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113-714: Gorda Point Lighthouse is one of several lighthouses constructed in the Philippines in the 1930s during the American colonial period . It was built atop a promontory at Gorda Point, on the northeast tip of Tablas Island , in Barangay Cawayan in San Agustin, Romblon. It serves as a guiding light for maritime vessels traversing the Romblon Pass between the islands of Tablas and Romblon. A keeper's dwelling

226-564: A ceasefire between the Spanish colonial governor-general Fernando Primo de Rivera and the revolutionary leader Emilio Aguinaldo that was signed on December 15, 1897. The terms of the pact called for Aguinaldo and his militia to surrender. Other revolutionary leaders were given amnesty and a monetary indemnity by the Spanish government in return for which the rebel government agreed to go into exile in Hong Kong . Concurrently,

339-499: A bicameral Congress, and permit the re-election of President Quezon, previously restricted to a single, six-year term. Commonwealth of the Philippines Majority: Christianity ( Catholicism , Protestantism ) The Commonwealth of the Philippines ( Spanish : Mancomunidad de Filipinas ; Tagalog : Komonwelt ng Pilipinas ) was an unincorporated territory and commonwealth of

452-586: A bloodless secret agreement with acting governor-general Fermín Jáudenes , staging a mock battle in which the Spanish forces would be defeated by the American forces, but the Filipino forces would not be allowed to enter the city. On the evening of August 12, the Americans notified Aguinaldo to forbid the insurgents under his command from entering Manila without American permission. On August 13, unaware of

565-535: A brief meeting with Dewey, resumed revolutionary activities against the Spanish. On May 24, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation in which he assumed command of all Philippine forces and announced his intention to establish a dictatorial government with himself as dictator, saying that he would resign in favor of a duly elected president. Public jubilation marked Aguinaldo's return. Many Filipino enlisted men deserted local Spanish army units to join Aguinaldo's command and

678-712: A census, a general election was conducted for the choice of delegates to a popular assembly. An elected Philippine Assembly was convened in 1907 as the lower house of a bicameral legislature , with the Philippine Commission as the upper house. Every year from 1907 the Philippine Assembly and later the Philippine Legislature passed resolutions expressing the Filipino desire for independence. Philippine nationalists led by Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña enthusiastically endorsed

791-565: A counter-proclamation summarizing American violations of the ethics of friendship, and stated that a takeover of the Visayas by the Americans would lead to hostilities. Within the same day Aguinaldo replaced this proclamation with another that directly protested American infringement on "the sovereignty of these islands". Otis took these two proclamations as a call to arms, and as tensions increased 40,000 Filipinos fled Manila within 15 days. Meanwhile, Felipe Agoncillo , who had been commissioned by

904-650: A government consisting of "a Governor-General appointed by the President; cabinet appointed by the Governor-General; [and] a general advisory council elected by the people." The Revolutionary Congress voted unanimously to cease fighting and accept peace and, on May 8, the revolutionary cabinet headed by Apolinario Mabini was replaced by a new "peace" cabinet headed by Pedro Paterno . At this point, General Antonio Luna arrested Paterno and most of his cabinet, returning Mabini and his cabinet to power. After this,

1017-531: A judicial system, including a supreme court, drew up a legal code, and organized a civil service. The 1901 municipal code provided for popularly elected presidents, vice presidents, and councilors to serve on municipal boards. The municipal board members were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining municipal properties, and undertaking necessary construction projects; they also elected provincial governors. During these period, U.S., Spanish, and Mexican monies were all in local circulation. Commonwealth Act No. 1045

1130-540: A matter of hours. The unexpected rapidity and completeness of Dewey's victory in the first engagement of the war prompted the McKinley administration to make the decision to capture Manila from the Spanish. While awaiting the arrival of troops from the Eighth Corps, Dewey dispatched the cutter USRC McCulloch to Hong Kong to transport Aguinaldo back to the Philippines. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19 and, after

1243-499: A politically bowdlerized version had been sent to Aguinaldo, published it in both Spanish and Tagalog. Even before Aguinaldo received the unaltered version and observed the changes in the copy he had received from Otis, he was upset that Otis had altered his own title to "Military Governor of the Philippines" from "... in the Philippines". Aguinaldo did not miss the significance of the alteration, which Otis had made without authorization from Washington. On January 5, Aguinaldo issued

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1356-481: A robust coconut industry helped boost the economy by funding infrastructure and other development projects. However, growth was halted due to the outbreak of World War II. In 1939, a census of the Philippines was taken and determined that it had a population of 16,000,303; of these 15.7 million were counted as " Brown ", 141.8 thousand as " Yellow ", 50.5 thousand as " Mixed ", 29.1 thousand as " Negro ", 19.3 thousand as " White ", and under 1 thousand "Other". In 1941,

1469-515: A strong executive and a supreme court. Its legislature, dominated by the Nacionalista Party , was at first unicameral but later bicameral. In 1937, the government selected Tagalog – the language of Manila and its surrounding provinces – as the basis of the national language , although it would be many years before its usage became general. Women's suffrage was adopted, and the economy recovered to its pre- Depression level before

1582-603: The Japan International Cooperation Agency , saw the construction of a new 19 metres (62 ft) concrete tower and a light the runs on solar power . Sometime between 1994 and 2015, the lighthouse was damaged by inclement weather and became inoperable. On 7 May 2015, the Philippine Coast Guard, in a Notice to Mariners on its website, announced that the lighthouse had been restored into normal operation on 16 April 2015, with

1695-626: The Nacionalista Party were proclaimed the winners, winning the seats of president and vice-president, respectively. The Commonwealth government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15, 1935, in ceremonies held on the steps of the Legislative Building in Manila. The event was attended by a crowd of around 300,000 people. The new government embarked on ambitious nation-building policies in preparation for economic and political independence. These included national defense (such as

1808-556: The National Defense Act of 1935 , which organized a conscription for service in the country), greater control over the economy , the perfection of democratic institutions, reforms in education, the improvement of transportation, the promotion of local capital, and industrialization. However, uncertainties, especially in the diplomatic and military situation in Southeast Asia , in the level of U.S. commitment to

1921-746: The Pacific War Council as well as the Declaration by United Nations . Quezon became ill with tuberculosis and died from it, with Osmeña succeeding him as president. The main general headquarters of the Philippine Commonwealth Army (PCA), located on the military station in Ermita, Manila , was closed down on December 24, 1941. It was taken over by the Japanese Imperial Forces when they occupied

2034-711: The Philippine Senate to ratify the law. Manuel L. Quezon urged the Philippine Senate to reject the bill, which it did. Quezon himself led the twelfth independence mission to Washington to secure a better independence act. The result was the Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934 which was very similar to the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act except in minor details. The Tydings-McDuffie Act was ratified by the Philippine Senate. The law provided for

2147-723: The United States that existed from 1935 to 1946. It was established following the Tydings–McDuffie Act to replace the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands and was designed as a transitional administration in preparation for full Philippine independence. Its foreign affairs remained managed by the United States. During its more than a decade of existence, the Commonwealth had

2260-529: The United States Armed Forces . After the appointment of a civil governor-general , the procedure developed that as parts of the country were pacified and placed firmly under American control, responsibility for the area would be passed to the civilians. The position of military governor was abolished in July 1902, after which the civil governor-general became the sole executive authority in

2373-572: The 48 provinces . General Douglas MacArthur 's army landed on Leyte on October 20, 1944, as did the Philippine Commonwealth troops who arrived in other amphibious landings . The Philippine Constabulary was placed on active service with the Philippine Commonwealth Army and re-established from October 28, 1944, to June 30, 1946, during the Allied liberation and the post–World War II era. Fighting continued in remote corners of

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2486-451: The Commonwealth of the Philippines with a ten-year period of peaceful transition to full independence – the date of which was to be on the 4th of July following the tenth anniversary of the establishment of the Commonwealth. A Constitutional Convention was convened in Manila on July 30, 1934. On February 8, 1935, the 1935 Constitution of the Commonwealth of the Philippines was approved by

2599-580: The Congress (reorganized May 25, 1946), with Senator José Avelino as the Senate President and Congressman Eugenio Pérez as the House of Representatives Speaker . On June 3, 1946, Roxas appeared for the first time before the joint session of the Congress to deliver his first state of the nation address . Among other things, he told the members of the Congress the grave problems and difficulties

2712-547: The Filipino Nation" is handwritten by Lt. Col. Jose Bañuelo. On June 18, Aguinaldo issued a decree formally establishing his dictatorial government. On June 23, Aguinaldo issued another decree, this time replacing the dictatorial government with a revolutionary government (and naming himself as president). On July 15, Aguinaldo issued three organic decrees assuming civil authority of the Philippines. The first contingent of American troops arrived on June 30 under

2825-405: The Filipino people. Other sources for foreign income included the spin-off from money spent at American military bases on the Philippines such as the naval base at Subic Bay and Clark Air Base (with U.S. Army airplanes there as early as 1919), both on the island of Luzon . The performance of the economy was initially good despite challenges from various agrarian uprisings. Taxes collected from

2938-494: The First World War and supported the United States against Germany. After the war they resumed their independence drive with great vigor. On March 17, 1919, the Philippine Legislature passed a "Declaration of Purposes", which stated the inflexible desire of the Filipino people to be free and sovereign. A Commission of Independence was created to study ways and means of attaining liberation ideal. This commission recommended

3051-622: The Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act, but the American Congress overrode Hoover's veto in 1933 and passed the law over Hoover's objections. The bill, however, was opposed by then-Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon and was also rejected by the Philippine Senate . This led to the creation and passing of the Tydings–McDuffie Act or the Philippine Independence Act, which allowed the establishment of

3164-696: The Japanese continued on the Bataan Peninsula , Corregidor , and Leyte until the final surrender of United States-Philippine forces in May 1942. Quezon and Osmeña were escorted by troops from Manila to Corregidor and later left for Australia prior to going to the U.S., where they set up a government in exile, based at the Shoreham Hotel in Washington, D.C. This government participated in

3277-487: The Japanese invasion and occupation during World War II. Japan launched a surprise attack on the Philippines on December 8, 1941. The Commonwealth government drafted the Philippine Army into the U.S. Army Forces Far East , which would resist Japanese occupation. Manila was declared an open city to prevent its destruction, and it was occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942. Meanwhile, battles against

3390-575: The Japanese occupation continued in the Philippines. This included the Hukbalahap ("People's Army Against the Japanese"), which consisted of 30,000 armed men and controlled much of Central Luzon ; they attacked both the Japanese and other non-Huk guerrillas. Remnants of the Philippine Army, as well as unsurrendered Americans, also successfully fought the Japanese through guerrilla warfare . These efforts eventually liberated all but 12 of

3503-512: The Japanese occupation in 1942. A period of exile took place during World War II from 1942 to 1945, when Japan occupied the Commonwealth . On July 4, 1946, the Commonwealth ended, and the Philippines attained full sovereignty as provided for in Article XVIII of the 1935 Constitution . The Commonwealth of the Philippines was also known as the "Philippine Commonwealth", or simply as "the Commonwealth". Its official name in Spanish,

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3616-550: The National Assembly. The colors indicate the political party or coalition of each president at Election Day. In 1935 Quezon won the Philippines' first national presidential election under the banner of the Nacionalista Party. He obtained nearly 68% of the vote against his two main rivals, Emilio Aguinaldo and Bishop Gregorio Aglipay . Quezon was inaugurated on November 15, 1935. He is recognized as

3729-470: The Philippine Commission, and also stipulated that the bicameral Philippine Legislature would be established composed of an elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly , and the appointed Philippine Commission as the upper house. The act also provided for extending the U.S. Bill of Rights to the Philippines. On July 2, 1902, the secretary of war telegraphed that the insurrection against

3842-542: The Philippine Islands experienced a period of great political turbulence, characterized by the Philippine–American War . Beginning in 1906, the military government was replaced by a civilian government—the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands —with William Howard Taft serving as its first governor-general . A series of insurgent governments that lacked significant international and diplomatic recognition also existed between 1898 and 1904. Following

3955-649: The Philippine Revolution against Spain resumed, capturing many cities and some entire provinces. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the Philippines at his house in Cavite El Viejo . The "Acta de la Proclamacion de Independencia del Pueblo Filipino" in Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista 's penmanship was signed by 98 natives on June 12, 1898, thereat. The only copy thereof, "The Birth Certificate of

4068-479: The Philippine constitution from seeking re-election. However, in 1940, constitutional amendments were ratified allowing him to seek re-election for a fresh term ending in 1943. In the 1941 presidential elections , Quezon was re-elected over former Senator Juan Sumulong with nearly 82% of the vote. In a notable humanitarian act, Quezon, in cooperation with U.S. High Commissioner Paul V. McNutt , facilitated

4181-484: The Philippine revolutionary government as minister plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties with foreign governments, filed a request in Washington for an interview with the president to discuss affairs in the Philippines. At the same time Aguinaldo protested against General Otis styling himself "Military Governor of the Philippines", and Agoncillo, along with Filipino committees in London, Paris, and Madrid, issued statements to

4294-701: The Philippines 600 teachers from the U.S.—the so-called Thomasites . Free primary instruction that trained the people for the duties of citizenship and avocation was enforced by the Taft Commission per instructions of President McKinley. Also, the Catholic Church was disestablished, and a considerable amount of church land was purchased and redistributed. An anti-sedition law was established in 1901, followed by an anti-brigandage law in 1902. The Philippine Organic Act of July 1902 approved, ratified, and confirmed McKinley's executive order establishing

4407-535: The Philippines to fall into Japanese hands. The Jones Bill was rewritten and passed Congress in 1916 with a later date of independence. The law, officially the Philippine Autonomy Act but popularly known as the Jones Law , served as the new organic act (or constitution) for the Philippines. Its preamble stated that the eventual independence of the Philippines would be American policy, subject to

4520-731: The Philippines until Japan's surrender in August 1945, which was signed on September 2 in Tokyo Bay. Estimates of Filipino war dead reached one million, and Manila was extensively damaged when Japanese marines refused to vacate the city when ordered to do so by the Japanese High Command. After the war in the Philippines , the Commonwealth was restored, and a one-year transitional period in preparation for independence began. Elections followed in April 1946, with Manuel Roxas winning as

4633-478: The Philippines was to come under the sovereignty of the United States, with American forces instructed to declare themselves as friends rather than invaders. On December 21, 1898, President McKinley issued a proclamation of benevolent assimilation . General Otis delayed its publication until January 4, 1899, then publishing an amended version edited so as not to convey the meanings of the terms "sovereignty", "protection", and "right of cessation" which were present in

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4746-577: The Philippines were set to face and reported on his special trip to the U.S. – the approval for independence. On June 21, he reappeared in another joint session of the Congress and urged the acceptance of two important laws passed by the U.S. Congress on April 30, 1946, regarding the Philippine lands. They are the Philippine Rehabilitation Act and the Philippine Trade Act . Both recommendations were accepted by

4859-461: The Philippines. Under the military government, an American-style school system was introduced, initially with soldiers as teachers; civil and criminal courts were reestablished, including a supreme court; and local governments were established in towns and provinces. The first local election was conducted by General Harold W. Lawton on May 7, 1899, in Baliuag, Bulacan . Elections were held by

4972-530: The Public Lands Act which modeled the Homestead Acts of the United States, and allowed individuals to claim land on the basis of a five-year residency. Both of these systems benefited larger landowners who were more able to take advantage of the bureaucracy, and only one tenth of homestead claims were ever approved. While Philippine ports remained open to Spanish ships for a decade following

5085-592: The U.S. Congress, which passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Bill on December 30, 1932. U.S. President Herbert Hoover vetoed the bill on January 13, 1933. Congress overrode the veto on January 17, and the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act became U.S. law. The law promised Philippine independence after 10 years, but reserved several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. The law also required

5198-698: The US Government treated the Commonwealth as a sovereign state, and the Philippines sometimes acted in a state capacity in international relations. During the 1935–41 period, the Commonwealth of the Philippines featured a very strong executive , a unicameral National Assembly , and a Supreme Court , all composed entirely of Filipinos, as well as an elected Resident Commissioner to the United States House of Representatives (as Puerto Rico does today). An American High Commissioner and an American Military Advisor , Douglas MacArthur headed

5311-439: The United States noting a refusal for the Philippines to come under American sovereignty. Filipino forces were ready to assume the offensive, but instead sought to provoke the Americans into firing the first shot. On January 31, 1899, The Minister of Interior of the revolutionary First Philippine Republic, Teodoro Sandiko, signed a decree saying that President Aguinaldo had directed that all idle lands be planted to provide food for

5424-590: The United States. During the Commonwealth period, tenant farmers held grievances often rooted to debt caused by the sharecropping system, as well as by the dramatic increase in population, which added economic pressure to the tenant farmers' families. As a result, an agrarian reform program was initiated by the Commonwealth. However, success of the program was hampered by ongoing clashes between tenants and landowners. An example of these clashes includes one initiated by Benigno Ramos through his Sakdalista movement, which advocated tax reductions, land reforms,

5537-519: The United States. A health care system was established which, by 1930, reduced the mortality rate from all causes, including various tropical diseases , to a level similar to that of the United States itself. The practices of slavery , piracy and headhunting were suppressed but not entirely extinguished. Cultural developments strengthened the continuing development of a national identity, and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages. Two years after completion and publication of

5650-486: The breakup of the large estates or haciendas , and the severing of American ties. The uprising, which occurred in Central Luzon in May 1935, claimed about a hundred lives. As per the 1935 constitution, the commonwealth had two official languages: English and Spanish. Due to the diverse number of Philippine languages , a provision calling for the " development and adoption of a common national language based on

5763-489: The capture of Malolos on March 31, 1899, and were driven into northern Luzon. Peace feelers from members of Aguinaldo's cabinet failed in May when the American commander, General Ewell Otis, demanded an unconditional surrender. In 1901, Aguinaldo was captured and swore allegiance to the United States, marking one end to the war. Casualties during the war were much greater among Filipinos than among Americans. Almost 4,000 American soldiers died, out of about 125,000 that fought on

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5876-643: The city on January 2, 1942. Elsewhere in the country, other military posts of the PCA in Luzon , the Visayas , and Mindanao engaged in military action against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Japanese military organized a new government in the Philippines known as the Second Philippine Republic , headed by President Jose P. Laurel . This pro-Japanese government became very unpopular. Resistance to

5989-433: The city on September 15. The Battle of Manila marked the end of Filipino-American collaboration. On August 14, 1898, two days after the capture of Manila, the U.S. established a military government in the Philippines , with General Merritt acting as military governor. During military rule (1898–1902), the U.S. military commander governed the Philippines under the authority of the U.S. president as commander-in-chief of

6102-469: The city, however U.S. commanders pressed Aguinaldo to withdraw his forces from Manila. On August 12, 1898, a peace protocol was signed in Washington between the U.S. and Spain. The full text of the protocol was not made public until November 5, but Article III read: "The United States will occupy and hold the City, Bay, and Harbor of Manila, pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace, which shall determine

6215-453: The command of Brigadier General Thomas McArthur Anderson . Anderson wrote to Aguinaldo, requesting his cooperation in military operations against the Spanish forces. Aguinaldo responded, thanking General Anderson, but saying nothing about military cooperation. General Anderson did not renew the request. American generals suspected Aguinaldo was attempting to take Manila without American assistance, had restricted supplies to American forces, and

6328-435: The commission concluded that "... The Filipinos are wholly unprepared for independence ... there being no Philippine nation, but only a collection of different peoples." Specific recommendations included the establishment of civilian government as rapidly as possible (the American chief executive in the islands at that time was the military governor), including establishment of a bicameral legislature , autonomous governments on

6441-564: The condition imposed on them as a prerequisite to independence, declaring that, this having been done, the duty of the U.S. was to grant the Philippines independence. The Republican Party then controlled Congress, and the recommendation of the outgoing Democratic president was not heeded. After the first independence mission, public funding of such missions was ruled illegal. Subsequent independence missions in 1922, 1923, 1930, 1931, 1932, and two missions in 1933 were funded by voluntary contributions. Numerous independence bills were submitted to

6554-496: The conflict. An estimated 250,000 to 1 million civilians died during the war, mostly due to famine and disease. On April 9, 2002, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine–American War had ended on April 16, 1902, with the surrender of General Miguel Malvar , and declared the centennial anniversary of that date as a national working holiday and as a special non-working holiday in

6667-645: The construction of a new keeper's dwelling at the lighthouse. Between October 1993 to November 1994, the lighthouse underwent rehabilitation and modernization as part of the 37 lighthouses rehabilitated under the Maritime Safety Improvement Project of the Department of Transportation , Maritime Industry Authority and the Philippine Coast Guard . The project, which was funded through a JP¥3.507 billion loan from

6780-462: The control, disposition, and government of the Philippines." General Merritt received news of the peace protocol on August 16, three days after the surrender of Manila. Admiral Dewey and General Merritt were informed by a telegram dated August 17 that the president of the United States had directed that the United States should have full control over Manila, with no joint occupation permissible. After further negotiations, insurgent forces withdrew from

6893-401: The convention by a vote of 177 to 1. The constitution was approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 25, 1935, and ratified by popular vote on May 14, 1935. On September 16, 1935, presidential elections were held. Candidates included former president Emilio Aguinaldo , Philippine Independent Church leader Gregorio Aglipay , and others. Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña of

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7006-630: The countryside, still clashing with American Army or Philippine Constabulary patrols. American troops and the Philippine Constabulary continued hostilities against such resistance groups until 1913. Some of this resistance was from a claimed successor to the Philippines Republic. A 1907 law prohibited the display of flags and other symbols "used during the late insurrection in the Philippine Islands". Some historians consider these unofficial extensions to be part of

7119-455: The dominant languages: The Commonwealth had its own constitution, which remained effective after independence until 1973, and was self-governing although foreign policy and military affairs would be under the responsibility of the United States, and Laws passed by the legislature affecting immigration, foreign trade, and the currency system had to be approved by the United States president. Despite maintaining ultimate sovereignty, in some ways

7232-408: The draft Jones Bill of 1912, which provided for Philippine independence after eight years, but later changed their views, opting for a bill which focused less on time than on the conditions of independence. The nationalists demanded complete and absolute independence to be guaranteed by the United States, since they feared that too-rapid independence from American rule without such guarantees might cause

7345-399: The election date, and the convention held its inaugural session on July 30. The completed draft constitution was approved by the convention on February 8, 1935, approved by U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt on March 23, and ratified by popular vote on May 14. The first election under the constitution was held on September 17, and on November 15, 1935, the commonwealth was put into place. It

7458-494: The entry into the Philippines of Jewish refugees fleeing fascist regimes in Europe. Quezon was also instrumental in promoting a project to resettle the refugees in Mindanao. The Japanese invasion of the Philippines began with an invasion of Batan Island on December 8, 1941. When advancing Japanese forces threatened Manila, President Quezon, other senior officials of the Commonwealth government, and senior American military commanders relocated to Corregidor island , and Manila

7571-408: The establishment of a stable government. The law maintained the governor-general of the Philippines, appointed by the president of the United States, but established a bicameral Philippine Legislature to replace the elected Philippine Assembly (lower house); it replaced the appointive Philippine Commission (upper house) with an elected senate. The Filipinos suspended their independence campaign during

7684-416: The estimated population of the Philippines reached 17,000,000; there were 117,000 Chinese , 30,000 Japanese , and 9,000 Americans . English was spoken by 26.3% of the population, according to the 1939 Census. Spanish , after English overtook it beginning in the 1920s, became a language for the elite and in government; it was later banned during the Japanese occupation. Estimated numbers of speakers of

7797-420: The existing native dialects " was drafted into the 1935 constitution. In 1936, the national assembly enacted Commonwealth Act No. 184, creating the Surián ng Wikang Pambansà (National Language Institute). This body was initially composed of President Quezon and six other members from various ethnic groups . In 1937, after deliberations, the body selected Tagalog as the basis for the national language. This

7910-414: The failure of Spain to engage in active social reforms in Cuba as demanded by the United States government was the basic cause for the Spanish–American War . President William McKinley issued an ultimatum to Spain on April 19, 1898. Spain found it had no diplomatic support in Europe, but nevertheless declared war ; the U.S. followed on April 25 with its own declaration of war. Theodore Roosevelt , who

8023-433: The first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines and Elpidio Quirino winning as vice president. The Commonwealth ended when the U.S. recognized Philippine independence on July 4, 1946, as scheduled. However, the economy remained dependent on the U.S. This was due to the Bell Trade Act , otherwise known as the Philippine Trade Act, which was a precondition for receiving war rehabilitation grants from

8136-473: The future Republic of the Philippines , and in the economy due to the Great Depression , proved to be major problems. The situation was further complicated by the presence of agrarian unrest and power struggles between Osmeña and Quezon, especially after Quezon was permitted to be re-elected after one six-year term. A proper evaluation of the policies' effectiveness or failure is difficult due to

8249-486: The granting of Philippine independence by 1946. The Tydings–McDuffie Act provided for the drafting and guidelines of a constitution , for a 10-year " transitional period " as the Commonwealth of the Philippines before the granting of Philippine independence . On May 5, 1934, the Philippine legislature passed an act setting the election of convention delegates. Governor-General Frank Murphy designated July 10 as

8362-407: The island. About 20,000 Filipino soldiers combatants died, as well as 250,000 to a million non-combatants. Causes of non-combatant deaths included a cholera epidemic as well as killings by the United States military, including specific attacks on civilians and the creation of concentration camps. President McKinley had appointed a five-person group on January 20, 1899, to investigate conditions in

8475-543: The islands and make recommendations. The three civilian members of the Philippine Commission arrived in Manila on March 4, 1899, a month after the Battle of Manila which had begun armed conflict between U.S. and revolutionary Filipino forces. After meetings in April with revolutionary representatives, the commission requested authorization from McKinley to offer a specific plan. McKinley authorized an offer of

8588-405: The latter office from 1937 until the advent of World War II in 1941, holding the military rank of Field Marshal of the Philippines . After 1946, the rank of field marshal disappeared from the Philippine military. During 1939 and 1940, after an amendment in the Commonwealth's Constitution, a bicameral Congress , consisting of a Senate, and of a House of Representatives , was restored, replacing

8701-399: The liberation forces. After the war Osmeña restored the Commonwealth government and the various executive departments. He continued the fight for Philippine independence. For the presidential election of 1946 Osmeña refused to campaign, saying that the Filipino people knew of his record of 40 years of honest and faithful service. Nevertheless, he was defeated by Manuel Roxas, who won 54% of

8814-494: The light now showing three white flashes every 15 seconds. The lighthouse is located near the Tablas Island Blue Hole , the only known blue hole in the Philippines. History of the Philippines (1898%E2%80%931946) Events/Artifacts (north to south) Events/Artifacts Artifacts The history of the Philippines from 1898 to 1946 is known as the American colonial period , and began with

8927-468: The major part of the friars' holdings, amounting to some 166,000 hectares (410,000 acres), of which one-half was in the vicinity of Manila. The land was eventually resold to Filipinos, some of them tenants but the majority of them estate owners. Under the Treaty of Paris, the U.S. agreed to respect existing property rights. They introduced a Torrens title system to track ownership in 1902, and in 1903 passed

9040-461: The other of the Commonwealth's two official languages, was [Commonwealth de Filipinas] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |links= ( help ) ( [filiˈpinas] ). The 1935 Constitution uses "the Philippines" as the country's short-form name throughout its provisions and uses "the Philippine Islands" only to refer to pre-1935 status and institutions. Under the Insular Government (1901–1935), both terms were used officially. In 1937, Tagalog

9153-660: The outbreak of the Spanish–American War in April 1898, when the Philippines was still a colony of the Spanish East Indies , and concluded when the United States formally recognized the independence of the Republic of the Philippines on July 4, 1946. With the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States. The interim U.S. military government of

9266-502: The passage of the Philippine Independence Act in 1934, a Philippine presidential election was held in 1935. Manuel L. Quezon was elected and inaugurated as the second president of the Philippines on November 15, 1935. The Insular Government was dissolved and the Commonwealth of the Philippines , intended to be a transitional government in preparation for the country's full achievement of independence in 1946,

9379-483: The peace protocol signing, U.S. forces began the Battle of Manila by capturing Spanish positions in the city. While the plan was for a mock battle and simple surrender, the insurgents made an independent attack of their own, which led to confrontations with the Spanish in which some American soldiers were killed and wounded. The Spanish formally surrendered Manila to U.S. forces. Aguinaldo demanded joint occupation of

9492-518: The people, in view of impending war with the Americans. An outbreak of gunfire between an insurgent patrol and an American outpost on February 4 set off open hostilities between the two forces. On June 2, 1899, the First Philippine Republic issued a declaration of war on the United States. As before when fighting the Spanish, the Filipino rebels did not do well in the field. Aguinaldo and his provisional government escaped after

9605-487: The president of the United States. In December 1932, the United States Congress passed the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act with the premise of granting Filipinos independence. Provisions of the law included reserving several military and naval bases for the United States as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. When it reached him for a possible signature, President Herbert Hoover vetoed

9718-499: The province of Batangas and in the cities of Batangas , Lipa , and Tanauan . The Kiram–Bates Treaty secured the Sultanate of Sulu . American forces also established control over interior mountainous areas that had resisted Spanish conquest. Some sources have suggested that the war unofficially continued for nearly a decade, since bands of guerrillas, quasi-religious armed groups and other resistance groups continued to roam

9831-498: The provincial and municipal levels, and a system of free public elementary schools. The Second Philippine Commission (the Taft Commission), appointed by McKinley on March 16, 1900, and headed by William Howard Taft , was granted legislative as well as limited executive powers. On September 1, the Taft Commission began to exercise legislative functions. Between September 1900 and August 1902, it issued 499 laws, established

9944-412: The report of the Philippine legislature as to a stable government. The Philippine legislature funded an independence mission to the U.S. in 1919. The mission departed Manila on February 28 and met in the U.S. with and presented their case to U.S. Secretary of War Newton D. Baker . U.S. President Woodrow Wilson , in his 1921 farewell message to Congress, certified that the Filipino people had performed

10057-665: The revolutionary government between June and September 10, resulting in the seating of a legislature known as the Malolos Congress . In a session between September 15 and November 13, 1898, the Malolos Constitution was adopted. It was promulgated on January 21, 1899, creating the First Philippine Republic with Emilio Aguinaldo as president. While the initial instructions of the American commission undertaking peace negotiators with Spain

10170-783: The second President of the Philippines . When Manuel L. Quezon was inaugurated President of the Philippines in 1935, he became the first Filipino to head a government of the Philippines since Emilio Aguinaldo and the Malolos Republic in 1898. However, in January 2008, Congressman Rodolfo Valencia of Oriental Mindoro filed a bill seeking instead to declare General Miguel Malvar as the second Philippine President, who took control over all Filipino forces after American soldiers captured President Emilio Aguinaldo in Palanan, Isabela on March 23, 1901. Quezon had originally been barred by

10283-564: The sending of an independence mission to the United States. The "Declaration of Purposes" referred to the Jones Law as a veritable pact, or covenant, between the American and Filipino peoples whereby the United States promised to recognize the independence of the Philippines as soon as a stable government should be established. U.S. Governor-General of the Philippines Francis Burton Harrison had concurred in

10396-430: The sovereign authority of the U.S. having come to an end, and provincial civil governments having been established, the office of military governor was terminated. On July 4, Theodore Roosevelt , who had succeeded to the U.S. presidency on September 14, 1901, after the assassination of President McKinley , proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all persons in the Philippine archipelago who had participated in

10509-481: The state religion. The U.S. government, in an effort to resolve the status of the friars, negotiated with the Vatican. The church agreed to sell the friars' estates and promised gradual substitution of Filipino and other non-Spanish priests for the friars. It refused, however, to withdraw the religious orders from the islands immediately, partly to avoid offending Spain. In 1904, the administration bought for $ 7.2 million

10622-563: The unabridged version. Meanwhile, on December 26, 1898, the Spanish yielded Iloilo to the insurgents. American forces under General Marcus P. Miller arriving in Iloilo were refused permission to land by the insurgents, who stated that landing required "express orders from the central government of Luzon". Unknown to Otis, the War Department had also sent a copy of McKinley's proclamation to General Miller in Iloilo who, unaware that

10735-405: The vote and became the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines. Roxas served as the President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines in a brief period, from his subsequent election on May 28, 1946, to July 4, 1946, the scheduled date of the proclamation of Philippine Independence. Roxas prepared the groundwork for the advent of a free and independent Philippines, assisted by

10848-406: The war, the U.S. began to integrate the Philippine economy with its own. In socio-economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in this period. The 1909 U.S. Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act provided for free trade with the Philippines. Foreign trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in 1895, 13% of which was with the United States. By 1920, it had increased to 601 million pesos, 66% of which was with

10961-520: The war. The 1902 Philippine Organic Act was a constitution for the Insular Government, as the U.S. civil administration was known. This was a form of territorial government that reported to the Bureau of Insular Affairs . The act provided for a governor-general appointed by the U.S. president and an elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly . It also disestablished the Catholic Church as

11074-427: Was also constructed beside the lighthouse to provide accommodation for the lighthouse keeper . The original lighthouse was a 65 meters (213 ft) steel tower painted white with a light that shows three white flashes and one red flash every 20 seconds. In 1954, during the administration of Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay , Philippine Congress passed Republic Act No. 1144, appropriating funds of PH₱10,000 for

11187-615: Was also faced with agrarian unrest, an uncertain diplomatic and military situation in Southeast Asia, and uncertainty about the level of United States commitment to the future Republic of the Philippines. Amid growing landless peasant unrest in the late 1930s, the Commonwealth opened public lands in Mindanao and northeastern Luzon for resettlement. In 1939–1940, the Philippine Constitution was amended to restore

11300-597: Was at that time Assistant Secretary of the Navy , had ordered Commodore George Dewey , commanding the Asiatic Squadron of the United States Navy , to Hong Kong before the declaration of war. From there, Dewey's squadron departed on April 27 for the Philippines, reaching Manila Bay on the evening of April 30. The Battle of Manila Bay took place on May 1, 1898, with American victory being achieved in

11413-577: Was brought into existence. After the World War II Japanese invasion in 1941 and subsequent occupation of the Philippines , the United States and Philippine Commonwealth military completed the recapture of the Philippines after Japan's surrender and spent nearly a year dealing with Japanese troops who were not aware of the war's end, leading up to U.S. recognition of Philippine independence on July 4, 1946. The Philippine Revolution began in August 1896. The Pact of Biak-na-Bato ,

11526-420: Was clarified through the Treaty of Washington of 1900 , which stated that Spanish territories in the archipelago which lay outside the geographical boundaries noted in the Treaty of Paris were also ceded to the U.S. On December 21, 1898, President McKinley proclaimed a policy of benevolent assimilation with regards to the Philippines. This was announced in the Philippines on January 4, 1899. Under this policy,

11639-469: Was declared an open city . On February 20, Quezon, his family, and senior officials of the Commonwealth government were evacuated from the island by submarine on the first leg of what came to be a relocation of the Commonwealth government in exile to the U.S. Quezon suffered from tuberculosis and spent his last years in a " cure cottage " in Saranac Lake , NY, where he died on August 1, 1944. He

11752-400: Was declared to be the basis of a national language, effective after two years. The country's official name translated into Tagalog would be Kómonwélt ng Pilipinas ( [pɪlɪˈpinɐs] ). Events/Artifacts (north to south) Events/Artifacts Artifacts The pre-1935 U.S. territorial administration, or Insular Government, was headed by a governor general who was appointed by

11865-411: Was designated the national language , women's suffrage was introduced , and land reform mooted. The new government embarked on an ambitious agenda of establishing the basis for national defense, greater control over the economy, reforms in education, improvement of transport, the colonization of the island of Mindanao, and the promotion of local capital and industrialization. The commonwealth however,

11978-416: Was inaugurated with William H. Taft as the civil governor. Later, on February 3, 1903, the U.S. Congress would change the title of Civil Governor to Governor-General . A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901, using English as the medium of instruction. This created a heavy shortage of teachers, and the Philippine Commission authorized the secretary of public instruction to bring to

12091-709: Was initially buried in Arlington National Cemetery . His body was later carried by the USS ; Princeton and re-interred in Manila at the Manila North Cemetery in 1979, his remains were moved to Quezon City within the monument at the Quezon Memorial Circle . Osmeña became president of the Commonwealth on Quezon's death in 1944. He returned to the Philippines the same year with General Douglas MacArthur and

12204-548: Was made official on December 30, 1937, in an executive order which became effective two years after issuance. In 1940, the government authorized the creation of a dictionary and grammar book for the language. In that same year, Commonwealth Act 570 was passed, allowing Filipino to become an official language upon independence. The cash economy of the Commonwealth was mostly agriculture-based. Products included abaca, coconuts and coconut oil, sugar, and timber. Numerous other crops and livestock were grown for local consumption by

12317-404: Was planned that the period 1935–1946 would be devoted to the final adjustments required for a peaceful transition to full independence, a great latitude in autonomy being granted in the meantime. Instead there was war with Japan, which postponed any plans for Philippine independence. On May 14, 1935, an election to fill the newly created office of president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines

12430-660: Was promulgated in order to provide parity between these. On March 3, 1901, the U.S. Congress passed the Army Appropriation Act containing (along with the Platt Amendment on Cuba) the Spooner Amendment which provided the president with legislative authority to establish a civil government in the Philippines. Up until this time, the president had been administering the Philippines by virtue of his war powers. On July 1, 1901, civil government

12543-536: Was secretly negotiating with Spanish authorities while informing them of American troop movements. Aguinaldo warned that American troops should not disembark in places conquered by the Filipinos without first communicating in writing, and did not offer his full service to arriving American forces. By June, U.S. and Filipino forces had taken control of most of the islands, except for the walled city of Intramuros . Admiral Dewey and General Merritt were able to work out

12656-537: Was to seek only Luzon and Guam , which could serve as harbours and communication links, President McKinley later wired instructions to demand the entire archipelago. The resultant Treaty of Paris , signed in December 1898, formally ended the Spanish–American War. Its provisions included the cession of the archipelago to the United States, for which $ 20 million would be paid as compensation. This agreement

12769-484: Was won by Manuel L. Quezon ( Nacionalista Party ), and a Filipino government was formed on the basis of principles superficially similar to the U.S. Constitution . The commonwealth as established in 1935 featured a very strong executive, a unicameral national assembly , and a supreme court composed entirely of Filipinos for the first time since 1901. Quezon's priorities were defense, social justice, inequality and economic diversification, and national character. Tagalog

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