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125-797: In November 204 BC the Han General-in-Chief Han Xin defeated the Chu-Qi coalition in the Battle of Wei River , and in early 203 he completed the Han conquest of the State of Qi , an ally of Western Chu . For these reasons, the situation of Xiang Yu, the Hegemon-King of Western Chu, had become increasingly precarious. Since 205 he and Liu Bang, the King of Han , had worn each other down in

250-484: A considerable distance south of the River Ebro, and claimed the city as its protectorate . Hannibal not only perceived this as a breach of the treaty signed with Hasdrubal, but as he was already planning an attack on Rome, this was his way to start the war. So he laid siege to the city , which fell after eight months. Hannibal sent the booty from Saguntum to Carthage, a shrewd move which gained him much support from

375-455: A duel, Xiang Yu also attempted to assassinate Liu Bang by having hidden archers fire at him during a verbal exchange. However, the latter survived his wound, apparently after making the wound seem less severe to his soldiers to avoid inducing panic. In August 203 Liu Bang sent an envoy to conduct peace talks with Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu's army was running short of food. The pro-Han warlord Peng Yue had been attacking Xiang Yu's supply lines since 205;

500-630: A few of the Italian city-states that he had expected to gain as allies defected to him. The war in Italy settled into a strategic stalemate. The Romans used the attritional strategy that Fabius had taught them, which, they finally realized, was the only feasible means of defeating Hannibal. Fabius received the name "Cunctator" ("the Delayer") because of his policy of not meeting Hannibal in open battle, but through attrition. The Romans deprived Hannibal of

625-465: A fire, to force Liu Bang to surrender. Liu Bang simply replied that since the two had sworn to regard each other as 'brothers' (during the earlier years of the revolt against the Qin dynasty ) he would be effectively cooking his own father, and joked that Xiang Yu should not forget to send him a cup of 'their' father's flesh to share as good brothers. After unsuccessfully seeking to persuade Liu Bang to agree to

750-582: A herd of cattle and drive them up the heights nearby. Some of the Romans, seeing a moving column of lights, were tricked into believing it was the Carthaginian army marching to escape along the heights. As they moved off in pursuit of this decoy, Hannibal managed to move his army in complete silence through the dark lowlands and up to an unguarded pass. Fabius himself was within striking distance but in this case his caution worked against him, as rightly sensing

875-406: A lack of commitment from Carthage of men, money, and material—principally siege equipment. Whatever the reason, the choice prompted Maharbal to say, "Hannibal, you know how to gain a victory, but not how to use one." As a result of this victory, many parts of Italy joined Hannibal's cause. As Polybius notes, "How much more serious was the defeat of Cannae, than those that preceded it can be seen by

1000-414: A large-scale battle and instead assaulted his weakening army with multiple smaller armies in an attempt to both weary him and create unrest in his troops. For the next few years, Hannibal was forced to sustain a scorched earth policy and obtain local provisions for protracted and ineffectual operations throughout southern Italy. His immediate objectives were reduced to minor operations centred mainly around

1125-409: A logistically impressive feat considering it was winter. The details are unclear, but if Xiang Yu had intended to defeat any of these armies in detail before they could unite, he failed to do so. The coalition army defeated Xiang Yu in a battle outside the former Chu capital of Chen, before meeting for battle again at Gaixia. Because of Han Xin's conquest of northern China, the Han coalition outnumbered

1250-583: A northern front and subduing allied city-states on the peninsula, rather than by attacking Rome directly. Historical events that led to the defeat of Carthage during the First Punic War when his father commanded the Carthaginian Army also led Hannibal to plan the invasion of Italy by land across the Alps. The task involved the mobilization of between 60,000 and 100,000 troops and the training of

1375-652: A period of great tension in the Mediterranean Basin , triggered by the emergence of the Roman Republic as a great power with its defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. Revanchism prevailed in Carthage, symbolized by the pledge that Hannibal made to his father to "never be a friend of Rome". In 218 BC, Hannibal attacked Saguntum (modern Sagunto , Spain), an ally of Rome, in Hispania , sparking

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1500-535: A poem titled "The Shrine of Han Xin", in which it states that it is unlikely for Han Xin to stay loyal when he held military power, yet rebel when he had not a single soldier. Some Chinese idioms and sayings originating from the events in Han Xin's life are listed as follows: While Han Xin was under house arrest, he did a mass organization of military books together with Zhang Liang . They put together one hundred and eighty-two books, removed certain parts and chose

1625-427: A proper burial. Regardless, he still searched until he came across a high and raised plot of land, thinking that one day, he could settle ten thousand households here to live and guard over his mother's grave. Because he was unable to obtain a government post nor become a merchant, he lived a life of destitution and was despised by those around him, as he often relied on others for his meals. He especially often went to

1750-697: A region corresponding with the Mediterranean coasts of modern Lebanon and Syria. There is a lesser supported theory that he was born in Malta , at the time, a part of Carthage . He had several sisters whose names are unknown, and two brothers, Hasdrubal and Mago . His brothers-in-law were Hasdrubal the Fair and the Numidian king Naravas . He was still a child when his sisters married, and his brothers-in-law were close associates during his father's struggles in

1875-404: A severe defeat on Liu's army, forcing Liu's soldiers to remain behind the barricades of their camp. On the advice of Zhang Liang and Chen Ping, Liu Bang promised to make Han Xin King of Chu and Peng Yue King of Liang . With this incentive, Han Xin and Peng Yue more eagerly dedicated themselves to the invasion of Chu, with Han Xin, as General-in-Chief, taking the lead in devising a strategy. With

2000-410: A sword, Han Xin was actually a coward. He said in front of a crowd: "If you do not fear death; stab me. If you fear death; come crawl between my legs." Han Xin gave it some thought, and eventually decided to crawl between the hooligan's legs. Because of this, he was mocked by all the town for his cowardice. Several years later, after becoming the King of Chu , Han Xin returned to his hometown. He found

2125-537: A trap and captured him, but Han was also at fault, which led to his downfall. When Gaozu was at war with Xiang Yu in Xingyang , Han Xin had just conquered the Qi kingdom and did not turn back to support Gaozu because he saw more danger of losing more soldiers if he went for saving lives of people at Pengcheng. The appointment as acting King of Qi was proposed later after many months of war defeats for Liu Bang. Besides, during

2250-532: A trap. They pretended Gaozu had returned from suppressing the rebellion and that there would be a feast to commemorate the success. Xiao He managed to persuade Han Xin into coming to Changle Palace, where the Empress lived, and he was bound and executed as soon as he stepped through the doors. Han Xin's clan was exterminated on the Empress's orders as well. Upon return from his campaign, Gaozu expressed both relief and regret when he learnt of Han Xin's death. He asked

2375-526: A treaty with Rome whereby Carthage would not expand north of the Ebro so long as Rome did not expand south of it. Hasdrubal also endeavoured to consolidate Carthaginian power through diplomatic relationships with the native tribes of Iberia and native Berbers of the North African coasts. Upon the assassination of Hasdrubal in 221 BC, Hannibal, now 26 years old, was proclaimed commander-in-chief by

2500-431: A trick he stayed put. Thus, Hannibal managed to stealthily escape with his entire army intact. What Hannibal achieved in extricating his army was, as Adrian Goldsworthy puts it, "a classic of ancient generalship, finding its way into nearly every historical narrative of the war and being used by later military manuals". This was a severe blow to Fabius' prestige and soon after this his period of dictatorial power ended. For

2625-580: A war of attrition (the Fabian strategy ). Carthaginian defeats in Hispania prevented Hannibal from being reinforced, and he was unable to win a decisive victory. A counter-invasion of North Africa, led by the Roman general Scipio Africanus , forced him to return to Carthage. Hannibal was eventually defeated at the Battle of Zama , ending the war in a Roman victory. After the war, Hannibal successfully ran for

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2750-528: A war of attrition in the Central Plain , and Xiang had effectively run out of options to wrest control of northern China from Han Xin. Therefore, Xiang Yu sent an envoy to Han Xin with the proposal that he remain neutral and that China be divided between Liu Bang, Xiang Yu and Han Xin. Han Xin's advisor Kuai Tong encouraged him to accept this proposal, accurately predicting that Liu Bang would eventually execute Han Xin as being too dangerous. However, Han Xin

2875-480: A war-elephant corps, all of which had to be provisioned along the way. The alpine invasion of Italy was a military operation that would shake the Mediterranean World of 218 BC with repercussions for more than two decades. Hannibal's perilous march brought him into the Roman territory and frustrated the attempts of the enemy to fight out the main issue on foreign ground. His sudden appearance among

3000-538: A woman from Castulo , a powerful Spanish city closely allied with Carthage. The Roman epic poet Silius Italicus names her as Imilce . Silius suggests a Greek origin for Imilce, but Gilbert Charles-Picard argued for a Punic heritage based on an etymology from the Semitic root m-l-k ('chief, the 'king'). Silius also suggests the existence of a son, who is otherwise not attested by Livy, Polybius, or Appian . The son may have been named Haspar or Aspar, although this

3125-621: Is disputed. After he assumed command, Hannibal spent two years consolidating his holdings and completing the conquest of Hispania, south of the Ebro. In his first campaign, Hannibal attacked and stormed the Olcades ' strongest centre, Alithia, which promptly led to their surrender, and brought Punic power close to the River Tagus . His following campaign in 220 BC was against the Vaccaei to

3250-444: Is often argued that, if Hannibal had received proper material reinforcements from Carthage, he might have succeeded with a direct attack upon Rome. Instead, he had to content himself with subduing the fortresses that still held out against him, and the only other notable event of 216 BC was the defection of certain Italian territories, including Capua , the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal made his new base. However, only

3375-587: Is true when people say: The hunting dog becomes food as well after it is used to hunt game; a good bow is discarded when there are no birds left for shooting; an advisor dies after he helps his lord conquer a rival kingdom. Now that the empire is in place, I no longer serve any purpose!" Liu Bang's only response was: "Someone claimed you had rebelled", and proceeded to cuff Han Xin and bring him back to Luoyang . Although Gaozu pardoned Han Xin and released him later, he still demoted Han from "King of Chu" to "Marquis of Huaiyin". After his demotion, Han Xin knew that Gaozu

3500-563: The Battle of Carrhae against the Parthian Empire . Hannibal had now disposed of the only field force that could check his advance upon Rome. He realized that without siege engines , he could not hope to take the capital. He opted to exploit his victory by entering into central and southern Italy and encouraging a general revolt against the sovereign power. The Romans appointed Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus as their dictator. Departing from Roman military traditions, Fabius adopted

3625-612: The Battle of Magnesia and was forced to accept Rome's terms, and Hannibal fled again, making a stop in the Kingdom of Armenia . His flight ended in the court of Bithynia . He was betrayed to the Romans and committed suicide by poisoning himself. Hannibal is considered one of the greatest military tacticians and generals of Western antiquity, alongside Alexander the Great , Cyrus the Great , Julius Caesar , Scipio Africanus , and Pyrrhus . According to Plutarch , Scipio asked Hannibal "who

3750-535: The Gauls of the Po Valley, moreover, enabled him to detach those tribes from their new allegiance to the Romans before the Romans could take steps to check the rebellion. Publius Cornelius Scipio was the consul who commanded the Roman force sent to intercept Hannibal. He was also the father of Scipio Africanus. He had not expected Hannibal to make an attempt to cross the Alps, since the Romans were prepared to fight

3875-614: The Matterhorn . Stanford geoarchaeologist Patrick Hunt argues that Hannibal took the Col de Clapier mountain pass, claiming the Clapier most accurately met ancient depictions of the route: wide view of Italy, pockets of year-round snow, and a large campground. Other scholars have doubts, proposing that Hannibal took the easier route across Petit Mount Cenis. Hunt responds to this by proposing that Hannibal's Celtic guides purposefully misguided

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4000-808: The Mercenary War and the Punic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula . After Carthage's defeat in the First Punic War , Hamilcar set out to improve his family's and Carthage's fortunes. With that in mind and supported by Gades , Hamilcar began the subjugation of the tribes of the Iberian Peninsula (Modern Spain and Portugal). Carthage at the time was in such a poor state that it lacked a navy able to transport his army; instead, Hamilcar had to march his forces across Numidia towards

4125-517: The Pillars of Hercules and then cross the Strait of Gibraltar . According to Polybius , Hannibal much later said that when he came upon his father and begged to go with him, Hamilcar agreed and demanded that Hannibal swear that he would never be a friend of Rome as long as he lived. There is even an account of him at a very young age (9 years old) begging his father to take him to an overseas war. In

4250-601: The Three Qins in Guanzhong . Han Xin ordered some soldiers to pretend to repair the gallery roads linking Guanzhong and Hanzhong, while sending another army to secretly pass through Chencang and make a surprise attack on Zhang Han . Zhang Han was caught off guard and the Han forces emerged victorious, proceeding to take over Sima Xin and Dong Yi 's kingdoms. The strategy employed by Han Xin, known as mingxiu zhandao, andu Chencang (明修棧道, 暗度陳倉; lit. "appearing to repair

4375-503: The Three Qins , led a northern campaign to attack the kingdoms of Wei , Dai, Zhao , Yan and Qi , moved south to destroy Chu in Gaixia . As such, he is seen to have contributed greatly to the founding of the Han dynasty . When we look at how he rejected Kuai Che 's suggestion to declare independence, and how he received Gaozu at Chen (present-day Huaiyang , Henan ), how can we say he had

4500-551: The strategy named after him , avoiding open battle while placing several Roman armies in Hannibal's vicinity in order to watch and limit his movements. Hannibal ravaged Apulia but was unable to bring Fabius to battle, so he decided to march through Samnium to Campania , one of the richest and most fertile provinces of Italy, hoping that the devastation would draw Fabius into battle. Fabius closely followed Hannibal's path of destruction, yet still refused to let himself be drawn out of

4625-568: The Battle of Guling, Han Xin did not keep his promise to help Gaozu, and caused Gaozu to lose the battle. Since then, Gaozu had the intention of killing Han Xin but did not do so as he was not yet powerful enough. When Gaozu's empire came into place, Han Xin no longer served any purpose. [REDACTED] Quotations related to Han Xin at Wikiquote Hannibal Barca Hannibal ( / ˈ h æ n ɪ b əl / ; Punic : 𐤇𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋 , romanized:  Ḥanībaʿl ; 247 – between 183 and 181 BC)

4750-748: The Captain of Rations (治粟都尉) to be in charge of food supplies. During this time, Han Xin often met up with Xiao He (Liu Bang's Chancellor), who was greatly impressed by him. In April of that year, Liu Bang faced a mass desertion of soldiers. Han Xin figured that despite both Xiahou Ying and Xiao He having recommended him to Liu Bang, Liu Bang did not use him, so he saw no reason to stay and also deserted. When Xiao He heard that Han Xin had left, he immediately rushed to personally find Han Xin and bring him back, and did not manage to inform Liu Bang in time. Xiao He eventually caught up with Han Xin and managed to persuade Han Xin to go back with him. This event gave rise to

4875-419: The Carthaginian general. Most recently, W. C. Mahaney has argued Col de la Traversette closest fits the records of ancient authors. Biostratigraphic archaeological data has reinforced the case for Col de la Traversette; analysis of peat bogs near watercourses on both sides of the pass's summit showed that the ground was heavily disturbed "by thousands, perhaps tens of thousands, of animals and humans" and that

5000-461: The Carthaginian heavy cavalry and the Numidians attacked the legions from behind. As a result, the Roman army was fully surrounded with no means of escape. Due to these brilliant tactics, Hannibal managed to surround and destroy all but a small remnant of his enemy, despite his own inferior numbers. Depending upon the source, it is estimated that 50,000–70,000 Romans were killed or captured. Among

5125-698: The Carthaginians ancestral homeland of Phoenicia in Western Asia. Its precise vocalization remains a matter of debate. Suggested readings include Ḥannobaʿal , Ḥannibaʿl , or Ḥannibaʿal , meaning "Baʿal/The lord is gracious", "Baʿal Has Been Gracious", or "The Grace of Baʿal". It is equivalent to the fellow Semitic Hebrew name Haniel . Greek historians rendered the name as Anníbas ( Ἀννίβας ). The Phoenicians and Carthaginians, like many West Asian Semitic peoples, did not use hereditary surnames, but were typically distinguished from others bearing

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5250-585: The Empress for Han Xin's last words, which were, "I regret not listening to Kuai Che's advice, and now I have been deceived by such vile people. This is the heaven's will!" In another section of Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian , The Hereditary House of Chancellor Xiao, the events of the Chu-Han Contention are told from Xiao He's point of view, and puts a different narrative on the death of Han Xin. In this autobiography, Liu Bang

5375-415: The Han dynasty. Not long after, Chen Xi rebelled and Gaozu personally led an army to suppress the rebellion, while Han Xin claimed sickness and stayed behind. While Gaozu was away, one of Han Xin's household servants offended him, so Han Xin locked him up as punishment. The servant's young brother gave news of Han Xin's desire to rebel to Empress Lü Zhi , who then plotted with Xiao He to lure Han Xin into

5500-536: The Han infantry, many of whom were Chu in origin, sung traditional songs of Chu. This induced homesickness and desertions in Xiang Yu's army and made Xiang believe that many Chu soldiers had already defected to the Han armies before the battle at Gaixia. Hemorrhaging soldiers through defections and believing his position hopeless, Xiang fled later that night with only 800 cavalry. Pursued by Han cavalry under Guan Ying and having lost most of his remaining followers during

5625-461: The Libyan mercenaries on the wings, swung around by the movement, menaced their flanks. The onslaught of Hannibal's cavalry was unstoppable. Hannibal's chief cavalry commander, Maharbal , led the mobile Numidian cavalry on the right which shattered the Roman cavalry opposing them. Hannibal's Iberian and Gallic heavy cavalry on the left, led by Hanno, defeated the Roman heavy cavalry after which both

5750-541: The Palace Guards ). He constantly proposed strategies to Xiang Yu but was ignored. During this time, he became well acquainted with Zhongli Mo , one of Xiang Yu's top generals. In 206 BC, Han Xin deserted Xiang Yu's army and went to join Liu Bang . Initially, after joining Liu Bang's army, Han Xin was not given any important roles. Once, he violated military law and was due to be punished by execution. When it

5875-544: The Po Valley. Even before news of the defeat at Ticinus had reached Rome, the Senate had ordered Consul Tiberius Sempronius Longus to bring his army back from Sicily to meet Scipio and face Hannibal. Hannibal, by skillful maneuvers, was in position to head him off, for he lay on the direct road between Placentia and Arminum, by which Sempronius would have to march to reinforce Scipio. He then captured Clastidium, from which he drew large amounts of supplies for his men. But this gain

6000-467: The Po plains" taken together with "massive radiocarbon and microbiological and parasitical evidence" from the alluvial sediments either side of the pass furnish "supporting evidence, proof if you will" that Hannibal's invasion went that way. If Hannibal had ascended the Col de la Traversette, the Po Valley would indeed have been visible from the pass's summit, vindicating Polybius's account. By Livy's account,

6125-654: The Pyrenees, the Alps, and many large rivers. Additionally, he would have to contend with opposition from the Gauls , whose territory he passed through. Starting in the spring of 218 BC, he crossed the Pyrenees and, by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs along his passage before the Romans could take any measures to bar his advance, was able to reach the Rhône by September. Hannibal's army numbered 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 38 elephants, almost none of which would survive

6250-552: The Romans pre-emptively invaded the Po region in 225 BC. By 220 BC, the Romans had annexed the area as Cisalpine Gaul . Hasdrubal was assassinated around the same time (221 BC), bringing Hannibal to the fore. It seems that the Romans lulled themselves into a false sense of security, having dealt with the threat of a Gallo-Carthaginian invasion, and perhaps knowing that the original Carthaginian commander had been killed. Hannibal departed Cartagena, Spain (New Carthage) in late spring of 218 BC. He fought his way through

6375-824: The Second Punic War. Hannibal invaded Italy by crossing the Alps with North African war elephants . In his first few years in Italy, as the leader of a Carthaginian and partially Celtic army, he won a succession of victories at the Battle of Ticinus , Trebia , Lake Trasimene , and Cannae , inflicting heavy losses on the Romans. Hannibal was distinguished for his ability to determine both his and his opponent's respective strengths and weaknesses, and to plan battles accordingly. His well-planned strategies allowed him to conquer and ally with several Italian cities that were previously allied to Rome. Hannibal occupied most of southern Italy for 15 years. The Romans, led by Fabius Maximus , avoided directly engaging him, instead waging

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6500-476: The army and confirmed in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. The Roman scholar Livy gives a depiction of the young Carthaginian: "No sooner had he arrived...the old soldiers fancied they saw Hamilcar in his youth given back to them; the same bright look; the same fire in his eye, the same trick of countenance and features. Never was one and the same spirit more skilful to meet opposition, to obey, or to command[.]" Livy also records that Hannibal married

6625-424: The army of Xiang Yu. However, not content to rely on numbers, in the battle at Gaixia Han Xin's tactics somewhat resembled those of Hannibal Barca at the Battle of Cannae . Having formed two reserve lines in case of failure, his centre advanced against the enemy centre. Failing to gain an advantage against Xiang Yu's veterans, Han Xin then withdrew his centre, which was likely then pursued by Xiang Yu's men. However,

6750-668: The behaviour of Rome's allies; before that fateful day, their loyalty remained unshaken, now it began to waver for the simple reason that they despaired of Roman Power." During that same year, the Greek cities in Sicily were induced to revolt against Roman political control, while Macedonian King Philip V pledged his support to Hannibal— initiating the First Macedonian War against Rome. Hannibal also secured an alliance with newly appointed tyrant Hieronymus of Syracuse . It

6875-487: The cities of Campania . The forces detached to his lieutenants were generally unable to hold their own, and neither his home government nor his new ally Philip V of Macedon helped to make up his losses. His position in southern Italy, therefore, became increasingly difficult and his chance of ultimately conquering Rome grew ever more remote. Hannibal still won a number of notable victories: completely destroying two Roman armies in 212 BC, and killing two consuls, including

7000-476: The combat area. Hannibal drew up his least reliable infantry in the centre in a semicircle curving towards the Romans. Placing them forward of the wings allowed them room to fall back, luring the Romans after them, while the cavalry on the flanks dealt with their Roman counterparts. Hannibal's wings were composed of the Gallic and Numidian cavalry. The Roman legions forced their way through Hannibal's weak centre, but

7125-617: The conquest of the State of Qi by Han Xin, the Han and their allies were now in full control of northern China, and Han Xin could now march against Xiang Yu while possessing several advantages. As the King of Qi, with allies in Zhao and Yan , he now had a larger army than Liu Bang himself, whose army, along with that of Xiang Yu, had been worn down through mutual campaigns of attrition in the Central Plain. Using his own army, that of Liu Bang,

7250-430: The crossing was accomplished in the face of huge difficulties. These Hannibal surmounted with ingenuity, such as when he used vinegar and fire to break through a rockfall. According to Polybius, he arrived in Italy accompanied by 20,000 foot soldiers, 4,000 horsemen, and only a few elephants. The fired rockfall event is mentioned only by Livy; Polybius is mute on the subject and there is no evidence of carbonized rock at

7375-514: The dead were Roman consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus , two consuls for the preceding year, two quaestors , 29 of the 48 military tribunes, and an additional eighty senators. At a time when the Roman Senate was composed of no more than 300 men, this constituted 25–30% of the governing body. This makes the battle one of the most catastrophic defeats in the history of ancient Rome , and one of the bloodiest battles in all of human history, in terms of

7500-407: The defensive. This strategy was unpopular with many Romans, who believed that it was a form of cowardice. Hannibal decided that it would be unwise to winter in the already devastated lowlands of Campania, but Fabius had trapped him there by ensuring that all the exit passes were blocked. This situation led to the night Battle of Ager Falernus . Hannibal had his men tie burning torches to the horns of

7625-611: The district beyond, Flaminius (partly for fear of popular reproach and partly of personal irritation) would be unable to endure watching passively the devastation of the country but would spontaneously follow him... and give him opportunities for attack." At the same time, Hannibal tried to break the allegiance of Rome's allies by proving that Flaminius was powerless to protect them. Despite this, Flaminius remained passively encamped at Arretium. Hannibal marched boldly around Flaminius' left flank, unable to draw him into battle by mere devastation, and effectively cut him off from Rome, executing

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7750-534: The dozen days that she had laundry to do. Han Xin was incredibly delighted and promised to heavily repay her for her kindness. She, however, scolded him, saying: "A young man such as you cannot feed himself. I take pity that you are a descendant of nobility and so I feed you. I did not do so expecting anything in return!" A youngster from a butcher's family in Huaiyin would humiliate Han Xin, making fun of him by saying that despite Han Xin being tall and carrying around

7875-646: The east, but the peace proposal of Liu Bang had been a ploy devised by the Han advisors Zhang Liang and Chen Ping to have Xiang Yu return Liu's father and wife and cede control of Xingyang, and then catch Xiang unprepared. in October Liu Bang broke the peace, pursuing Xiang Yu as far as Yanxia, and he sent envoys to Han Xin and Peng Yue, ordering them to join him in Guling to destroy Xiang Yu's army. However, after Liu Bang advanced to Guling, Han Xin and Peng Yue did not arrive. Xiang Yu then attacked and inflicted

8000-478: The empire (China), he plotted a rebellion and caused his clan to be implicated and exterminated . Is this not Heaven's will? In volume 12 of Zizhi Tongjian , after the entry on Han Xin's death, Sima Guang commented on Han as follows: Many people would think that Han Xin was the first person to propose the grand plan for unifying China: he started his plan together with (Emperor) Gaozu in Hanzhong, conquered

8125-437: The famed Marcus Claudius Marcellus in a battle in 208 BC. However, Hannibal slowly began losing ground—inadequately supported by his Italian allies, abandoned by his government, either because of jealousy or simply because Carthage was overstretched, and unable to match Rome's resources. He was never able to bring about another grand decisive victory that could produce a lasting strategic change. Carthaginian political will

8250-428: The first recorded turning movement in military history. He then advanced through the uplands of Etruria , provoking Flaminius into a hasty pursuit and catching him in a defile on the shore of Lake Trasimenus . There Hannibal destroyed Flaminius' army in the waters or on the adjoining slopes, killing Flaminius as well (see Battle of Lake Trasimene ). This was the most costly ambush that the Romans ever sustained until

8375-594: The flanks. However, most or all of his war elephants had died of injuries or the cold that winter and none took part in the succeeding battles at Lake Trasimene and/or Cannae. Hannibal quartered his troops for the winter with the Gauls, whose support for him had abated. Fearing the possibility of an assassination attempt by his Gallic allies, Hannibal had a number of wigs made, dyed to suit the appearance of persons differing widely in age, and kept constantly changing them, so that any would-be assassins wouldn't recognize him. In

8500-539: The force of Peng Yue, and the Han and allied forces located in Jiujiang to the south, in late 203 Han Xin launched a multi-pronged invasion of Chu. Han attacked from the further north-east, Peng the nearer north-east, Liu the west, Ying Bu the nearer south-east and Zhou Yin and Liu Jia the further south-east. Under Han Xin's overall command, in December the armies were able to coordinate and rendezvous on Chu territory,

8625-572: The gallery roads while making secret advances through Chencang"), became one of the Thirty-Six Stratagems . When Xiang Yu died in 202 BCE, Zhongli Mo (one of Xiang Yu's generals) came to Han Xin and requested refuge. On account of their past friendship, Han Xin protected Zhongli Mo and let him stay with him. When Emperor Gaozu heard that Zhongli Mo was hiding in Han Xin's territory, he ordered Han to arrest Zhongli Mo, but Han Xin refused. A year later, Gaozu heard rumours that Han Xin

8750-690: The government; Livy records that only Hanno II the Great spoke against him. In Rome, the Senate reacted to this apparent violation of the treaty by dispatching a delegation to Carthage to demand whether Hannibal had destroyed Saguntum in accordance with orders from Carthage. The Carthaginian Senate responded with legal arguments observing the lack of ratification by either government for the treaty alleged to have been violated. The delegation's leader, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus , demanded Carthage choose between war and peace, to which his audience replied that Rome could choose. Fabius chose war. This campaign

8875-487: The greatest general was", to which Hannibal replied "either Alexander or Pyrrhus, then himself". Hannibal was a common Semitic Phoenician-Carthaginian personal name. It is recorded in Carthaginian sources as ḤNBʿL ( Punic : 𐤇𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋 ). It is a combination of the common Phoenician masculine given name Hanno with the Northwest Semitic Canaanite deity Baal (lit, "lord") a major god of

9000-458: The harsh conditions of the Alps. Hannibal outmanoeuvred the natives who had tried to prevent his crossing, then evaded a Roman force marching from the Mediterranean coast by turning inland up the valley of the Rhône. His exact route over the Alps has been the source of scholarly dispute ever since (Polybius, the surviving ancient account closest in time to Hannibal's campaign, reports that the route

9125-623: The head of Xiang Yu), and Liu Bang sent Jin Xi to conquer the pro-Xiang Yu kingdom of Linjiang and capture its king Gong Wei , who was executed by Liu. In February, Liu Bang ascended the throne as Gaozu, the first emperor of the Han dynasty. Had Xiang Yu successfully retreated into Wu, he might have been able to stall the Han advance. Han Xin Han Xin ( simplified Chinese : 韩信 ; traditional Chinese : 韓信 ; pinyin : Hán Xìn ; Wade–Giles : Han Hsin ; ? – early 196 BCE )

9250-530: The highest rank in the army, the Commander-in-Chief (大將軍). Xiao He also chided Liu Bang's usual ill-mannered behaviour, demanding that Liu Bang hold a formal ceremony for the event. Liu Bang relented and held a special ceremony for Han Xin's appointment. After the ceremony, Han Xin analysed the situation for Liu Bang and devised a plan to conquer Xiang Yu's Western Chu kingdom. In late 206 BCE, Liu Bang's forces left Hanzhong and prepared to attack

9375-430: The humiliation to preserve my life to achieve great things in the future." In 209 BC, Han Xin joined Xiang Liang 's rebel army when rebellions erupted throughout China to overthrow the Qin dynasty . Han Xin continued serving Xiang Yu (Xiang Liang's nephew) after Xiang Liang was killed in action at the Battle of Dingtao. He was not placed in high regard and worked as a "langzhong" (郎中; sometimes translated as Captain of

9500-408: The intention of rebelling? The reason for his rebellion was that he felt unhappy about losing his noble title. Lu Wan was merely Gaozu's neighbour, yet he was appointed King of Yan, while Han Xin only received the title of a marquis and could only have audiences with Gaozu. Is this not an example of how Gaozu treated Han Xin unfairly? I think that Gaozu did treat Han Xin unfairly when he lured Han into

9625-412: The killing of Xiang Yu, tore apart his body in the fight to claim responsibility for his death. When five soldiers fitted together Xiang Yu's head and limbs to identify him, the reward - 1000 catties of gold and a fief of 10,000 households - was divided between them five ways. By 202 BC, most resistance had been crushed. Han Xin captured the cities of Lu and Huling (Lu eventually surrendered on being shown

9750-404: The knowledge of Liu Bang, because Han Xin's reputation amongst the military was too high, and combined with his talents, became a threat to the throne. Although historians have always looked to Sima Qian's records for facts, some believe it is possible that as a citizen of the Han dynasty, he could not go against the government acknowledged version of events. A Tang dynasty poet, Xu Hun , once wrote

9875-634: The land. When Han Xin heard that Gaozu was heading towards the land of Chu, his first instinct was to rebel, but he decided he had committed no crime and stayed put. At this time, someone told Han Xin that if he were to present Zhongli Mo's head to Gaozu, than he would be happy and spare him. Han Xin then met Zhongli Mo to decide their next course of action, and brought up this idea. Zhongli Mo then promptly slit his own throat, but not before claiming Han Xin would follow soon after. Han Xin brought Zhongli Mo's severed head to Gaozu and explained his innocence, but Gaozu ordered Han to be arrested. Han Xin exclaimed, "It

10000-516: The left and right flanks of the Han army, commanded by General Gung and General Pi respectively, then attacked Xiang Yu's army from both sides, probably performing a double envelopment. Han Xin returned his centre to the offensive once the enemy had been pinned in place and was beginning to falter, and he inflicted a major defeat on the Chu army. Having been defeated, Xiang Yu retreated with the survivors to his camp, where they were surrounded, and that night

10125-406: The locals told me that when Han Xin was still a commoner, his ambition was very different from ordinary people's. When his mother died, he was too poor to give her a proper funeral. However, he found a scenic area, on high and flat ground and capable of housing thousands, and buried her there. I've personally been to his mother's grave and it was exactly like what the locals described to me. If Han Xin

10250-559: The loss of Qi had further impacted supplies; and Han Xin, now the King of Qi, had begun making attacks on the Chu heartland from the north. For these reasons, Xiang Yu agreed to negotiate. Liu Bang's father and wife were returned to him, and they agreed that they should divide China along the ancient Honggou Canal, which had carried water from the Yellow River from the north of Xingyang and ran between Western Guangwu Hill and Eastern Guangwu Hill. In September Xiang Yu began to withdraw to

10375-515: The meantime, the Romans hoped to gain success through sheer strength and weight of numbers, and they raised a new army of unprecedented size, estimated by some to be as large as 100,000 men, but more likely around 50,000–80,000. The Romans and allied legions resolved to confront Hannibal and marched southward to Apulia . They eventually found him on the left bank of the Aufidus River, and encamped 10 km (6 mi) away. On this occasion,

10500-545: The multitudes of other Carthaginians named Hasdrubal and Mago, but this practice is ahistorical and is rarely applied to Hannibal. Hannibal was one of the sons of Hamilcar Barca , a Carthaginian leader, and an unknown mother. He was most likely born in the city of Carthage, located in what is present-day northern Tunisia , one of many Mediterranean regions colonised by the Canaanites from their homeland in Phoenicia ,

10625-494: The northern tribes to the foothills of the Pyrenees , subduing the tribes through clever mountain tactics and stubborn fighting. He left a detachment of 20,000 troops to garrison the newly conquered region. At the Pyrenees, he released 11,000 Iberian troops who showed reluctance to leave their homeland. Hannibal reportedly entered Gaul with 40,000 foot soldiers and 12,000 horsemen. Hannibal recognized that he still needed to cross

10750-404: The number of lives lost in a single day. After Cannae, the Romans were very hesitant to confront Hannibal in pitched battle, preferring instead to weaken him by attrition, relying on their advantages of interior lines, supply, and manpower. As a result, Hannibal fought no more major battles in Italy for the rest of the war. It is believed that his refusal to bring the war to Rome itself was due to

10875-517: The office of sufet . He enacted political and financial reforms to enable the payment of the war indemnity imposed by Rome. Those reforms were unpopular with members of the Carthaginian aristocracy and in Rome, and he fled into voluntary exile. During this time, he lived at the Seleucid court, where he acted as military advisor to Antiochus III the Great in his war against Rome. Antiochus met defeat at

11000-535: The only two-tier rockfall in the Western Alps, located below the Col de la Traversette (Mahaney, 2008). If Polybius is correct in his figure for the number of troops that he commanded after the crossing of the Rhône, this would suggest that he had lost almost half of his force. Historians such as Serge Lancel have questioned the reliability of the figures for the number of troops that he had when he left Hispania. From

11125-508: The origins of certain Chinese idioms , he was undefeated in battle and for his accomplishments he was considered the "God of War". In recognition of Han Xin's contributions, Liu Bang conferred the titles of " King of Qi " on him in 203 BCE and " King of Chu " in the following year. However, Liu Bang feared Han Xin's growing influence and gradually reduced his authority, demoting him to "Marquis of Huaiyin" in late 202 BCE. In early 196 BCE, Han Xin

11250-704: The peace party led by Hanno II the Great . Hanno had been instrumental in denying Hannibal's requested reinforcements following the battle at Cannae. Hannibal started the war without the full backing of Carthaginian oligarchy. His attack of Saguntum had presented the oligarchy with a choice of war with Rome or loss of prestige in Iberia. The oligarchy, not Hannibal, controlled the strategic resources of Carthage. Hannibal constantly sought reinforcements from either Iberia or North Africa. Hannibal's troops who were lost in combat were replaced with less well-trained and motivated mercenaries from Italy or Gaul. The commercial interests of

11375-470: The pursuit, when he reached the Wu River he was ashamed of how many of his native Wu soldiers had died under him, and he chose to fight a last stand by the river against the Han cavalry rather than return to his Wu homeland. He reportedly killed hundreds of his Han pursuers and suffered a dozen wounds before he committed suicide by cutting his own throat. The Han cavalrymen, who had been promised rewards for

11500-451: The reliable bits, and came out with thirty-five books. Han Xin himself also wrote three essays regarding military strategy. His descendants are said to have fled to the area of modern Guangdong and Guangxi and changed their name to Wéi (韋) . At the end of Han Xin's biography in Shiji , Sima Qian commented on Han as follows: I've been to Huaiyin (present-day Huai'an , Jiangsu ), and

11625-493: The same name using patronymics or epithets . Although he is by far the most famous Hannibal, when further clarification is necessary he is usually referred to as "Hannibal, son of Hamilcar", or "Hannibal the Barcid", the latter term applying to the family of his father, Hamilcar Barca . Barca ( Punic : 𐤁𐤓𐤒 , BRQ ) is a Semitic cognomen meaning "lightning" or "thunderbolt", a surname acquired by Hamilcar on account of

11750-648: The saying, "Xiao He chases Han Xin under the moonlight" ( 蕭何月下追韓信 ). In the meantime, Liu Bang had a nervous breakdown after hearing that Xiao He had left him. When Xiao He returned after a few days, while Liu Bang was relieved, he was also furious. He angrily asked Xiao He, "Why did you run away?" Xiao He explained, "I did not run away; I was chasing down Han Xin." Liu Bang got angry again, saying, "There were dozens of deserters, yet you did not chase after them. When you say that you chased after Han Xin, you must be lying to me." Xiao He then explained Han Xin's talent and forcibly insisted that Liu Bang immediately promote Han Xin to

11875-508: The seemingly impassable Arno, but he lost a large part of his force in the marshy lowlands of the Arno. He arrived in Etruria in the spring of 217 BC and decided to lure the main Roman army under Flaminius into a pitched battle by devastating the region that Flaminius had been sent to protect. As Polybius recounts, "he [Hannibal] calculated that, if he passed the camp and made a descent into

12000-417: The sheer size of the army required both generals to command a wing each. This theory is supported by the fact that, after Varro survived the battle he was pardoned by the Senate, which would be peculiar if he were the sole commander at fault. Hannibal capitalized on the eagerness of the Romans and drew them into a trap by using an envelopment tactic . This eliminated the Roman numerical advantage by shrinking

12125-407: The soil bore traces of unique levels of Clostridia bacteria associated with the digestive tract of horses and mules. Radiocarbon dating secured dates of 2168 BP or c. 218 BC, the year of Hannibal's march. Mahaney et al . have concluded that this and other evidence strongly supports the Col de la Traversette as being the "Hannibalic Route" as had been argued by Gavin de Beer in 1954. De Beer

12250-579: The spring of 217 BC, Hannibal decided to find a more reliable base of operations farther south. Gnaeus Servilius and Gaius Flaminius (the new consuls of Rome) were expecting Hannibal to advance on Rome, and they took their armies to block the eastern and western routes that Hannibal could use. The only alternative route to central Italy lay at the mouth of the Arno . This area was practically one huge marsh, and happened to be overflowing more than usual during this particular season. Hannibal knew that this route

12375-470: The start, he seems to have calculated that he would have to operate without aid from Hispania. Hannibal's vision of military affairs was derived partly from the teaching of his Greek tutors and partly from experience gained alongside his father, and it stretched over most of the Hellenistic World of his time. The breadth of his vision gave rise to his grand strategy of conquering Rome by opening

12500-410: The story, Hannibal's father took him up and brought him to a sacrificial chamber. Hamilcar held Hannibal over the fire roaring in the chamber and made him swear that he would never be a friend of Rome. Other sources report that Hannibal told his father, "I swear so soon as age will permit...I will use fire and steel to arrest the destiny of Rome." According to the tradition, Hannibal's oath took place in

12625-609: The swiftness and ferocity of his attacks. Barca is cognate with similar names for lightning found among the Israelites , Assyrians , Babylonians , Arameans , Arabs , Amorites , Moabites , Edomites and other fellow Asiatic Semitic peoples. Although they did not inherit the surname from their father, Hamilcar's progeny are collectively known as the Barcids . Modern historians occasionally refer to Hannibal's brothers as Hasdrubal Barca and Mago Barca to distinguish them from

12750-484: The town of Peñíscola , today part of the Valencian Community , Spain. Hannibal's father went about with the conquest of Hispania . When his father drowned in battle, Hannibal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair succeeded to his command of the army with Hannibal (then 18 years old) serving as an officer under him. Hasdrubal pursued a policy of consolidation of Carthage's Iberian interests, even signing

12875-419: The two armies were combined into one, the consuls having to alternate their command on a daily basis. According to Livy, Varro was a man of reckless and hubristic nature and it was his turn to command on the day of battle. This account is possibly biased against Varro as its main source, Polybius, was a client of Paullus's aristocratic family whereas Varro was less distinguished. Some historians have suggested that

13000-441: The upper Guil valley and the upper Po river is the highest pass. It is moreover the most southerly, as Varro in his De re rustica relates, agreeing that Hannibal's Pass was the highest in Western Alps and the most southerly. Mahaney et al . argue that factors used by De Beer to support Col de la Traversette including "gauging ancient place names against modern, close scrutiny of times of flood in major rivers and distant viewing of

13125-515: The war in the Iberian Peninsula. With a small detachment still positioned in Gaul, Scipio made an attempt to intercept Hannibal. He succeeded, through prompt decision and speedy movement, in transporting his army to Italy by sea in time to meet Hannibal. Hannibal's forces moved through the Po Valley and were engaged in the Battle of Ticinus . Here, Hannibal forced the Romans to evacuate the plain of Lombardy , by virtue of his superior cavalry. The victory

13250-598: The west, where he stormed the Vaccaen strongholds of Helmantice and Arbucala. On his return home, laden with many spoils, a coalition of Spanish tribes, led by the Carpetani , attacked, and Hannibal won his first major battlefield success and showed off his tactical skills at the battle of the River Tagus. Rome, fearing the growing strength of Hannibal in Iberia, made an alliance with the city of Saguntum , which lay

13375-570: The winter, Hannibal found comfortable quarters in the Apulian plain. In the spring of 216 BC, Hannibal took the initiative and seized the large supply depot at Cannae in the Apulian plain. By capturing Cannae, Hannibal had placed himself between the Romans and their crucial sources of supply. Once the Roman Senate resumed their consular elections in 216 BC, they appointed Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus as consuls . In

13500-576: The woman who fed him and rewarded her with 1,000 taels of gold. He found the Chief of Nanchang Pavilion and gave him a hundred coins, saying, "You are not a good person. You do good things but your generosity is limited." Han Xin also found the hooligan and appointed the hooligan as a zhongwei (中尉; equivalent to a present-day lieutenant). He to his subordinates: "This man is a hero. Do you think I could not have killed him when he humiliated me? I would not become famous even if I killed him then. Hence, I endured

13625-445: The 亭長 (Chief) of Nanchang Pavilion for food, and as months passed the Chief's wife increasing began to hate Han Xin. At one point, she cooked and ate very early in the morning, so that when Han Xin arrived, there was no more food. Han Xin understood that he was no longer welcome and never visited them again. Once, when he was suffering from hunger, he met an old woman washing clothes by the river who provided him food. She did so for all

13750-548: Was a Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War . Hannibal's father, Hamilcar Barca , was a leading Carthaginian general during the First Punic War . His younger brothers were Mago and Hasdrubal ; his brother-in-law was Hasdrubal the Fair , who commanded other Carthaginian armies. Hannibal lived during

13875-495: Was a Chinese military general and politician who served Liu Bang during the Chu–Han Contention and contributed greatly to the founding of the Han dynasty . Han Xin was named as one of the "Three Heroes of the early Han dynasty" ( Chinese : 漢初三傑 ), along with Zhang Liang and Xiao He . Han Xin is best remembered as a brilliant military leader for the strategies and tactics he employed in warfare, some of which became

14000-557: Was accused of participating in a rebellion, lured into a trap and executed on Empress Lü Zhi's orders. Han Xin was born in Huaiyin (modern-day Jiangsu Province ), which was an area of Chu during the warring states . According to legend, he may have been a descendant of the Han Sect of the Han Kingdom , but he was incredibly poor. The people from his hometown say that when his mother died, he did not have enough money to give her

14125-628: Was already debated). The most influential modern theories favour either a march up the valley of the Drôme and a crossing of the main range to the south of the modern highway over the Col de Montgenèvre or a march farther north up the valleys of the Isère and Arc crossing the main range near the present Col de Mont Cenis or the Little St Bernard Pass . Recent numismatic evidence suggests that Hannibal's army passed within sight of

14250-416: Was beginning to distrust him and had become wary of his talent. Hence, Han Xin claimed to be ill and stayed at home most of the time to reduce Gaozu's suspicions. Around 197 BCE, Chen Xi (Marquis of Yangxia) met Han Xin before leaving for Julu, where Han Xin promptly pulled him aside, dismissing all nearby servants. He promised to aid Chen Xi from inside the capital if Chen Xi were to start an uprising against

14375-462: Was embodied in the ruling oligarchy . There was a Carthaginian Senate, but the real power was with the inner "Council of 30 Nobles" and the board of judges from ruling families known as the " Hundred and Four ". These two bodies came from the wealthy, commercial families of Carthage. Two political factions operated in Carthage: the war party, also known as the " Barcids " (Hannibal's family name), and

14500-457: Was full of difficulties, but it remained the surest and certainly the quickest way to central Italy. Polybius claims that Hannibal's men marched for four days and three nights "through a land that was under water", suffering terribly from fatigue and enforced want of sleep. He crossed without opposition over both the Apennines (during which he lost his right eye because of conjunctivitis ) and

14625-600: Was grateful for the opportunities to command that he had received from Liu Bang, and he recalled that, when he had earlier served Xiang Yu as a guardsman, Xiang Yu had refused to listen to his suggestions. As a result, he chose to remain loyal to Liu Bang. Meanwhile, Liu Bang and Xiang Yu were camped on Western Guangwu Hill and Eastern Guangwu Hill, respectively, to the north of the Chu-controlled city of Xingyang. Increasingly frustrated, Xiang Yu threatened to kill Liu Bang's captured father and wife and have them cooked over

14750-420: Was his turn to be beheaded, Han Xin saw Xiahou Ying (one of Liu Bang's trusted generals) and said, "I thought the King wanted to rule an empire. Why, then, is he killing valiant men?" Xiahou Ying was surprised by his words and his looks, and spared Han Xin's life. After conversing with Han Xin, Xiahou Ying was greatly delighted and recommended Han Xin to Liu Bang. Liu Bang was not overly impressed but made Han Xin

14875-476: Was immediately notified of Han Xin's rebellion and execution, rather than waiting until after his return. Throughout history, historians and scholars alike have debated over the plausibility of Han Xin's rebellion. Although the Records of the Grand Historian have it written in black and white, many believe that Han Xin was loyal until his death. They believe that Lü Zhi and Xiao He framed Han Xin of treason, under

15000-465: Was minor, but it encouraged the Gauls and Ligurians to join the Carthaginian cause. Their troops bolstered his army back to around 40,000 men. Scipio was severely injured, his life only saved by the bravery of his son who rode back onto the field to rescue his fallen father. Scipio retreated across the Trebia to camp at Placentia with his army mostly intact. The other Roman consular army was rushed to

15125-485: Was more modest and unassuming, did not boast about his achievements, and not been so egoistic, he would have attained fame, glory and wealth. In that case, his contributions to the Han dynasty would be comparable to those of the Duke of Zhou , Duke of Shao , and Jiang Ziya , and his descendants would be proud of him. However, Han Xin did not change himself for the better. Instead, when peace and stability had been restored in

15250-460: Was not without loss, as Sempronius avoided Hannibal's watchfulness, slipped around his flank, and joined his colleague in his camp near the Trebia River near Placentia . There Hannibal had an opportunity to show his masterful military skill at the Trebia in December of the same year, after wearing down the superior Roman infantry, when he cut it to pieces with a surprise attack and ambush from

15375-461: Was one of only three interpreters—the others being John Lazenby and Jakob Seibert—to have visited all the Alpine high passes and presented a view on which was most plausible. Both De Beer and Seibert had selected the Col de la Traversette as the one most closely matching the ancient descriptions. Polybius wrote that Hannibal had crossed the highest of the Alpine passes: Col de la Traversette, between

15500-697: Was originally planned by Hannibal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair, who became a Carthaginian general in the Iberian Peninsula in 229 BC. He maintained this post for eight years until 221 BC. Soon the Romans became aware of an alliance between Carthage and the Celts of the Po Valley in Northern Italy. When Hannibal arrived in the Po Valley, roughly 10,000 Celtic tribesmen joined his army. The Celts were amassing forces to invade farther south in Italy, presumably with Carthaginian backing. Therefore,

15625-571: Was plotting a rebellion. By this time, Zhang Liang had already retreated from political affairs, so Chen Ping was Gaozu's most trusted advisor. After discussion, they came to the conclusion that Gaozu could not best Han Xin in battle, so it would be most ideal to strike Han Xin when he was unprepared. Chen Ping proposed to lure Han Xin into meeting, on a pretext of Liu Bang touring the Yunmeng Marshes (present-day Jianghan Plains , Hubei Province ). He sent this message out to all warlords across

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