullions

945-422: A high heat transfer coefficient, meaning that aluminum is a very good conductor of heat. This translates into high heat loss through aluminum (or steel) curtain wall mullions. There are several ways to compensate for this heat loss, the most common way being the addition of thermal breaks . These are barriers between exterior metal and interior metal, usually made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These breaks provide

1050-515: A rectangular window to fit into a frame. At the center of a piece of crown glass, a thick remnant of the original blown bottle neck would remain, hence the name "bullseye". Optical distortions produced by the bullseye could be reduced by grinding the glass. The development of diaper latticed windows was in part because three regular diamond-shaped panes could be conveniently cut from a piece of Crown glass, with minimum waste and with minimum distortion. This method for manufacturing flat glass panels

1155-419: A safety glass but will already be thicker than average figured plate to accommodate both patterned faces. The finished thickness being dependent on the imprinted design. Ninety percent of the world's flat glass is produced by the float glass process invented in the 1950s by Sir Alastair Pilkington of Pilkington Glass , in which molten glass is poured onto one end of a molten tin bath. The glass floats on

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1260-407: A shop, but installation and glazing is typically performed at the jobsite. Very similar to a stick system, a ladder system has mullions which can be split and then either snapped or screwed together consisting of a half box and plate. This allows sections of curtain wall to be fabricated in a shop, effectively reducing the time spent installing the system onsite. The drawbacks of using such a system

1365-403: A significant decrease in the thermal conductivity of the curtain wall. However, since the thermal break interrupts the aluminum mullion, the overall moment of inertia of the mullion is reduced and must be accounted for in the structural analysis and deflection analysis of the system. Thermal conductivity of the curtain wall system is important because of heat loss through the wall, which affects

1470-401: A single sheet of glass. When broken, the interlayer keeps the layers of glass bonded and prevents it from breaking apart. The interlayer can also give the glass a higher sound insulation rating. There are several types of laminated glasses manufactured using different types of glass and interlayers which produce different results when broken. Laminated glass that is made up of annealed glass

1575-400: A solid object, it is possible to shatter the entire sheet. Chemically strengthened glass is a type of glass that has increased strength. When broken it still shatters in long pointed splinters similar to float (annealed) glass. For this reason, it is not considered a safety glass and must be laminated if a safety glass is required. Chemically strengthened glass is typically six to eight times

1680-524: A thickness of about 6 mm and stop due to surface tension . Thinner glass is made by stretching the glass while it floats on the tin and cools. Similarly, thicker glass is pushed back and not permitted to expand as it cools on the tin. Toughened (or tempered) glass is made from standard Float Glass to create an impact resistant, safety glass. Broken float glass yields sharp, hazardous shards. The toughening process introduces tensions between internal and external surfaces to increase its strength and ensure in

1785-481: A thin plastic interlayer; copper wall cladding , and panels consisting of metal sheets bonded to rigid insulation, with or without an inner metal sheet to create a sandwich panel. Other opaque panel materials include fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) and terracotta . Terracotta curtain wall panels were first used in Europe, but only a few manufacturers produce high quality modern terracotta curtain wall panels. A louver

1890-416: A transition point then allowed to cool slowly, without being quenched. Float glass is annealed during the process of manufacture. However, most toughened glass is made from float glass that has been specially heat-treated. Annealed glass breaks into large, jagged shards that can cause serious injury and is considered a hazard in architectural applications. Building codes in many parts of the world restrict

1995-407: A wall is quite noticeable, public perception may raise undue concern that the wall is not strong enough. Deflection limits are typically expressed as the distance between anchor points divided by a constant number. A deflection limit of L/175 is common in curtain wall specifications, based on experience with deflection limits that are unlikely to cause damage to the glass held by the mullion. Say that

2100-403: Is transparent , translucent , or opaque, or in varying degrees thereof. Transparent glass usually refers to vision glass in a curtain wall. Spandrel or vision glass may also contain translucent glass, which could be for security or aesthetic purposes. Opaque glass is used in areas to hide a column or spandrel beam or shear wall behind the curtain wall. Another method of hiding spandrel areas

2205-404: Is a normal force acting on the building as the result of wind blowing on the building. Wind pressure is resisted by the curtain wall system since it envelops and protects the building. Wind loads vary greatly throughout the world, with the largest wind loads being near the coast in hurricane -prone regions. For each project location, building codes specify the required design wind loads. Often,

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2310-403: Is a separate criterion in curtain wall design and analysis . This often affects the selection of materials and sizes for design of the system. The allowable bending strength for certain aluminum alloys, such as those typically used in curtain wall framing, approaches the allowable bending strength of steel alloys used in building construction. Relative to other building components, aluminum has

2415-671: Is absent because the spacers make the glass near them slightly warmer. The conduction of heat between the panes, caused by the spacers, tends to limit evacuated glazing's overall insulative effectiveness. Nevertheless, evacuated glazing is still as insulative as much thicker conventional double glazing and tends to be stronger, since the two constituent glass sheets are pressed together by the atmosphere, and hence react practically as one thick sheet to bending forces. Evacuated glazing also offers very good sound insulation in comparison with other popular types of window glazing. One type of heat reduction glass uses radiative cooling. This glass includes

2520-418: Is accounted for by cutting horizontal mullions slightly short and allowing a space between the horizontal and vertical mullions. In unitized curtain wall, a gap is left between units, which is sealed from air and water penetration by gaskets. Vertically, anchors carrying wind load only (not dead load) are slotted to account for movement. Incidentally, this slot also accounts for live load deflection and creep in

2625-440: Is applied to the system. This set up simulates a wind driven rain event on the curtain wall to check for field performance of the product and of the installation. Field quality control and assurance checks for water penetration has become the norm as builders and installers apply such quality programs to help reduce the number of water damage litigation suits against their work. One of the disadvantages of using aluminum for mullions

2730-410: Is attracted to the surface of the glass, forming a thin sheet which washes away the broken-down organic compounds. Insulating glass, or double glazing, consists of a window or glazing element of two or more layers of glazing separated by a spacer along the edge and sealed to create a dead air space between the layers. This type of glazing has functions of thermal insulation and noise reduction . When

2835-409: Is by far the most common curtain wall glazing type. It can be manufactured in an almost infinite combination of color, thickness, and opacity . For commercial construction, the two most common thicknesses are 1 ⁄ 4 inch (6.4 mm) monolithic and 1 inch (25 mm) insulating glass . 1/4 inch glass is typically used only in spandrel areas, while insulating glass is used for the rest of

2940-419: Is clear but has thickness variations due to small temperature changes just out of the vat as it was hardening. These variations cause lines of slight distortions. This glass may still be seen in older houses. Float glass replaced this process. Irving Wightman Colburn development a similar method independently. He began experimenting with the method in 1899, and started production in 1906. He went bankrupt, but

3045-427: Is controlled by different shapes and depths of curtain wall members. The depth of a given curtain wall system is usually controlled by the area moment of inertia required to keep deflection limits under the specification. Another way to limit deflections in a given section is to add steel reinforcement to the inside tube of the mullion. Since steel deflects at one-third the rate of aluminum, the steel will resist much of

3150-408: Is defined as the weight of structural elements and the permanent features on the structure. In the case of curtain walls, this load is made up of the weight of the mullions, anchors and other structural components of the curtain wall, as well as the weight of the infill material. Additional dead loads imposed on the curtain wall may include sunshades or signage attached to the curtain wall. Wind load

3255-405: Is desired while admitting light, such as underground parking garages, washrooms, and municipal swimming baths. Glass block was originally developed in the early 1900s to provide natural light in industrial factories . Annealed glass is glass without internal stresses caused by heat treatment, i.e., rapid cooling, or by toughening or heat strengthening. Glass becomes annealed if it is heated above

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3360-464: Is known as prism tiles , and as deck prisms , which were used to light spaces below deck on sailing ships. It could be highly ornamented; Frank Lloyd Wright created over forty different designs for prism tiles. Modern architectural prism lighting is generally done with a plastic film applied to ordinary window glass. Glass block, also known as glass brick, is an architectural element made from glass used in areas where privacy or visual obscuration

3465-438: Is much less energy-efficient. An evacuated glazing unit is made by sealing the edges of two glass sheets, typically by using a solder glass, and evacuating the space inside with a vacuum pump. The evacuated space between the two sheets can be very shallow and yet be a good insulator, yielding insulative window glass with nominal thicknesses as low as 6 mm overall. The reasons for this low thickness are deceptively complex, but

3570-521: Is normally used when safety is a concern, but tempering is not an option. Windshields are typically laminated glasses. When broken, the PVB layer prevents the glass from breaking apart, creating a "spider web" cracking pattern. Tempered laminated glass is designed to shatter into small pieces, preventing possible injury. When both pieces of glass are broken it produces a "wet blanket" effect and it will fall out of its opening. Heat strengthened laminated glass

3675-478: Is now common. In Scandinavia, the first curtain walls with quadruple-pane have been built. Larger thicknesses are typically employed for buildings or areas with higher thermal, relative humidity , or sound transmission requirements, such as laboratory areas or recording studios . In residential construction, thicknesses commonly used are 1 ⁄ 8 inch (3.2 mm) monolithic and 5 ⁄ 8 inch (16 mm) insulating glass. Glass may be used which

3780-531: Is often of a safety type , which include reinforced, toughened and laminated glasses. Glass casting is the process in which glass objects are cast by directing molten glass into a mould where it solidifies. The technique has been used since the Egyptian period. Modern cast glass is formed by a variety of processes such as kiln casting, or casting into sand, graphite or metal moulds. Cast glass windows, albeit with poor optical qualities, began to appear in

3885-403: Is provided in an area where mechanical equipment located inside the building requires ventilation or fresh air to operate. They can also serve as a means of allowing outside air to filter into the building to take advantage of favorable climatic conditions and minimize the usage of energy-consuming HVAC systems. Curtain wall systems can be adapted to accept most types of louver systems to maintain

3990-598: Is reduced structural performance and visible joint lines down the length of each mullion. Unitized curtain walls entail factory fabrication and assembly of panels and may include factory glazing. These completed units are installed on the building structure to form the building enclosure. Unitized curtain wall has the advantages of: speed; lower field installation costs; and quality control within an interior climate-controlled environment. The economic benefits are typically realized on large projects or in areas of high field labor rates. A common feature in curtain wall technology,

4095-586: Is reflected back inside, while infrared heat radiation from the sun during summer is reflected away, keeping it cooler inside. Electrically heatable glass is a relatively new product, which helps to find solutions while designing buildings and vehicles. The idea of heating glass is based on usage of energy-efficient low-emissive glass that is generally simple silicate glass with special metallic oxides coating. Heatable glass can be used in all kinds of standard glazing systems, made of wood, plastic, aluminum or steel. A recent (2001 Pilkington Glass) innovation

4200-432: Is so-called self-cleaning glass , aimed at building, automotive and other technical applications. A nanometre-scale coating of titanium dioxide on the outer surface of glass introduces two mechanisms which lead to the self-cleaning property. The first is a photo-catalytic effect, in which ultra-violet rays catalyse the breakdown of organic compounds on the window surface; the second is a hydrophilic effect in which water

4305-438: Is stronger than annealed, but not as strong as tempered. It is often used where security is a concern. It has a larger break pattern than tempered, but because it holds its shape (unlike the "wet blanket" effect of tempered laminated glass) it remains in the opening and can withstand more force for a longer period of time, making it much more difficult to get through. Laminated glass has similar properties to ballistic glass , but

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4410-455: Is that its modulus of elasticity is about one-third that of steel. This translates to three times more deflection in an aluminum mullion compared to a similar steel section under a given load. Building specifications set deflection limits for perpendicular (wind-induced) and in-plane (dead load-induced) deflections. These deflection limits are not imposed due to strength capacities of the mullions. Rather, they are designed to limit deflection of

4515-525: Is the 1988 First Interstate Tower fire in Los Angeles, California . The fire leapfrogged up the tower by shattering the glass and then consuming the aluminum framing holding the glass. Aluminum's melting temperature is 660 °C, whereas building fires can reach 1,100 °C. The melting point of aluminum is typically reached within minutes of the start of a fire. Fireman knock-out glazing panels are often required for venting and emergency access from

4620-469: Is the air which passes through the curtain wall from the exterior to the interior of the building. The air is infiltrated through the gaskets, through imperfect joinery between the horizontal and vertical mullions, through weep holes , and through imperfect sealing. The American Architectural Manufacturers Association (AAMA) is an industry trade group in the U.S. that has developed voluntary specifications regarding acceptable levels of air infiltration through

4725-424: Is through shadow box construction (providing a dark enclosed space behind the transparent or translucent glass). Shadow box construction creates a perception of depth behind the glass that is sometimes desired. Thin blocks (3 to 4 inches (76 to 102 millimetres)) of stone can be inset within a curtain wall system. The type of stone used is limited only by the strength of the stone and the ability to manufacture it in

4830-406: The perimeter slab edge , which is a gap between the floor and the curtain wall, is essential to slow the passage of fire and combustion gases between floors. Spandrel areas must have non-combustible insulation at the interior face of the curtain wall. Some building codes require the mullion to be wrapped in heat-retarding insulation near the ceiling to prevent the mullions from melting and spreading

4935-557: The International Style and is quite similar in appearance to the older Simms Building across the street. Like the Simms Building, it has curtain walls on the north and south sides, windowless brick on the east and west sides, a recessed second story exposing the structural columns, and a larger one-story base. The curtain walls were originally clear glass alternating with opaque turquoise-colored panels, but this

5040-413: The rainscreen principle theorizes that equilibrium of air pressure between the outside and inside of the "rainscreen" prevents water penetration into the building. For example, the glass is captured between an inner and an outer gasket in a space called the glazing rebate. The glazing rebate is ventilated to the exterior so that the pressure on the inner and outer sides of the outer gasket is the same. When

5145-591: The American Southwest and in the Mideast for avoiding dust, as well as avoiding soot and smoke staining in polluted urban areas. Architectural glass Architectural glass is glass that is used as a building material . It is most typically used as transparent glazing material in the building envelope , including windows in the external walls. Glass is also used for internal partitions and as an architectural feature. When used in buildings, glass

5250-540: The Belgian engineer Emil Bicheroux improved the plate glass manufacturing by pouring molten glass between two rollers, which resulted in more even thickness and fewer undulations, and reduced the need for grinding and polishing. This process was further improved in the US. The elaborate patterns found on figured (or 'Cathedral') rolled-plate glass are produced in a similar fashion to the rolled plate glass process except that

5355-439: The U.S. and all U.S. embassies built on foreign soil must have some provision for resistance to bomb blasts. Since the curtain wall is at the exterior of the building, it becomes the first line of defense in a bomb attack. As such, blast resistant curtain walls are designed to withstand such forces without compromising the interior of the building to protect its occupants. Since blast loads are very high loads with short durations,

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5460-653: The United States is the 2006 International Building Code (IBC, 2006). The 2006 IBC references for the 2005 edition of the standard Minimum Design Loads for buildings and other Structures prepared by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE, 2005) for its seismic provisions. ASCE 7-05 contains specific requirements for nonstructural components including requirements for architectural glass. If incorrectly designed, concave surfaces with extensive amounts of glass can act as solar concentrators depending on

5565-423: The architects for the remodeling as well, though Kruger himself had died in 1984. The bank headquarters eventually ended up in the hands of Norwest Bank , which moved out in 1994 as it already had headquarters nearby. In 1996, The Bank of New Mexico (unrelated to the original bank) moved in and put its name on the building, but this bank was also acquired by Norwest two years later. Since the early 2000s it has been

5670-524: The atmospheric pressure present on the outside of an evacuated glazing unit, its two glass sheets must somehow be held apart in order to prevent them flexing together and touching each other, which would defeat the object of evacuating the unit. The task of holding the panes apart is performed by a grid of spacers, which typically consist of small stainless steel discs that are placed around 20 mm apart. The spacers are small enough that they are visible only at very close distances, typically up to 1 m. However,

5775-431: The building (sometimes spandrel glass is specified as insulating glass as well). The 1 inch insulation glass is typically made up of two 1/4-inch lites of glass with a 1 ⁄ 2 inch (13 mm) airspace. The air inside is usually atmospheric air, but some inert gases , such as argon or krypton , may be used in order to offer better thermal transmittance values. In Europe, triple-pane insulating glass infill

5880-462: The building blocks of structural understanding were laid for the development of curtain walls. Oriel Chambers (1864) and 16 Cook Street (1866), both built in Liverpool , England , by local architect and civil engineer Peter Ellis , are characterised by their extensive use of glass in their facades. Toward the courtyards they boasted metal-framed glass curtain walls, which makes them two of

5985-640: The building. However, glass also makes the effects of light on visual comfort and solar heat gain in a building more difficult to control. Other common infills include stone veneer , metal panels, louvres , and operable windows or vents. Unlike storefront systems, curtain wall systems are designed to span multiple floors, taking into consideration building sway and movement and design requirements such as thermal expansion and contraction; seismic requirements; water diversion; and thermal efficiency for cost-effective heating, cooling, and interior lighting. Historically, buildings were constructed of timber, masonry, or

6090-415: The case of breakages the glass shatters into small, harmless pieces of glass. The cut glass panels are put into a toughening furnace. Here the glass panels are heated to upward of 600 degrees C and then the surfaces are cooled rapidly with cold air. This produces tensile stresses on the surface of the glass with the warmer internal glass particles. As the top thickness of the glass cools it contracts and forces

6195-399: The clear glasses used for other applications. Only some of the figured glasses may be toughened, dependent on the depth of the embossed pattern. Single rolled figured glass, where the pattern is only imprinted into one surface, may be laminated to produce a safety glass. The much less common 'double rolled figured glass', where the pattern is embossed into both surfaces, can not be made into

6300-413: The completion of the compartment (or envelope). The use of fire sprinklers has been shown to mitigate this matter. As such, unless the building is sprinklered , fire may still travel up the curtain wall, if the glass on the exposed floor is shattered from heat, causing flames to lick up the outside of the building. Falling glass can endanger pedestrians, firefighters and firehoses below. An example of this

6405-432: The corresponding glass elements to contract to introduce stresses into the glass panel and increasing strength. Prism glass is architectural glass which bends light. It was frequently used around the turn of the 20th century to provide natural light to underground spaces and areas far from windows. Prism glass can be found on sidewalks, where it is known as vault lighting , in windows, partitions, and canopies, where it

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6510-608: The curtain wall at 900–910 Lake Shore Drive, where the curtain is an autonomous aluminum and glass skin. After 900–910, Mies's curtain wall appeared on all of his subsequent high-rise building designs, including the Seagram Building in New York. The widespread use of aluminium extrusions for mullions began during the 1970s. Aluminum alloys offer the unique advantage of being able to be easily extruded into nearly any shape required for design and aesthetic purposes. Today,

6615-398: The curtain wall response should be analyzed in a dynamic load analysis, with full-scale mock-up testing performed prior to design completion and installation. Blast resistant glazing consists of laminated glass , which is meant to break but not separate from the mullions. Similar technology is used in hurricane-prone areas for impact protection from wind-borne debris. Air infiltration

6720-511: The cylinder unrolls into a flat glass sheets. Drawn Sheet glass was made by dipping a leader into a vat of molten glass then pulling that leader straight up while a film of glass hardened just out of the vat – this is known as the Fourcault process . This film or ribbon was pulled up continuously held by tractors on both edges while it cooled. After 12 metres or so it was cut off the vertical ribbon and tipped down to be further cut. This glass

6825-615: The design complexity and shapes available are nearly limitless. Custom shapes can be designed and manufactured with relative ease. The Omni San Diego Hotel curtain wall in California, designed by architectural firm Hornberger and Worstel and developed by JMI Realty, is an example of a unitized curtain-wall system with integrated sunshades. The vast majority of ground-floor curtain walls are installed as long pieces (referred to as sticks ) between floors vertically and between vertical members horizontally. Framing members may be fabricated in

6930-617: The exterior. Knock-out panels are generally fully tempered glass to allow full fracturing of the panel into small pieces and relatively safe removal from the opening. Curtain walls and perimeter sealants require maintenance to maximize service life. Perimeter sealants, properly designed and installed, have a typical service life of 10 to 15 years. Removal and replacement of perimeter sealants require meticulous surface preparation and proper detailing. Aluminum frames are generally painted or anodized . Care must be taken when cleaning areas around anodized material as some cleaning agents will destroy

7035-401: The fact that the spacers will conduct some heat often leads in cold weather to the formation of temporary, grid-shaped patterns on the surface of an evacuated window, consisting either of small circles of interior condensation centred around the spacers, where the glass is slightly colder than average, or, when there is dew outside, small circles on the exterior face of the glass, in which the dew

7140-815: The finish. Factory applied fluoropolymer thermoset coatings have good resistance to environmental degradation and require only periodic cleaning. Recoating with an air-dry fluoropolymer coating is possible but requires special surface preparation and is not as durable as the baked-on original coating. Anodized aluminum frames cannot be "re-anodized" in place but can be cleaned and protected by proprietary clear coatings to improve appearance and durability. Stainless steel curtain walls require no coatings, and embossed, as opposed to abrasively finished, surfaces maintain their original appearance indefinitely without cleaning or other maintenance. Some specially textured matte stainless steel surface finishes are hydrophobic and resist airborne and rain-borne pollutants. This has been valuable in

7245-451: The fire to the floor above. The firestop at the perimeter slab edge is considered a continuation of the fire-resistance rating of the floor slab. The curtain wall itself, however, is not ordinarily required to have a rating. This causes a quandary as compartmentalization (fire protection) is typically based upon closed compartments to avoid fire and smoke migrations beyond each engaged compartment. A curtain wall by its very nature prevents

7350-447: The first curtain walls were made with steel mullions , and the polished plate glass was attached to the mullions with asbestos- or fiberglass-modified glazing compound. Eventually silicone sealants or glazing tape were substituted for the glazing compound. Some designs included an outer cap to hold the glass in place and to protect the integrity of the seals. The landmarks of curtain wall design as it came to dominate construction were

7455-534: The floor slabs of the building structure. Accidental explosions and terrorist threats have brought on increased concern for the fragility of a curtain wall system in relation to blast loads. The bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, has spawned much of the current research and mandates in regards to building response to blast loads. Currently, all new federal buildings in

7560-415: The glass (which may break under excessive deflection), and to ensure that the glass does not come out of its pocket in the mullion. Deflection limits are also necessary to control movement at the interior of the curtain wall. Building construction may be such that there is a wall located near the mullion, and excessive deflection can cause the mullion to contact the wall and cause damage. Also, if deflection of

7665-489: The headquarters of New Mexico Bank & Trust, a division of HTLF Bank. The building is visible in a scene of Better Call Saul . The New Mexico Bank & Trust Building is 203 feet (62 m) tall and has 14 above-ground floors plus a mechanical penthouse . It was designed by Willard C. Kruger , who was also the architect of the New Mexico State Capitol among other works. Stylistically, it fits into

7770-688: The heating and cooling costs of the building. On a poorly performing curtain wall, condensation may form on the interior of the mullions. This could cause damage to adjacent interior trim and walls. Rigid insulation is provided in spandrel areas to provide a higher R-value at these locations. Thermally-broken mullions with double- or triple-glazed IGUs are often referred to as "high-performance" curtain walls. While these curtain wall systems are more energy-efficient than older, single-glazed versions, they are still significantly less efficient than opaque (solid) wall construction. For example, nearly all curtain wall systems, thermally-broken or otherwise, have

7875-573: The interstory drift induced on the building during an earthquake . In most situations, the curtain wall is able to naturally withstand seismic and wind induced building sway because of the space provided between the glazing infill and the mullion. In tests, standard curtain wall systems are typically able to withstand up to three inches (76 mm) of relative floor movement without glass breakage or water leakage. Snow loads and live loads are not typically an issue in curtain walls, since curtain walls are designed to be vertical or slightly inclined. If

7980-410: The ladle the glass is thrown upon the cast-iron bed of a rolling-table; and is rolled into sheet by an iron roller, the process being similar to that employed in making plate-glass, but on a smaller scale. The sheet thus rolled is roughly trimmed while hot and soft, so as to remove those portions of glass which have been spoiled by immediate contact with the ladle, and the sheet, still soft, is pushed into

8085-459: The load at a lower cost or smaller depth. Deflection in curtain wall mullions also differs from deflection of the building structure, whether concrete, steel, or timber. Curtain wall anchors must be designed to allow differential movement between the building structure and the curtain wall. Strength (or maximum usable stress ) available to a particular material is not related to its material stiffness (the material property governing deflection); it

8190-426: The main building structure through connections at floors or columns of the building. Curtain walls may be designed as "systems" integrating frame, wall panel, and weatherproofing materials. Steel frames have largely given way to aluminum extrusions. Glass is typically used for infill because it can reduce construction costs, provide an architecturally pleasing look, and allow natural light to penetrate deeper within

8295-399: The manner of tempered glass. On breaking, heat-strengthened glass breaks into sharp pieces that are typically somewhat smaller than those found on breaking annealed glass, and is intermediate in strength between annealed and toughened glasses. Heat-strengthened glass can take a strong direct hit without shattering, but has a weak edge. By simply tapping the edge of heat-strengthened glass with

8400-471: The most important buildings in Rome and the most luxurious villas of Herculaneum and Pompeii. One of the earliest methods of glass window manufacture was the crown glass method. Hot blown glass was cut open opposite the pipe, then rapidly spun on a table before it could cool. Centrifugal force shaped the hot globe of glass into a round, flat sheet. The sheet would then be broken off the pipe and trimmed to form

8505-555: The open mouth of an annealing tunnel or temperature-controlled oven called a lehr , down which it is carried by a system of rollers. The polished plate glass process starts with sheet or rolled plate glass. This glass is dimensionally inaccurate and often created visual distortions. These rough panes were ground flat and then polished clear. This was a fairly expensive process. Before the float process, mirrors were plate glass as sheet glass had visual distortions that were akin to those seen in amusement park or funfair mirrors. In 1918

8610-582: The past. This gave way to increased use of glass as an exterior façade, and the modern-day curtain wall was born. Post-and-beam and balloon framed timber structures effectively had an early version of curtain walls, for their frames supported loads that allowed the walls themselves to serve other functions, such as keeping weather out and allowing light in. When iron began to be used extensively in buildings in late 18th-century Britain, such as at Ditherington Flax Mill , and later when buildings of wrought iron and glass such as The Crystal Palace were built,

8715-413: The plate is cast between two rollers, one of which carries a pattern. On occasion, both rollers can carry a pattern. The pattern is impressed upon the sheet by a printing roller which is brought down upon the glass as it leaves the main rolls while still soft. This glass shows a pattern in high relief. The glass is then annealed in a lehr . The glass used for this purpose is typically whiter in colour than

8820-434: The potential insulation is good essentially because there can be no convection or gaseous conduction in a vacuum. Unfortunately, evacuated glazing does have some disadvantages; its manufacture is complicated and difficult. For example, a necessary stage in the manufacture of evacuated glazing is outgassing ; that is, heating it to liberate any gases adsorbed on the inner surfaces, which could otherwise later escape and destroy

8925-407: The pressure is equal across this gasket, water cannot be drawn through joints or defects in the gasket. A curtain wall system must be designed to handle all loads imposed on it as well as keep air and water from penetrating the building envelope. The loads imposed on the curtain wall are transferred to the building structure through the anchors which attach the mullions to the building. Dead load

9030-527: The private Petroleum Club, while the namesake Bank of New Mexico had its headquarters on the ground floor. In 1981, the bank's holding company re-branded its banks with the First Interstate Bank name, and the building was renamed accordingly. The building was given a $ 5 million remodeling in 1986, which included major mechanical work as well as replacing the original curtain walls with the current black tinted glass. Kruger & Associates were

9135-414: The proper shape and size. Common stone types used are: calcium silicate , granite , marble , travertine , limestone , and engineered stone . To reduce weight and improve strength, the natural stone may be attached to an aluminum honeycomb backing. Metal panels can take various forms including stainless steel, aluminum plate; aluminum composite panels consisting of two thin aluminum sheets sandwiching

9240-564: The region of approximately 20 mm of the cut. Similarly, when the surface of chemically strengthened glass is deeply scratched, this area loses its additional strength. Chemically strengthened glass was used on some fighter aircraft canopies . Glass coated with a low-emissivity substance can reflect radiant infrared energy, encouraging radiant heat to remain on the same side of the glass from which it originated, while letting visible light pass. This often results in more efficient windows because radiant heat originating from indoors in winter

9345-427: The same architectural sightlines and style while providing desired functionality. Most curtain wall glazing is fixed, meaning that there is no access to the exterior of the building except through doors. However, windows or vents can be glazed into the curtain wall system as well, to provide required ventilation or operable windows. Nearly any window type can be made to fit into a curtain wall system. Firestopping at

9450-413: The slope of a wall exceeds 20 degrees or so, these loads may need to be considered. Thermal loads are induced in a curtain wall system because aluminum has a relatively high coefficient of thermal expansion . This means that over the span of a couple of floors, the curtain wall will expand and contract some distance, relative to its length and the temperature differential. This expansion and contraction

9555-538: The space is filled with an inert gas it is part of energy conservation sustainable architecture design for low energy buildings . A 1994 innovation for insulated glazing is evacuated glass, which as yet is produced commercially only in Japan and China. The extreme thinness of evacuated glazing offers many new architectural possibilities, particularly in building conservation and historicist architecture, where evacuated glazing can replace traditional single glazing, which

9660-418: The strength of annealed glass. The glass is chemically strengthened by submerging the glass in a bath containing a potassium salt (typically potassium nitrate) at 450 °C (842 °F). This causes sodium ions in the glass surface to be replaced by potassium ions from the bath solution. Unlike toughened glass, chemically strengthened glass may be cut after strengthening, but loses its added strength within

9765-441: The tin embedded in its surface. This quality makes that side of the glass easier to be coated in order to turn it into a mirror, however that side is also softer and easier to scratch. Glass is produced in standard metric thicknesses of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 19 and 25 mm, with 10mm being the most popular sizing in the architectural industry. Molten glass floating on tin in a nitrogen/hydrogen atmosphere will spread out to

9870-421: The tin, and levels out as it spreads along the bath, giving a smooth face to both sides. The glass cools and slowly solidifies as it travels over the molten tin and leaves the tin bath in a continuous ribbon. The glass is then annealed by cooling in an oven called a lehr . The finished product has near-perfect parallel surfaces. The side of the glass that has been in contact with the tin has a very small amount of

9975-410: The two should not be confused. Both are made using a PVB interlayer, but they have drastically different tensile strength. Ballistic glass and laminated glass are both rated to different standards and have a different shatter pattern. Heat-strengthened glass, or tempered glass, is glass that has been heat treated to induce surface compression, but not to the extent of causing it to "dice" on breaking in

10080-456: The use of annealed glass in areas where there is a high risk of breakage and injury , for example in bathrooms , door panels, fire exits and at low heights in schools or domestic houses. Safety glass , such as laminated or tempered must be used in these settings to reduce risk of injury. Laminated glass is manufactured by bonding two or more layers of glass together with an interlayer, such as PVB , under heat and pressure, to create

10185-629: The vacuum. This heating process currently means that evacuated glazing cannot be toughened or heat-strengthened. If an evacuated safety glass is required, the glass must be laminated. The high temperatures necessary for outgassing also tend to destroy the highly effective "soft" low-emissivity coatings that are often applied to one or both of the internal surfaces (i.e. the ones facing the air gap) of other forms of modern insulative glazing, in order to prevent loss of heat through infrared radiation. Slightly less effective "hard" coatings are still suitable for evacuated glazing, however. Furthermore, because of

10290-578: The very different systems used by the United Nations Headquarters and the Lever House completed in 1952. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 's curtain wall is one of the most important aspects of his architectural design. Mies first began prototyping the curtain wall in his high-rise residential building designs along Chicago's lakeshore, achieving the look of a curtain wall at 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments . He finally perfected

10395-507: The world's first buildings to include this architectural feature. Oriel Chambers is listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the earliest such building. The extensive glass walls allowed light to penetrate further into the building, utilizing more floor space and reducing lighting costs. Oriel Chambers comprises 43,000 sq ft (4,000 m ) set over five floors without an elevator , which had only recently been invented and

10500-447: Was bought by Michael Joseph Owens . Because the method was imperfect, they kept refining it till 1916 when they felt it was perfect, and opened a glass factory based on the technology the year after. In 1838, James Hartley was granted a patent for Hartley's Patent Rolled Plate, manufactured by a new cast glass process. The glass is taken from the furnace in large iron ladles, which are carried upon slings running on overhead rails; from

10605-574: Was built in 1959–1961 by the Bank Realty Company, which had Winthrop Rockefeller as one of its main partners. Rockefeller was also one of the developers of Winrock Center and would later be elected governor of Arkansas . Built on a five-lot parcel at 4th Street and Gold Avenue, the building replaced several older structures including Wright's Trading Post. The general contractor was the George A. Fuller Construction Company of New York. It

10710-647: Was dedicated on January 16, 1961, in a ceremony featuring Native American dancers and speeches by Rockefeller, dressed in a sombrero for the occasion, and Chairman of the City Commission Maurice Sanchez . The project's total cost was about $ 4 million. Designed by local architect Willard C. Kruger , the 14-story building surpassed the Simms Building across the street to become the tallest in New Mexico. The 14th floor housed

10815-541: Was not yet widespread. The Statue of Liberty (1886) features a thin, non-load-bearing copper skin. Extensive use of glass became required for large factory buildings to allow light for manufacture, sometimes making it seem like they had all glass facades. An early example of an all-steel curtain wall used in the classical style is the Kaufhaus Tietz  [ de ] department store on Leipziger Straße, Berlin , built in 1901 (since demolished). Some of

10920-572: Was replaced by black tinted glass set in a coral-colored frame during the 1986 remodeling. On the south side, the building has a protruding, brick-faced elevator shaft. Curtain wall (architecture) A curtain wall is an exterior covering of a building in which the outer walls are non-structural, instead serving to protect the interior of the building from the elements. Because the curtain wall façade carries no structural load beyond its own dead load weight, it can be made of lightweight materials. The wall transfers lateral wind loads upon it to

11025-413: Was very expensive and could not be used to make large panes. It was replaced in the 19th century by the cylinder, sheet, and rolled plate processes, but it is still used in traditional construction and restoration. In this manufacturing process, glass is blown into a cylindrical iron mould. The ends are cut off and a cut is made down the side of the cylinder. The cut cylinder is then placed in an oven where

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