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81-706: In 58 BC, Pharaoh Ptolemy XII "Auletes" had to leave Egypt and went into political exile in Rome due to a popular revolt, and his daughter Berenice IV seized the throne. Three years later, Aulus Gabinius, the Roman proconsul of Roman Syria , restored the king to the throne after a short campaign. Then he left a part of his army, called after him the Gabiniani , in Egypt for the king's protection. These Roman troops also included Gallic and Germanic horsemen. Because Egypt

162-493: A " nothos " (bastard), while Pausanias wrote that Ptolemy IX had no legitimate sons at all. Some scholars have therefore proposed that his mother was a concubine – if so, probably an Alexandrian Greek . It had been speculated by Werner Huß that Ptolemy XII's mother was an unknown woman belonging to the Egyptian elite, based upon a speculated earlier marriage between Psenptais II, high priest of Ptah , and

243-479: A Roman province until returned to Ptolemaic control by Julius Caesar in 48 BC. The bribery policy had been unpopular in Egypt for a long time, both because of its obsequiousness and because of the heavy tax burden that it entailed, but the annexation of Cyprus demonstrated its failure and enraged the people of Alexandria. The courtiers in Alexandria forced Ptolemy to step down from the throne and leave Egypt. He

324-468: A cavalry vexillatio . As tribounos , the title survived in the East Roman army until the early 7th century. From the use of tribunus to describe various military officers is derived the word tribunal , originally referring to a raised platform used to address the soldiers or administer justice. Military tribunes are featured in notable works of historical fiction, including Ben-Hur: A Tale of

405-437: A certain "Berenice", once argued to possibly be a daughter of Ptolemy VIII . However, the speculation of this marriage was refuted by Egyptologist Wendy Cheshire. Chris Bennett argues that Ptolemy XII's mother was Cleopatra IV and that he was considered illegitimate simply because she had never been co-regent. This theory is endorsed by the historian Adrian Goldsworthy . The date of Ptolemy XII's birth

486-529: A festival established in his honour in Cyrene . Relations between Ptolemy IX and his mother deteriorated. In 107 BC she forced him to flee Alexandria for Cyprus and replaced him as co-regent with his younger brother, Ptolemy X . Justin mentions that Ptolemy IX left two sons behind when he fled Alexandria. Chris Bennett argues that these sons should be identified as Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus. Ptolemy IX made an attempt to reclaim

567-581: A few days after the assassination of Pompey. In spite of the elimination of his enemy, he did not leave the country and supported the expelled Cleopatra in the Ptolemaic power struggle. Pothinus organized military opposition against Caesar. In the Alexandrinian war that followed, the Gabiniani played an important role: they were the core divisions of Achillas' army that comprised 20,000 infantrymen and 2000 cavalrymen. The forces of Caesar were one-fifth

648-548: A revolt which had apparently broken out in Egypt; Pompey refused. The money required for these bribes was enormous. Initially, Ptolemy XII funded them by raising taxes. A strike by farmers of royal land in Herakleopolis which is attested in a papyrus document from 61/60 BC has been interpreted as a sign of widespread discontent with this taxation. Increasingly, Ptolemy XII also had recourse to loans from Roman bankers, such as Gaius Rabirius Postumus . This gave

729-409: A senatorial career. Each tribune would be assigned to command a portion of the Roman army, subordinate to the magistrates and promagistrates appointed by the senate, and their legates. Within each of the legions , various middle-ranking officers were also styled tribune . These officers included: In the late Roman army, a tribunus was a senior officer, sometimes called a comes , who commanded

810-590: A serious conflict with the Gabiniani . In 53 BC the powerful Parthians had inflicted a devastating defeat on the Romans in the Battle of Carrhae , and three years later – at the beginning of the year 50 BC – the governor of Syria, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus , sent two of his sons to Egypt to recruit the Gabiniani for the war against the Parthians. The Gabiniani, however, did not want to give up their comfortable life in

891-583: A tribune, who represented each tribe in civil, religious, and military matters. Subsequently, each of the Servian tribes was also represented by a tribune. Under the Roman Kingdom , the tribunus celerum , in English tribune of the celeres, or tribune of the knights , was commander of the king's personal bodyguard, known as the celeres . This official was second only to the king, and had

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972-513: Is also uncertain. One hypothesis contends that possibly they (and perhaps Cleopatra VII) were Ptolemy XII's children with a theoretical half Macedonian Greek , half Egyptian woman belonging to a priestly family from Memphis in northern Egypt, but this is only speculation. The philosopher Porphyry (c. 234 – c. 305 AD) wrote of Ptolemy XII's daughter Cleopatra VI , who reigned alongside her sister Berenice IV. The Greek historian Strabo (c. 63 BC – c. AD 24) stated that

1053-458: Is considered unlikely that the Gabiniani could have been convinced to take part in such an action given their close connection to the Egyptian monarchy and community. Indeed two leading members of the Gabiniani , the former tribune Lucius Septimius and the centurion Salvius, participated in the assassination of Pompey (25 July 48 BC according to the Julian calendar). Caesar arrived in Egypt

1134-569: Is thus uncertain. If he was the son of Cleopatra IV, he was probably born around 117 BC and followed around a year later by a brother, known as Ptolemy of Cyprus . In 117 BC, Ptolemy IX was governor of Cyprus , but in 116 BC he returned to Alexandria upon the death of his father, Ptolemy VIII. At this point, Ptolemy IX became the junior co-regent of his grandmother Cleopatra II and his mother, Cleopatra III . In 115 BC, his mother forced him to divorce Cleopatra IV, who fled into exile. The former Egyptian queen married

1215-454: The magister equitum or "Master of the Horse". The tribuni plebis , known in English as tribunes of the plebs, tribunes of the people, or plebeian tribunes, were instituted in 494 BC, after the first secession of the plebs , to protect the interests of the plebeians against the actions of the senate and the annual magistrates, who were uniformly patrician . The ancient sources indicate

1296-498: The Battle of Pharsalus , he fled to the coast of Egypt and demanded help and support from the Ptolemaic government. The advisors of Ptolemy XIII were not willing to get involved in the Roman civil war and decided to murder Pompey in an attempt to please the victorious Caesar. Pothinus and his companions allegedly also feared that Pompey would try to incite the former Roman soldiers in the Ptolemaic army – who had earlier fought under his command – so that he could gain control over Egypt. It

1377-613: The Roman Empire , the tribunes continued to be elected, but had lost their independence and most of their practical power. The office became merely a step in the political careers of plebeians who aspired toward a seat in the senate. The tribuni militum, known in English as military tribunes or literally, tribunes of the soldiers , were elected each year along with the annual magistrates. Their number varied throughout Roman history, but eventually reached twenty-four. These were usually young men in their late twenties, who aspired to

1458-620: The Seleucid king Antiochus IX , but she was murdered by his half-brother and rival Antiochus VIII in 112 BC. Ptolemy IX meanwhile had been remarried to Cleopatra Selene, with whom he had a daughter, Berenice III . By 109 BC, Ptolemy IX had begun the process of introducing Ptolemy XII to public life. In that year, Ptolemy XII served as the Priest of Alexander and Ptolemaic kings (an office which Ptolemy IX otherwise held himself throughout his reign) and had

1539-645: The Theoi Philopatores kai Philadelphoi (Father-loving and Sibling-loving Gods). This title was probably meant to reinforce Ptolemy XII's claim to the throne in the face of claims that his parentage meant that he was an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX and therefore not entitled to rule. In 76 BC, the High Priest of Ptah in Memphis died and Ptolemy XII travelled to Memphis to appoint his fourteen-year-old son, Pasherienptah III , as

1620-576: The consuls and praetors , promagistrates , and their legates . Various officers within the Roman army were also known as tribunes. The title was also used for several other positions and classes in the course of Roman history. The word tribune is derived from the Roman tribes . The three original tribes known as the Ramnes or Ramnenses , Tities or Titienses, and the Luceres, were each headed by

1701-448: The tribunes of the plebs and the military tribunes . For most of Roman history, a college of ten tribunes of the plebs acted as a check on the authority of the senate and the annual magistrates , holding the power of ius intercessionis to intervene on behalf of the plebeians , and veto unfavourable legislation. There were also military tribunes , who commanded portions of the Roman army , subordinate to higher magistrates, such as

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1782-509: The Christ , by Lew Wallace , and The Robe by Lloyd C. Douglas . Both novels involve characters affected by the life and death of Jesus , and were turned into epic films during the 1950s. Messala, the primary antagonist in Ben-Hur , was played by Stephen Boyd , while Marcellus Gallio, the protagonist of The Robe , was played by a young Richard Burton . In 445 BC, the tribunes of

1863-400: The Egyptian frontier forces, marched to Alexandria, and attacked the palace, where the palace guards surrendered without fighting. The exact date of Ptolemy XII's restoration is unknown; the earliest possible date of restoration was 4 January 55 BC and the latest possible date was 24 June the same year. Upon regaining power, Ptolemy acted against Berenice, and along with her supporters, she

1944-509: The Latin term tribunatus , meaning the office or term of a Roman tribunus (see above), was a collective organ of the young revolutionary French Republic composed of members styled tribun (the French for tribune), which, despite the apparent reference to one of ancient Rome's prestigious magistratures, never held any real political power as an assembly, its individual members no role at all. It

2025-527: The Ptolemaic Empire to fight against the Parthians so they killed Bibulus's sons. Cleopatra continued the pro-Roman policies of her father. She immediately had the murderers arrested and handed over in chains to Bibulus. This action turned the Gabiniani into bitter enemies of the queen as Cleopatra wanted to maintain good relations with Rome. The Roman historian, Valerius Maximus , claimed that

2106-497: The Ptolemaic throne in 103 BC by invading Judaea . At the start of this war, Cleopatra III sent her grandsons to the island of Kos along with her treasure in order to protect them. There, Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus seem to have been captured by Mithridates VI of Pontus in 88 BC, at the outbreak of the First Mithridatic War . Ironically, their father had reclaimed the Egyptian throne around

2187-570: The Roman occupying army of Egypt and were tasked with protecting Cleopatra but also to ensure the queen's loyalty to Rome. Ptolemy XII Auletes Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysus ( Ancient Greek : Πτολεμαῖος Νέος Διόνυσος , romanized :  Ptolemaios Neos Dionysos , lit.   'Ptolemy the new Dionysus ' c.  117 – 51 BC) was a king of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt who ruled from 80 to 58 BC and then again from 55 BC until his death in 51 BC. He

2268-496: The Roman people as a mere supplicant. Ptolemy married his sister Cleopatra V , who was with certainty the mother of his eldest known child, Berenice IV . Cleopatra V disappears from court records a few months after the birth of Ptolemy XII's second known child, and probably hers, Cleopatra VII in 69 BC. The identity of the mother of the last three of Ptolemy XII's children, in birth order Arsinoe IV , Ptolemy XIII , and Ptolemy XIV ,

2349-511: The Romans even more leverage over his regime and meant that the fate of Egypt became an increasingly immediate issue in Roman politics. Finally, in 60 BC, Ptolemy XII travelled to Rome, where the First Triumvirate , composed of Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar , had just taken power, in order to negotiate official recognition of his kingship. Ptolemy paid Pompey and Caesar six thousand talents – an enormous sum, equivalent to

2430-509: The Senate from the list of citizens from 25 years up, and annually one fifth was renewed for a five-year term. When it opposed the first parts of Bonaparte's proposed penal code, he made the Senate nominate 20 new members at once to replace the 20 first opponents to his politic; they accepted the historically important reform of penal law. As the Tribunate opposed new despotic projects, he got

2511-410: The Senate he would not have returned them to Egypt anyway, but to Rome. Schäfer believes that Cleopatra's break with the Gabiniani was the main cause of her subsequent loss of power because her actions led to the mercenaries joining those who supported Ptolemy XIII and his three influential guardians and advisors, Pothinus , Achillas , and Theodotus of Chios . In the spring of 49 BC Gnaeus Pompeius ,

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2592-411: The Senate was busy with its own affairs, his ally Pompey approved the will. Generally, descriptions of Ptolemy XII portray him as weak and self-indulgent, drunk, or a lover of music. According to Strabo, his practice of playing the flute earned him the ridiculing sobriquet Auletes ('flute player'): Now all of the kings after the third Ptolemy, being corrupted by luxurious living, administered

2673-464: The Syrian proconsul sent the murderers back to Egypt because the senate in Rome, not he, was responsible for the punishment of the criminals, who were still Roman citizens. The German historian Christoph Schäfer did not believe this version and pointed out that the proconsul probably punished the killers instead, since he had the legal authority and had he believed that the murderers could only be judged by

2754-401: The affairs of government badly, but worst of all were the fourth, seventh, and the last, Auletes, who, apart from his general licentiousness, practised the accompaniment of choruses with the flute, and upon this he prided himself so much that he would not hesitate to celebrate contests in the royal palace, and at these contests would come forward to vie with the opposing contestants. According to

2835-468: The arrival of Caesar in Egypt (48 BC). Over time, they lost their connection with Rome and became a loyal protecting power of Ptolemy XII, who used them in fights against rebellious subjects. After the death of Ptolemy XII (51 BC), his two oldest surviving children, Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra VII , were supposed to succeed jointly on the throne as husband and wife, but the young queen soon ousted her brother and husband and ruled alone. She quickly came into

2916-404: The author Mary Siani-Davies: Throughout his long-lasting reign the principal aim of Ptolemy was to secure his hold on the Egyptian throne so as to eventually pass it to his heirs. To achieve this goal he was prepared to sacrifice much: the loss of rich Ptolemaic lands, most of his wealth and even, according to Cicero, the very dignity on which the mystique of kingship rested when he appeared before

2997-429: The authority to pass law, known as lex tribunicia , and to preside over the comitia curiata . Unless the king himself elected to lead the cavalry into battle, this responsibility fell to the tribune of the celeres. In theory he could deprive the king of his imperium , or authority to command, with the agreement of the comitia curiata . In the reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , the last Roman king, this office

3078-583: The blind daughter of "a man with tribunician power" ( vir tribunicae potestatis ). Being that the Roman Empire had withdrawn from Britain in AD 410, the use of this term may imply a continuation of some form of local Roman political system. There exists the possibility that this tribune had commanded a unit of the Roman army which had disbanded after the break with Rome, and was now occupying a more locally-granted appointment to help manage his city's defences. In

3159-412: The city itself, as well as a radius of one mile around. They had no power to affect the actions of provincial governors. The powers of the tribunes were severely curtailed during the constitutional reforms of the dictator Sulla in 81 BC. Although many of these powers were restored in further reforms of 75 BC and 70 BC, the prestige and authority of the tribunes had been irreparably damaged. In 48 BC,

3240-441: The consuls. The first tribuni militum consulare potestate , or military tribunes with consular power , were elected for the year 444. Although plebeians were eligible for this office, each of the first "consular tribunes" was a patrician. Military tribunes were elected in place of the consuls in half the years from 444 to 401 BC, and in each instance, all of the tribunes were patricians; nor did any plebeian succeed in obtaining

3321-519: The consulship. The number of tribunes increased to four beginning in 426, and six beginning in 405. At last, the plebeians elected four of their number military tribunes for the year 400; others were elected in 399, 396, 383, and 379. But apart from these years, no plebeian obtained the highest offices of the Roman State. The patricians' monopoly on power was finally broken by Gaius Licinius Calvus Stolo and Lucius Sextius Lateranus , tribunes of

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3402-615: The dictator Marcus Furius Camillus , the senate conceded the battle, and passed the Licinian Rogations . Sextius was elected the first plebeian consul, followed by Licinius two years later; and with this settlement, the consular tribunes were abolished. The exact nature of the Tribuni Aerarii , or Tribunes of the Treasury is shrouded in mystery. Originally they seem to have been tax collectors, but this power

3483-515: The early history of the Republic of Venice , during the tenure of the sixth Doge Domenico Monegario , Venice instituted a dual Tribunal modeled on the above Roman institution - two new Tribunes being elected each year, with the intention to oversee the Doge and prevent abuse of power (though this aim was not always successfully achieved). The " Tribunat ", the French word for tribunate, derived from

3564-482: The event that he had no surviving heirs. Although the Romans had not acted on this, the possibility that they might forced the following Ptolemies to adopt a careful and respectful policy towards Rome. Ptolemy XII continued this pro-Roman policy in order to protect himself and secure his dynasty's fate. Egypt came under increasing Roman pressure nevertheless. In 65 BC, the Roman censor , Marcus Licinius Crassus proposed that Rome annex Egypt. This proposal failed in

3645-640: The face of opposition from Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Cicero . In light of this crisis, however, Ptolemy XII began to expend significant resources on bribing Roman politicians to support his interests. In 63 BC, when Pompey was reorganising Syria and Anatolia following his victory in the Third Mithridatic War , Ptolemy sought to form a relationship with Pompey by sending him a golden crown. Ptolemy also provided pay and maintenance for 8,000 cavalry to Pompey for his war with Judaea . He also asked Pompey to come to Alexandria and help to put down

3726-406: The financial resources of Egypt but exploited the land too much. The king had to imprison Rabirius to protect his life from the angry people, then allowed him to escape. Rabirius immediately left Egypt and went back to Rome at the end of 54 BC. There he was accused de repetundis , but defended by Cicero and probably acquitted. Ptolemy also permitted a debasing of the coinage as an attempt to repay

3807-466: The idea of their exiled king's return. The Roman historian Cassius Dio wrote that a group of one hundred men were sent as envoys from Egypt to make their case to the Romans against Ptolemy XII's restoration. Ptolemy seemingly had their leader Dio of Alexandria poisoned and most of the other protesters killed before they reached Rome. In 55 BC, Ptolemy paid Aulus Gabinius 10,000 talents to invade Egypt and so recovered his throne. Gabinius defeated

3888-504: The king had only three daughters of whom the eldest has been referred to as Berenice IV. This suggests that the Cleopatra Tryphaena mentioned by Porphyry may not have been Ptolemy XII's daughter, but his wife. Many experts now identify Cleopatra VI with Cleopatra V. Tribune Tribune ( Latin : Tribunus ) was the title of various elected officials in ancient Rome . The two most important were

3969-411: The legality of the action before a magistrate could proceed. This power also allowed the tribunes to forbid, or veto any act of the senate or another assembly. Only a dictator was exempt from these powers. The tribunicia potestas , or tribunician power, was limited because it was derived from the people's oath to defend the tribunes. This limited most of the tribunes' actions to the boundaries of

4050-403: The loans. Near the end of Ptolemy's reign, the value of Egyptian coinage dropped to about fifty per cent of its value at the beginning of his first reign. Ptolemy XII died sometime before 22 March 51 BC. His will stipulated that Cleopatra VII and her brother Ptolemy XIII should rule Egypt together. To safeguard his interests, he made the people of Rome executors of his will. Since

4131-476: The main pylon of the Temple of Horus at Edfu were covered over at this time. The reason for this sudden shift is unknown, but presumably she was divorced at this time. Ptolemy adopted a new royal epithet Neos Dionysos (New Dionysus) at some time after this; Chris Bennett proposes that the epithet was linked to the break with Cleopatra. When Ptolemy X had died in 88 BC, his will had left Egypt to Rome in

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4212-598: The new High Priest. In turn, Pasherienptah III crowned Ptolemy as Pharaoh and then went to Alexandria, where he was appointed as Ptolemy XII's 'prophet'. These encounters are described in detail on Pasherienptah's funerary stela, Stele BM 866 , and they demonstrate the extremely close and mutually reinforcing relationship that had developed between the Ptolemaic kings and the Memphite priesthood by this date. In August 69 BC, Cleopatra V ceases to be mentioned as co-regent. The images of her that had been carved on

4293-410: The oldest son of the triumvir, Pompey , came to Egypt to ask for military aid in the civil war against Julius Caesar that had just broken out. At this time Ptolemy XIII had regained equal power with Cleopatra, and both rulers complied with the petition. Among other things, they sent 500 Gabiniani horsemen to Pompey. This time the Gabiniani did not refuse to go to war. At the end of 49 BC Cleopatra

4374-419: The people, who in 376 BC brought forward legislation demanding not merely that one of the consuls might be a plebeian, but that henceforth one must be chosen from their order. When the senate refused their demand, the tribunes prevented the election of annual magistrates for five years, before relenting and permitting the election of consular tribunes from 370 to 367. In the end, and with the encouragement of

4455-403: The plebs had the power to convene the concilium plebis , or plebeian assembly, and propose legislation before it. Only one of the tribunes could preside over this assembly, which had the power to pass laws affecting only the plebeians, known as plebiscita , or plebiscites. After 287 BC, the decrees of the concilium plebis had the effect of law over all Roman citizens. By the 3rd century BC,

4536-405: The plebs succeeded in passing the lex Canuleia , repealing the law forbidding the intermarriage of patricians and plebeians, and providing that one of the consuls might be a plebeian. Rather than permit the consular dignity to pass into the hands of a plebeian, the senate proposed a compromise whereby three military tribunes, who might be either patrician or plebeian, should be elected in place of

4617-408: The reigns of Berenice III and Ptolemy XI. Shortly after his accession, Ptolemy XII married one of his relatives, Cleopatra V . Her parentage is uncertain – modern scholarship often interprets her as a sister, but Christopher Bennett argues that she was a daughter of Ptolemy X. The couple became co-regents and they were incorporated into the Ptolemaic dynastic cult together as

4698-515: The repayment of their loans, but the Alexandrian treasury could not repay the king's debt. Learning from previous mistakes, Ptolemy XII shifted popular resentment of tax increases from himself to a Roman, his main creditor Gaius Rabirius Postumus , whom he appointed dioiketes (minister of finance), and so in charge of debt repayment. Perhaps Gabinius had also put pressure on Ptolemy XII to appoint Rabirius, who now had direct access to

4779-511: The return on their loans to the king without his restoration. In 57 BC, pressure from the Roman public forced the Senate's decision to restore Ptolemy. However, Rome did not wish to invade Egypt to restore the king, since the Sibylline books stated that if an Egyptian king asked for help and Rome proceeded with military intervention, great dangers and difficulties would occur. Egyptians heard rumours of Rome's possible intervention and disliked

4860-401: The sacrosanctity of the tribunes might be killed without penalty. This was also the source of the tribunes' power, known as ius intercessionis, or intercessio, by which any tribune could intercede on behalf of a Roman citizen to prohibit the act of a magistrate or other official. Citizens could appeal the decisions of the magistrates to the tribunes, who would then be obliged to determine

4941-585: The safety of Rome. On the way, he stopped in Rhodes where the exiled Cato the Younger offered him advice on how to approach the Roman aristocracy, but no tangible support. In Rome, Ptolemy XII prosecuted his restitution but met opposition from certain members of the Senate. His old ally Pompey housed the exiled king and his daughter and argued on behalf of Ptolemy's restoration in the Senate. During this time, Roman creditors realized that they would not get

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5022-494: The same time. They were held by Mithridates as hostages until 80 BC. At some point during this period, probably in 81 or 80 BC, they were engaged to two of Mithridates' daughters, Mithridatis and Nyssa. Meanwhile, Ptolemy IX died in December 81 BC and was succeeded by Berenice III. In April 80 BC, Ptolemy X's son Ptolemy XI was installed as Berenice III's husband and co-regent. He promptly murdered her and

5103-434: The senate granted tribunician powers ( tribunicia potestas , powers equivalent to those of a tribune without actually being one) to the dictator Julius Caesar . Caesar used them to prevent the other tribunes interfering with his actions. In 23 BC, the senate granted the same power to Augustus , the first Roman emperor , and from that point onwards it was regularly granted to each emperor as part of their formal titles . Under

5184-470: The size of his opponent's. Caesar relates in his Commentarii de Bello Civili that fugitive criminals and exiles from the neighbouring Roman provinces had joined the Gabiniani because the government recruited them to swell the ranks of their army. After the successful conclusion of the Alexandrinian war, Caesar replaced the Gabiniani with three reliable legions, the XXVII, XXVIII and XXIX. These served as

5265-442: The throne. She was soon murdered by her husband and co-regent, Ptolemy XI , who was then killed. At this point, Ptolemy XII was recalled from Pontus and proclaimed pharaoh, while his brother, also named Ptolemy , was installed as king of Cyprus . Ptolemy XII married his relative Cleopatra V , who was likely one of his sisters or cousins; they had at least one child together, Berenice IV , and Cleopatra V

5346-483: The total annual revenue of Egypt. In return, a formal alliance or foedus was formed. The Roman Senate recognised Ptolemy as king and Caesar passed a law that added Ptolemy to the list of friends and allies of the people of Rome ( amici et socii populi Romani ) in 59 BC. In 58 BC, the Romans took control of Cyprus , causing its ruler, Ptolemy XII's brother, to commit suicide. Ptolemy XII took no action in response to his brother's death and Cyprus remained

5427-484: The tribunes could also convene and propose legislation before the senate. Although sometimes referred to as "plebeian magistrates," technically the tribunes of the plebs were not magistrates, having been elected by the plebeians alone, and not the whole Roman people. However, they were sacrosanct , and the whole body of the plebeians were pledged to protect the tribunes against any assault or interference with their persons during their terms of office. Anyone who violated

5508-421: The tribunes may have originally been two or five in number. If the former, the college of tribunes was expanded to five in 470 BC. Either way, the college was increased to ten in 457 BC, and remained at this number throughout Roman history. They were assisted by two aediles plebis , or plebeian aediles. Only plebeians were eligible for these offices, although at least two exceptions existed. The tribunes of

5589-689: Was commonly known as Auletes ( Αὐλητής , "the Flautist"), referring to his love of playing the flute in Dionysian festivals. A member of the Ptolemaic dynasty , he was a descendant of its founder Ptolemy I , a Macedonian Greek general and companion of Alexander the Great . Ptolemy XII was an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX by an uncertain mother. In 116 BC, Ptolemy IX became co-regent with his mother, Cleopatra III . However, he

5670-427: Was deposed by the Egyptian people and fled to Rome, and his eldest daughter, Berenice IV, took the throne. With Roman funding and military assistance, Ptolemy XII recaptured Egypt and had Berenice IV killed in 55 BC. He named his daughter Cleopatra VII as his co-regent in 52 BC. He died the next year and was succeeded by Cleopatra VII and her brother Ptolemy XIII as joint rulers. Ptolemy XII

5751-403: Was driven out of Alexandria at the instigation of Pothinus. Probably in connection with this action, Caesar accused the Gabiniani of being so much used to the old customs of the Alexandrinian soldiers that they demanded the execution of friends of kings, they tried to raise their pay by besieging the palace, and they deposed kings and brought other men to power. After Pompey's decisive defeat in

5832-424: Was executed. Ptolemy XII maintained his grip on power in Alexandria with the assistance of around two thousand Roman soldiers and mercenaries, known as the Gabiniani . This arrangement enabled Rome to exert power over Ptolemy, who ruled until he fell ill in 51 BC. On 31 May 52 BC his daughter Cleopatra VII was named as his coregent. At the moment of Ptolemy XII's restoration, Roman creditors demanded

5913-399: Was forced into a civil war against his mother and his brother, Ptolemy X , leading to his exile in 107 BC. Cleopatra III sent her grandsons to Kos in 103 BC. They were captured by Mithridates VI of Pontus probably in 88 BC, around the time Ptolemy IX returned to the Egyptian throne. After their father died in 81 BC, Ptolemy XII's half-sister Berenice III took

5994-638: Was held by Lucius Junius Brutus , the king's nephew, and thus the senior member of the king's household, after the king himself and his sons. It was Brutus who convened the comitia and asked that they revoke the king's imperium. After the fall of the monarchy, the powers of the tribune of the celeres were divided between the Magister Militum , or Master of the Infantry, also known as the Praetor Maximus or dictator , and his lieutenant,

6075-459: Was himself killed by an angry Alexandrian mob. The Alexandrians then summoned Ptolemy XII to Egypt to assume the kingship; his brother, also named Ptolemy, became king of Cyprus, where he would reign until 58 BC. On his arrival in Alexandria, in April 80 BC, Ptolemy XII was proclaimed king. His reign was officially dated as having begun on the death of his father in 81 BC, thereby eliding

6156-624: Was instituted by Napoleon I Bonaparte 's Constitution of the Year VIII "in order to moderate the other powers" by discussing every legislative project, sending its orateurs ("orators", i.e. spokesmen) to defend or attack them in the Corps législatif , and asking the Senate to overturn "the lists of eligibles, the acts of the Legislative Body and those of the government" on account of unconstitutionality. Its 100 members were designated by

6237-585: Was likely also the mother of his second daughter, Cleopatra VII . The king's three youngest children – Arsinoe IV , Ptolemy XIII , and Ptolemy XIV – were born to an unknown mother. Ptolemy XII's uncle Ptolemy X had left Egypt to Rome in the event there were no surviving heirs, making Roman annexation of Egypt a possibility. In an effort to prevent this, Ptolemy XII established an alliance with Rome late into his first reign. Rome annexed Cyprus in 58 BC, causing Ptolemy of Cyprus to commit suicide. Shortly afterwards, Ptolemy XII

6318-588: Was nominally independent, the Gabiniani were not a Roman occupying army but mercenaries of Ptolemy XII. According to Julius Caesar , they soon adopted the dissipated way of life of the Alexandrians , while they neglected Roman discipline. Nevertheless they still possessed a great fighting strength because Caesar described them as very dangerous enemies in the Alexandrinian war . They married Egyptian women and had already fathered children with them before

6399-405: Was replaced by his daughter Berenice IV, who ruled jointly with Cleopatra Tryphaena (known to modern historians as Cleopatra VI ), who was probably Ptolemy XII's former wife but may be an otherwise unattested daughter. Following Cleopatra Tryphaena's death a year later, Berenice ruled alone from 57 to 56 BC. Probably taking his daughter Cleopatra VII with him, Ptolemy fled for

6480-520: Was slowly lost to other officials. By the end of the Republic, this style belonged to a class of persons slightly below the equites in wealth. When the makeup of Roman juries was reformed in 70 BC, it was stipulated that one-third of the members of each jury should belong to this class. In his Vita Germani , a hagiography of St. Germanus of Auxerre , Constantius of Lyon writes that during his visit to Britain in AD 429, Germanus miraculously healed

6561-472: Was the oldest son of Ptolemy IX . The identity of his mother is uncertain. Ptolemy IX was married twice, to his sister Cleopatra IV from around 119 BC until he was forced to divorce her in 115 BC, and secondly to another sister, Cleopatra Selene , from 115 BC until he abandoned her during his flight from Alexandria in 107 BC. However, Cicero and other ancient sources refer to Ptolemy XII as an illegitimate son; Pompeius Trogus called him

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