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124-555: The set of dialects was traditionally included by linguists as Galician-Portuguese or Galician , with some traits of the neighbouring Astur-Leonese linguistic group . Now, however, there is a political-linguistic conflict on the identity of the language between those who prioritise the mixed identity and those that continue to prioritise the Galician substratum . Supporters of the former, mostly in Asturias, identify Eonavian as part of

248-615: A dialect continuum between the Asturian and Galician languages or even a third language belonging to Portuguese-Galician group spoken only in that area. Supporters of the latter, mostly in Galicia, identify it as just Galician and want for it the same level of protection as Galician has in Castile and Leon , which protects the dialects of El Bierzo (of which the westernmost varieties are usually classified as Galician) in cooperation with

372-465: A dialect continuum with Portuguese in the south, and with Astur-Leonese in the east. Mutual intelligibility (estimated at 85% by Robert A. Hall Jr. , 1989) is very high between Galicians and northern Portuguese. The current linguistic status of Galician with regard to Portuguese is controversial in Galicia, and the issue sometimes carries political overtones. There are linguists who consider Galician and Portuguese as two norms or varieties of

496-571: A Celtic revival; and Manuel Curros Enríquez , a liberal and anticlerical author whose ideas and proclamations were scandalous for part of the 19th-century society. The first political manifest asking for the officialization of Galician date to the late 19th century. An important landmark was the establishment of the Royal Galician Academy , in 1906, soon followed by that of the Seminario de Estudos Galegos (1923). The Seminario

620-458: A common language rather than two separate ones. The Fala language , spoken in a small region of the Spanish autonomous community of Extremadura , underwent a similar development to Galician. Today Galician is the regional language of Galicia (sharing co-officiality with Spanish), and it is spoken by the majority of its population, but with a large decline of use and efficient knowledge among

744-550: A common heritage considered in danger of extinction as the traditional way of living is replaced by modern life, and the jargon of fisherman, the names of tools in traditional crafts, and the oral traditions which form part of celebrations are slowly forgotten. A Galician–Portuguese "baixo-limiao" lect is spoken in several villages. In Galicia, it is spoken in Entrimo and Lobios and in northern Portugal in Terras de Bouro (lands of

868-511: A document from the monastery of Melón , dated in 1231 —being Galician by far the most used language during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, in substitution of Latin. Galician-Portuguese lost its political unity when the County of Portugal obtained its independence from the Kingdom of León , a transition initiated in 1139 and completed in 1179, establishing the Kingdom of Portugal . Meanwhile,

992-612: A language through elaboration, and not an abstand language , a language through detachment. With regard to the external and internal perception of this relation, for instance in past editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica , Galician was defined as a "Portuguese dialect" spoken in northwestern Spain. On the other hand, the director of the Instituto Camões declared in 2019 that Galician and Portuguese were close kin, but different languages. According to

1116-548: A lexical, phonetic, morphological and syntactic similarity. Also part of the common heritage of oral traditions are the markets and festivals of patron saints and processions, religious celebrations such as the magosto, entroido or Corpus Christi , with ancient dances and tradition – like the one where Coca the dragon fights with Saint George ; and also traditional clothing and adornments, crafts and skills, work-tools, carved vegetable lanterns, superstitions, traditional knowledge about plants and animals. All these are part of

1240-3042: A maldiçon de Deus e a mina e con Iudas eno inferno iasca por senpre e aa uoz del rey peyte çen morabentinos e dobre ao moestero a heredade e a carta uala por senpre. Feyta a carta en Gyo... (late 13th century) Se vos ende quissierdes yr leyxade a quarta de quanto overdes ao monasterio... a vossa morte venirdes aa septultura do monasterio con vossas mandaciones (1261) In dei nomine Amen. Cunnuzuda cousa seia aquantos esta carta viren et oyren. Como nos don Miguel pela gracia de dios Abbade do Monesteyro de Sancta Maria de Vila Noua d'Oscos et ho Conuento dese mismo logar. Damos anos Rodrigo Affonso tam sola mente poren uossos dias emprestamo: amea daquela nossa herdade de vila Donga. Que he ena Vila d'Aures aque tenno de uos Lope Trauesso. Et damos uola todos sous terminos et con todos sous vilares assy comoa nos auemos. Per tal preyto uos damos esta herdade sobredita quela non possades vender nen supinnorar nen enallenar per neguna maneyra et adia de vosso passamento que ffique esta herdade ia dita liure et quita al Monesteyro ia dito con quanto bon paramento enela ouuer. Et Eu Rodrigo Affonso ia dito obridome per mi et per todas mias bonas et su pena Mil mrs. de Moeda Real; que nunca esta herdade ia dita meu fillo et filla nen quen vener en mias bonas; que nuncaa embarguen al Monesteyro ia dito. Et se meu fillo ou mia filla aesta carta quiseren passar aian amia maldizion et nunca seian herdados en mia herdade, et peyten al Monesteyro mil moravidiis da moeda real et acarta seia sempre atodo tempo valiosa. Et eu Rodrigo Affonso ia dito; recibo de vos don abade et do Conuento ia dito este prestamo que me vos dades et outorgo ben et lealmente de comprir quanto esta carta diz. Et que esto seia mays ffirme et no possa venir en dolda. Mandamos ambas las partes ffacer esta carta partida per ABC feyta carta en Vila noua d'Oscos XII dias por andar del mes de Junyo en era de mil et CCC et XIII annos. Regnante el rey don Affonso en Leon en Castela en todos los outros sous Rengos ayglegia de Oviedo porgante. Rodrigo Rodriguiz meyrino mayor del Rey eno Regno de Leon et en Asturias, osque presentes foron Suer Lopez prior testis, Pay Martiniz Suprior testis. Miguel Celareyro testis, Iohan Pelaiz vestiario testis, Pero Fernandiz cantor; testis Petro Iohanes sucantor testis, Andreu Perez clerigo desancta offemena testis, sou parente pero pelaiz clerigo testis, Lope Díaz testis, Meen Perez testis, Pay Eanes testis, Pero Chazin testis Gonzalo caio testis ffernan Díaz fillo de Diego vello testis et outros muytos que viron et oyron et eu Freire Domingo Monniz Notario puplico de Vila Nova d'Oscos scriui esta carta per mandado danbaslas partos et puys enela meusinal (12 June 1276) Galician language Western Areas Central Areas Eastern Areas Other Areas Galician ( / ɡ ə ˈ l ɪ ʃ ( i ) ə n / gə- LISH -(ee-)ən , UK also / ɡ ə ˈ l ɪ s i ə n / gə- LISS -ee-ən ), also known as Galego ( endonym : galego ),

1364-531: A minor language with less capacity to counterbalance the influence of Spanish, the only official language between the 18th century and 1975. On the other hand, viewing Galician as a part of the Lusosphere, while not denying its own characteristics (cf. Swiss German ), shifts cultural influence from the Spanish domain to the Portuguese. Some scholars have described the situation as properly a continuum, from

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1488-650: A nasal consonant in the west; reduction of the sibilant system, with the confluence (except in the Baixa Limia region) of voiced and voiceless fricatives, followed by a process of de-affrication which led to different results in the west and in the east. The most important author during this period of the language was the scholar Martín Sarmiento , unconditional defender and the first researcher of Galician language (history, evolution, lexicon, etymology, onomastics). His Elementos etimológicos segun el método de Euclides (1766), written in Spanish but dealing with Galician,

1612-404: A number of sonnets and other lyric poetry, as well as other literate productions, including the forgery of allegedly mediaeval scriptures or chronicles under diverse pretensions—usually to show the ancient nobility of the forger's family—being these writings elaborated in an archaic looking Galician which nevertheless could not conceal the state of the language during this period. Middle Galician

1736-568: A quantos esta carta viren commo eu María Uicentez de Cedamona vendo a uos abbade don Guillermo de Santa María de Villa Noua d'Oscos e ao conueto desse mismo lugar quanta heredade eu aio e deuo auer en Çedamona por preço qua a mí e a uos ben prougo, conuen a saber: hun boy boon e çen solidos, preço me outorgo por ben pagada e sse mays val doo por Deus e por mina alma e de meus parentes. E de este día en deante seia tirada de nosso poder e seia metuda en no uosso e no do moestero e se alzen da mina parte ou da aldea contra esta uençon contra esta doaçon veer, aia

1860-597: A second version, less known, to covers until 1300, more interesting for the study of the question. The works served as a basis to publish another set of documents by Professor Alvárez Castrillón in his book Los Ozcos en los siglos X-XIII, un modelo de organización social del espacio en la Asturias medieval , (2001), but the work addresses only the historic aspects and not the linguistics. In the following years, Professor Sanz Fuentes has published also four other documents with regard to Buron Hospital. Finally, Alvárez Castrillón, edited, in 2008, 605 more parchments as attachments to

1984-472: A series of collections, and belonging to four main genres: cantigas de amor , love songs, where a man sings for his ladylove; cantigas de amigo , where a woman sings for her boyfriend; cantigas de escarnio , crude, taunting, and sexual songs of scorn; cantigas de maldecir , where the poet vents his spleen openly; and also the Cantigas de Santa María , which are religious songs. The oldest known document

2108-557: A time but eventually merging in most dialects. See History of Portuguese for more information. As far as it is known, Galician–Portuguese (from 11th to 16th centuries) had a 7-oral-vowel system /a, e, ɛ, i, o, ɔ, u/ (like in most of Romance languages), reduced to 5 vowels [ã, ẽ, ĩ, õ, ũ] when nasalized in contact with syllable-final nasal consonants /n, ŋ, ɲ/ . The vowels /e – ɛ, o – ɔ/ were raised to /e, o/ in unstressed syllables, even in final syllables (like in modern Spanish); e.g. vento [ˈvẽnto] , quente [ˈkẽnte] . However,

2232-539: A yearning as I must carry for my Lady in mine. There has been a sharing of folklore in the Galician–Portuguese region going back to prehistoric times. As the Galician–Portuguese language spread south with the Reconquista , supplanting Mozarabic, this ancient sharing of folklore intensified. In 2005, the governments of Portugal and Spain jointly proposed that Galician–Portuguese oral traditions be made part of

2356-478: Is a Western Ibero-Romance language. Around 2.4 million people have at least some degree of competence in the language, mainly in Galicia , an autonomous community located in northwestern Spain, where it has official status along with Spanish . The language is also spoken in some border zones of the neighbouring Spanish regions of Asturias and Castile and León , as well as by Galician migrant communities in

2480-521: Is a result of the classification of perfects in resultatives and experientials; in Eonavian the experiential perfect would only be expressed using the periphrastic form with "tener" verb (have). According to Timothty Gupton, Galician–Asturian does not use the passive with the verb "tener" like a semiauxiliary verb as frequently as other Galician-Portuguese languages, yet goes on to mention two puzzling constructions in this variety of Galician also spoken in

2604-460: Is a sample of Galician-Portuguese lyric: Proençaes soen mui ben trobar e dizen eles que é con amor, mays os que troban no tempo da frol e non-en outro, sei eu ben que non an tan gran coita no seu coraçon qual m' eu por mha senhor vejo levar Provençal [poets] tend to compose very well and they say it is out of love, but those who compose when flowers bloom and at no other time, I know well that they don't have in their hearts so great

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2728-468: Is also in the case of concomitant vowels, like in the proverb "A terra que da á ortiga". Thus, the vowels acquired certain metaphonic connotations, to incorporate the distinction into verbal inflection and ignore the etymological origin of the words. The strong personal forms (the three person singular and third plural present indicative, subjunctive and all of the second imperative) are always distinguished by speakers between vowel -e- and open-o and between

2852-516: Is assumed that the Pre-Roman languages spoken by the native people , each used in a different region of Roman Hispania, contributed to the development of several different dialects of Vulgar Latin and that these diverged increasingly over time, eventually evolving into the early Romance languages of Iberia. An early form of Galician–Portuguese was already spoken in the Kingdom of the Suebi and by

2976-403: Is characterized by a series of phonetic processes which led to a further separation from Portuguese, and to the apparition of some of the more noteworthy dialectal features, among other phenomenons: emergence of the gheada or pronunciation of /ɡ/ as a pharyngeal fricative; denasalization of nasal vowels in most of Galicia, becoming oral vowels in the east, or a group formed by an oral vowel plus

3100-452: Is clearer still in place names 'San Mamede', 'Nonide', 'Taladride'. It is also normal to conserve "-e" after "θ" like in 'couce, 'fouce', etc. On the other hand, under the influence of Castilian, 'salú', 'verdá', 'enfermedá', it has been lost The paragogic vowel -e- after liquids consonant appear very residually, Acevedo y Huelves cites 'carcele'. Final vowel -o- has disappeared in suffix -elo, in toponyms: 'Tol', 'Castropol', 'Boal', etc. Until

3224-439: Is considered the dark age of Galician language. The Galician spoken and written then is usually referred to as Middle Galician . Middle Galician is known mostly through popular literature (songs, carols, proverbs, theatrical scripts, personal letters), but also through the frequent apparition of Galician interferences and personal and place names in local works and documents otherwise written in Spanish. Other important sources are

3348-767: Is different from it ]. Private cultural associations, not endorsed by Galician or Portuguese governments, such as the Galician Language Association ( Associaçom Galega da Língua ) and Galician Academy of the Portuguese Language ( Academia Galega da Língua Portuguesa ), advocates of the minority Reintegrationist movement, support the idea that differences between Galician and Portuguese speech are not enough to justify considering them as separate languages: Galician would be simply one variety of Galician-Portuguese, along with European Portuguese ; Brazilian Portuguese ; African Portuguese ;

3472-409: Is not until the 12th century that there is evidence for the identification of the local language as a language different from Latin itself. During this same 12th century there are full Galician sentences being inadvertently used inside Latin texts, while its first reckoned use as a literary language dates to the last years of this same century. The linguistic stage from the 13th to the 15th centuries

3596-597: Is part of a family which includes our brothers from Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique... a territory full of possibilities also for Galician. We always said that Galician is not a regional language, but is in fact part of that international project". Galician is spoken by some three million people, including most of the population of Galicia and the numerous Galician communities established elsewhere, in Spain ( Madrid , Barcelona, Biscay ), in other European cities ( Andorra la Vella , Geneva, London, Paris), and in

3720-706: Is probably a slightly later translation of a Latin original. Galician–Portuguese had a special cultural role in the literature of the Christian kingdoms of Crown of Castile ( Kingdoms of Castile , Leon and Galicia , part of the medieval NW Iberian Peninsula ) comparable to the Catalan language of the Crown of Aragon ( Principality of Catalonia and Kingdoms of Aragon , Valencia and Majorca , NE medieval Iberian Peninsula), or that of Occitan in France and Italy during

3844-442: Is simply called Galician ( gallego ). Dialectal divergences are observable between the northern and southern forms of Galician-Portuguese in 13th-century texts but the two dialects were similar enough to maintain a high level of cultural unity until the middle of the 14th century, producing the medieval Galician-Portuguese lyric . The divergence has continued to this day, most frequently due to innovations in Portuguese, producing

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3968-524: Is the Carta de dotação e fundação da Igreja de S. Miguel de Lardosa . In fact, many Latin documents written in Portuguese territory contain Romance forms. The Notícia de fiadores , written in 1175, is thought by some to be the oldest known document written in Galician–Portuguese. The Pacto dos irmãos Pais , discovered in 1999 (and possibly dating from before 1173), has been said to be even older, but despite

4092-654: Is the poem Ora faz ost'o Senhor de Navarra by Joam Soares de Paiva, written around 1200. The first non-literary documents in Galician-Portuguese date from the early 13th century, the Noticia de Torto (1211) and the Testamento of Afonso II of Portugal (1214), both samples of medieval notarial prose. Its most notable patrons—themselves reputed authors—were King Dom Dinis in Portugal, and King Alfonso X

4216-530: Is their primary language, with lower numbers for the younger population. Those under 45 were more likely than those over 45 to answer that they never use Galician. Use of Galician also varies greatly depending on the regions and municipalities of Galicia. While in two areas of the Province of A Coruña ( Costa da Morte and the Southeast) more than 90% of the population always or mostly speaks in Galician, only

4340-578: Is usually known as Galician-Portuguese (or Old Portuguese , or Old Galician ) as an acknowledgement of the cultural and linguistic unity of Galicia and Portugal during the Middle Ages, as the two linguistic varieties differed only in dialectal minor phenomena. This language flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries as a language of culture, developing a rich lyric tradition of which some 2000 compositions ( cantigas , meaning 'songs') have been preserved—a few hundred even with their musical score—in

4464-434: The cantigas d'amor (male-voiced love lyric), the cantigas d'amigo (female-voiced love lyric) and the cantigas d'escarnho e de mal dizer (including a variety of genres from personal invective to social satire, poetic parody and literary debate). All told, nearly 1,700 poems survive in these three genres, and there is a corpus of over 400 cantigas de Santa Maria (narrative poems about miracles and hymns in honor of

4588-493: The /a – ɐ/ distribution is still dubious and under discussion; some either stating that these two vowels were allophones and in complementary distribution (like in Spanish and Modern Galician, only treated as /a/ ): Alamanha [alaˈmaɲa] , mannãa [maˈɲãŋa] ; or stating they were not allophones and under distribution like in European Portuguese nowadays, Alemanha [ɐlɨˈmɐɲɐ] , manhã [mɐˈɲɐ̃] . Here

4712-868: The Academy of the Asturian Language accepted the term Eonavian to refer to the dialect . From a philological point of view, the origin of the language is surely in the Galician-Portuguese language family, the dominant language in the northwest of the Iberian peninsula in the Middle Ages . That follows from an examination of the more than six hundred parchments preserved in the Monastery of Santa María de Villanueva de Oscos . The examination of these documents allows us to recognise one of

4836-618: The Astur-Leonese group on the one hand, and those defending it as clearly Galician varieties on the other (actually both views are compatible). The recent edition of the cartularies of Oscos in Old Common Council of Castropol and cartularies of Obona , Cornellana , Corias and Belmonte in middle west of Asturias have shown a huge difference in the medieval speech between both banks of the Navia river. An examination of

4960-508: The Buri ) and Castro Laboreiro including the mountain town (county seat) of Soajo and surrounding villages. About the Galician–Portuguese languages About Galician–Portuguese culture Manuscripts containing Galician–Portuguese ('secular') lyric (cited from Cohen 2003 [see below under critical editions ]): Manuscripts containing the Cantigas de Santa Maria : Critical editions of individual genres of Galician–Portuguese poetry (note that

5084-742: The Chronicle of St. Mary of Iria , by Rui Vasques), religious books, legal studies, and a treaty on horse breeding. Most prose literary creation in Galician had stopped by the 16th century, when printing press became popular; the first complete translation of the Bible was not printed until the 20th century. As for other written uses of Galician, legal charters (last wills, hirings, sales, constitutional charters, city council book of acts, guild constitutions, books of possessions, and any type of public or private contracts and inventories) written in Galicia are to be found from 1230 to 1530—the earliest one probably

Galician–Asturian - Misplaced Pages Continue

5208-545: The European Parliament , being used by some Galician representatives, among others: José Posada , Camilo Nogueira and Xosé Manuel Beiras . Controversy exists regarding the inclusion of Eonavian (spoken in the western end of Asturias , bordering Galicia ) into the Galician language, as it has some traits in common with Western Asturian (spoken in the middle west of Asturias). There are those defending these linguistic varieties as dialects of transition to

5332-542: The Fala language spoken in the northwestern corner of Extremadura (Spain), and other dialects. They have adopted slightly-modified or actual Portuguese orthography, which has its roots in medieval Galician-Portuguese poetry as later adapted by the Portuguese Chancellery. According to Reintegrationists, considering Galician as an independent language reduces contact with Portuguese culture, leaving Galician as

5456-701: The Galician Association of Language consider Galician and Portuguese two forms of the Galician-Portuguese language , and other minoritary organizations such as Galician Academy of the Portuguese Language believe that Galician should be considered part of the Portuguese language for a wider international usage and level of "normalization". Modern Galician and Portuguese originated from a common medieval ancestor designated variously by modern linguists as Galician-Portuguese (or as Medieval Galician, Medieval Portuguese, Old Galician or Old Portuguese). This common ancestral stage developed from Vulgar Latin in

5580-469: The Holy Virgin ). The Castilian king Alfonso X composed his cantigas de Santa Maria and his cantigas de escárnio e maldizer in Galician–Portuguese, even though he used Castilian for prose. King Dinis of Portugal , who also contributed (with 137 extant texts, more than any other author) to the secular poetic genres, made the language official in Portugal in 1290. Until then, Latin had been

5704-489: The Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity . The work of documenting and transmitting that common culture involves several universities and other organizations. Galician–Portuguese folklore is rich in oral traditions. These include the cantigas ao desafio or regueifas , duels of improvised songs, many legends, stories, poems, romances, folk songs, sayings and riddles, and ways of speech that still retain

5828-470: The Rexurdimento , followed by the appearance of journals and, in the 20th century, scientific publications. Because until comparatively recently, most Galicians lived in many small towns and villages in a relatively remote and mountainous land, the language changed very slowly and was only very slightly influenced from outside the region. That situation made Galician remain the vernacular of Galicia until

5952-596: The Vulgar Latin (common Latin) that had been introduced by Roman soldiers, colonists and magistrates during the time of the Roman Empire . Although the process may have been slower than in other regions, the centuries of contact with Vulgar Latin, after a period of bilingualism, completely extinguished the native languages, leading to the evolution of a new variety of Latin with a few Gallaecian features. Gallaecian and Lusitanian influences were absorbed into

6076-673: The cantigas d'amor are split between Michaëlis 1904 and Nunes 1932): On the biography and chronology of the poets and the courts they frequented, the relation of these matters to the internal structure of the manuscript tradition, and myriad relevant questions in the field, please see: For Galician–Portuguese prose, the reader might begin with: There is no up-to-date historical grammar of medieval Galician–Portuguese. But see: A recent work centered on Galician containing information on medieval Galician–Portuguese is: Latin Lexica: Historical and Comparative Grammar of Latin: On

6200-455: The same language . Some authors, such as Lindley Cintra , consider that they are still co-dialects of a common language in spite of differences in phonology and vocabulary, while others argue that they have become separate languages due to differences in phonetics and vocabulary usage, and, to a lesser extent, morphology and syntax. Fernández Rei in 1990 stated that the Galician language is, with respect to Portuguese, an ausbau language ,

6324-580: The 13th and 14th centuries became notable authors, such as Paio Gomes Charinho, lord of Rianxo , and the aforementioned kings. Aside from the lyric genres, Galicia developed also a minor tradition on literary prose, most notably in translation of European popular series, as those dealing with King Arthur written by Chrétien de Troyes , or those based on the war of Troy , usually paid and commissioned by noblemen who desired to read those romances in their own language. Other genres include history books (either translation of Spanish ones, or original creations like

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6448-620: The 14th century. In Spanish "lenguaje gallego" is already documented in this same century, circa 1330; in Occitan circa 1290, in the Regles de Trobar by Catalan author Jofre de Foixà : " si tu vols far un cantar en frances, no·s tayn que·y mescles proençal ne cicilia ne gallego ne altre lengatge que sia strayn a aquell " [ If you want to compose a song in French, you should not admix Provençal nor Sicilian nor Galician nor other language which

6572-737: The 15,2% of the population does the same in the city of Vigo . Some authors are of the opinion that Galician possesses no real dialects. Despite this, Galician local varieties are collected in three main dialectal blocks, each block comprising a series of areas, being local linguistic varieties that are all mutually intelligible . Some of the main features which distinguish the three blocks are: Galician-Portuguese language Galician–Portuguese ( Galician : galego–portugués or galaico–portugués ; Portuguese : galego–português or galaico–português ), also known as Old Galician–Portuguese , Old Galician or Old Portuguese , Medieval Galician or Medieval Portuguese when referring to

6696-526: The 15th century. The first scholar who dealt with its study was Aureliano Fernández-Guerra in 1865, in the very important article «Speech about the Carther of Aviles». He used extracts of 19 documents from 1256 to 1316. In 1868, Martín Sangrador y Vitores included in his work about the Asturias administration a copy in Galician of the royal prerogative given away by Fernando II to the Abbey. The next edition of

6820-467: The 19th and 20th centuries, it has been influenced by Castilian. Two cities at the time of separation, Braga and Porto , were within the County of Portugal and have remained within Portugal. Further north, the cities of Lugo , A Coruña and the great medieval centre of Santiago de Compostela remained within Galicia. Galician was the main written language in Galicia until the 16th century, but later it

6944-694: The 19th century, nasal vowels were a fairly common phenomenon throughout Eonaviego but today are very unusual. Dámaso Alonso was the first in confirming the phenomenon, widespread in the nearby Ancares Mountains. M. Menéndez García finds nasality remains in Freixulfe and points in Villallón Village, y Celso Muñiz in the Valledor region, in the frontier with the Asturo-Leonese languages. These remnants of nasal vowels in Eonavian explain that

7068-534: The Americas (New York, New Jersey , Buenos Aires, Córdoba/Argentina, Montevideo , Mexico City , Havana , Caracas, San Juan in Puerto Rico , São Paulo, Managua , Mayagüez , Ponce , Panama City). Galician is today official, together with the Spanish language, in the autonomous community of Galicia, where it is recognized as the autochthonous language ( lingua propia ), being by law the first language of

7192-587: The Galician culture and language) was admitted as a consultative observer of the Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries (CPLP). A "friendship and cooperation" protocol was signed between the Royal Galician Academy (RAG) and the Brazilian Academy of Letters on 10 January 2019. Víctor F. Freixanes, president of the RAG, stated during the ceremony that "there is a conscience that the Galician language

7316-554: The Galician government, universities and main cultural institutions, such as the Galician Language Institute or the Royal Galician Academy , Galician and Portuguese are independent languages that stemmed from medieval Galician-Portuguese, and modern Galician must be considered an independent Romance language belonging to the group of Ibero-Romance languages having strong ties with Portuguese and its northern dialects. The standard orthography has its roots in

7440-549: The Galician government. Recently, the director of an exhaustive study by the University of Oviedo ( ETLEN, a Linguistic Atlas of the Boundary between Galician-Portuguese and Asturleonese in Asturias ) concluded that both proposals are true and compatible: that is, local varieties belong to the Galician-Portuguese domain and are part of the transitional varieties between this domain and Astur-Leonese . Terms used to refer to

7564-480: The Galician municipality of Negueira de Muñiz . (*) The lateral sound ʎ : Porcia River to Navia River. The lateral sound l : Eo River to Porcia River. Here is the evolution of the language, taking into account the Monastery of Oscos parchments: The system of stressed vowels is similar to Galician since there are seven in both languages; it was used by Ramón Menéndez Pidal when he assigned this language to

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7688-488: The Galician variants of Portuguese in one extreme to the Spanish language in the other (which would represent the complete linguistic shift from Galician to Spanish); reintegrationist points of view are closer to the Portuguese extreme, and so-called isolationist ones would be closer to the Spanish one; however, the major Galician nationalist parties, Anova–Nationalist Brotherhood and Galician Nationalist Bloc , do not use reintegrationist orthographical conventions. In 2014,

7812-637: The Kingdom of Galicia was united with the Kingdom of León, and later with the Kingdom of Castile, under kings of the House of Burgundy . The Galician and Portuguese standards of the language diverged over time, following independent evolutionary paths. Portuguese was the official language of the Portuguese chancellery, while Galician was the usual language not only of troubadours and peasants, but also of local noblemen and clergy, and of their officials, so forging and maintaining two slightly different standards. During

7936-464: The Learned in Galicia, Castile and León, who was a great promoter of both Galician and Castilian Spanish languages. Not only the kings but also the noble houses of Galicia and Portugal encouraged literary creation in Galician-Portuguese, as being an author or bringing reputed troubadours into one's home became a way of promoting social prestige. As a result, many noblemen, businessmen and clergymen of

8060-420: The book «La Comarca de los Oscos en la Edad Media, poblamiento, economía y poder», and in 2011, he edited 293 more documents from 1139 to 1300, Colección Diplomática del Monasterio de Santa María de Villanueva de Oscos, (1139–1300) and more recently Colección Diplomática del Monasterio de Santa María de Villanueva de Oscos, (1300–1511) The documents of the chartulary give important information for knowledge of

8184-523: The differences in Ancient Greek dialects, the alleged differences between 13th-century Portuguese and Galician are trivial. As a result of political division, Galician–Portuguese lost its unity when the County of Portugal separated from the Kingdom of Leon to establish the Kingdom of Portugal . The Galician and Portuguese versions of the language then diverged over time as they followed independent evolutionary paths. As Portugal's territory

8308-560: The documents about monastery had to wait until the mid-20th century, when the Royal Institute of Asturian Studies (RIDEA) edited the article «El convento benedictino de Villanueva de Ozcos» by Marcos G. Martínez, a rather poor edition. Only in 1981, Pedro Floriano Llorente publishes in RIDEA «Colección dipolomática de Villanueva de Ozcos», which implies an important improvement concerning the previous, both by perfection technical, as by

8432-542: The elision of unstressed vowels and the lenition of plosive consonants; actually, many Galician Latin charters written during the Middle Ages show interferences of the local Galician–Portuguese contemporary language. As for the oldest document written in Galician–Portuguese in Galicia, it is probably a document from the monastery of Melón dated to 1231, since the Charter of the Boo Burgo of Castro Caldelas , dated to 1228,

8556-485: The enthusiasm of some scholars, it has been shown that the documents are not really written in Galician–Portuguese but are in fact a mixture of Late Latin and Galician–Portuguese phonology, morphology and syntax. The Noticia de Torto , of uncertain date ( c.  1214? ), and the Testament of Afonso II  [ pt ] (27 June 1214) are most certainly Galician–Portuguese. The earliest poetic texts (but not

8680-607: The first conjugation, it is giving way to the influence of Castilian -ais and -aides. The perfect past –che has in the first person singular, 'veño', 'teño', 'vexo'. There is a vocal deformation by the rizotónic effect. Infinitive ending in -r- join with pronomes. There is a disappearance of –s- in the first person plural to join 'nos' enclitic. The -n- paragogic is in the first person singular perfect in all strong and bending double –er, -ir, dixen-, puxen, fun, salin, còmín. Endings in -i often take -n paragójica: tomein, falein, subirein, falarein, hein, sein. The open -e forms in

8804-458: The first person plural past (coyèmos, dixèmos) or the open o- in second and third person plural (fòmos, fòron). The infinitive in –er- in many verbs in Castillian is in -ir: 'morrer', 'encher', 'ferver', 'render', etc., less frequently, the form hesitates: 'valir'/'valer' y 'tosir'/'toser'. An alternation occurs -e- open and closed in verbs with-e-open rizotónica for which the -e- radical of

8928-424: The following system-i-, E-, a,-O-, u. As is clearly evident by García García, the nasalization of vowels preceding tonic or atonic to ensure –n- in coda "tamen", or situated between nasal consonants "mañá". Vowel lengthening occurs as a result by contractions: "vou à casa" or by compensation as a result of the loss of intervocalic nasal "machacan a 'llá/lá ", "Que mañá' nos traiga un bó día de solín". The extension

9052-598: The group of Galician-Portuguese languages. The system is very stable. It does not find the alterations that can be observed by effects of metaphony in other regions of Galician phonetics. Here are the vowels obtained by García García in the El Franco village and Fernández Vior in Vegadeo : As it was indicated by García García regarding unstressed vowels, "Unlike other areas of Galician phonetics, there are no relevant differences between open and closed -e- and -o- and

9176-700: The history of each modern language, was a West Iberian Romance language spoken in the Middle Ages , in the northwest area of the Iberian Peninsula . Alternatively, it can be considered a historical period of the Galician , Fala , and Portuguese languages . Galician–Portuguese was first spoken in the area bounded in the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean and by the Douro River in the south, comprising Galicia and northern Portugal, but it

9300-409: The imperfect subjunctive in the two series, and forms of the gerund and the first person future, in the first and second person plural present, the plural of the imperative of the first and second person plural of the future, both as in the hypothetical future-e. Verbs (medir and sentir) show an alternation i/e in the root vowel: with -i-in the strong forms (forms in the singular and the third plural of

9424-813: The influence of local Celtic languages (as in Old French ). The nasal vowels would thus be a phonologic characteristic of the Vulgar Latin spoken in Roman Gallaecia , but they are not attested in writing until after the 6th and 7th centuries. The oldest known document to contain Galician–Portuguese words found in northern Portugal is called the Doação à Igreja de Sozello and dated to 870 but otherwise composed in Late / Medieval Latin . Another document, from 882, also containing some Galician–Portuguese words

9548-701: The language include gallego–asturiano , the name used in Act 1/1998 of the Principality of Asturias , meaning "Galician–Asturian language"; a fala ("the speech", not to be confused with the Fala language of Extremadura ); and Galego de Asturias ("Galician language of Asturias"). The term Eonaviego was first used by the linguist Xavier Frías Conde, who translated it as Eonavian in English, Éonavien in French, and Eonavienc in Catalan. In 2007,

9672-477: The language spoken in the Northwest before the establishment of the Kingdom of Portugal in the 12th century. The surge of the two languages would be the result of both the elaboration of Portuguese, through the royal court, its internationalization and its study and culture; and of the stagnation of Galician. The earliest internal attestation of the expression Galician language ("lingoajen galego") dates from

9796-518: The language spoken in the western Asturias in the Middle Ages. They show the origin and the evolution of this language, but the serial of parchments finishes with the arrival the Congregation of Castile in 1511 at Monastery, the end of a cycle and will be the beginning of a new one, the big economic growth around the iron industry. However, the installation of the reformed order closed the documental history of this language, until its resurgence in

9920-494: The largest cities of Galicia is Spanish rather than Galician, as a result of this long process of language shift . However, Galician is still the main language in rural areas. The Royal Galician Academy and other Galician institutions celebrate each 17 May as Galician Literature Day ( Día das Letras Galegas ), dedicated each year to a deceased Galician-language writer chosen by the academy. Use of Galician splits by age, with over half of those over 45 indicating that Galician

10044-562: The late 15th century on, to the end of legal documents in Galician; the last ones were issued around 1530. Also, from 1480 on, notaries of the Crown of Castile were required to obtain their licenses in Toledo , where they had to prove their mastery of Spanish. In spite of Galician being the most spoken language, during the 17th century, the elites of the Kingdom began speaking Spanish, most notably in towns and cities. The linguistic situation in Galicia became one of diglossia , with Galician as

10168-650: The late 19th and early 20th centuries and its most spoken language till the early 21st century. The draft of the 1936 Galician Statute of Autonomy considered an official status for (Modern) Galician in the region but it never came into force, as Galicia fell to Rebel control upon the early stages of the Spanish Civil War . The linguistic classification of Galician and Portuguese is still discussed today. There are those among Galician independence groups who demand their reunification as well as Portuguese and Galician philologists who argue that both are dialects of

10292-538: The late 19th century. ...Testo uobis et concedo per suis terminis certis per termino de Menustux e inde de super ad petram de Gio a Cornu de Menyones, et ad penna de Teyxeyra, et al Pico pequeno, et allas mestas de Bouspoulim) et como uay pello regueyro a Sobrepe aa pena das ouellas, et inde in directum ad petra Vocatoria et ad aquam de Ferueça et cómodo uertitur aquam al final de Pena Leyra, na Gauia per ubi potueritis inueniere.... Ad patrem (sic) vero regis quingentos solidos boos exsoluat. (1153) Cunusçuda cousa seia

10416-546: The local Vulgar Latin dialect, which can be detected in some Galician–Portuguese words as well as in placenames of Celtic and Iberian origin. In general, the more cultivated variety of Latin spoken by the Hispano-Roman elites in Roman Hispania had a peculiar regional accent, referred to as Hispano ore and agrestius pronuntians . The more cultivated variety of Latin coexisted with the popular variety. It

10540-801: The local administrations and governments. It is supposed by law to be taught bilingually, alongside Spanish, in both primary and secondary education, although the accomplishment of this law is allegedly doubted. It is also used at the three universities established in Galicia, having also the consideration of official language of the three institutions. Galician has also legal recognition in the Bierzo region in León , and in four municipalities in Zamora . The other languages with official status elsewhere in Spain are Spanish, Catalan (or Valencian ), Basque and Aranese . Galician has also been accepted orally as Portuguese in

10664-469: The low variety and Spanish as the high one. In reaction to the relegation of the autochthonous language, a series of literary and historical works (always written in Spanish) appeared in the 17th century through 19th century, meant to vindicate the history, language, people, and culture of Galicia. The period from the 16th century to the early 19th century, when Galician had little literary—and no legal—use,

10788-472: The manuscripts in which they are found) date from c. 1195 to c. 1225. Thus, by the end of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th there are documents in prose and verse written in the local Romance vernacular. In Galicia the oldest document showing traces of the underlying Romance language is a royal charter by king Silo of Asturias , dated to 775: it uses substrate words as arrogio and lagena , now arroio 'stream' and laxe 'stone', and presents also

10912-531: The massive information provided a community so small as the Villanueva de Oscos Abbey. The documents show us the vitality of this language in the Middle Ages and give very important information on Romance languages in the northwest of Iberian Peninsula . The Chartulary preserves 616 parchments about the Middle Ages: 32 from the 12th century, 261 from the 13th century, 224 from the 14th century and 99 from

11036-519: The mid-13th century that the first original deeds were written in the Galician-Portuguese language. In the early 14th century, the oddness of this language with the rest of the galacoifonía, was noticed. The most of these developments were the result of the Castilian language advancement in the urban centres of the River Eo : Revoredo , Ribadeo and Castropol , such influence was more significant in

11160-473: The modern languages of Galician and Portuguese. The lexicon of Galician is predominantly of Latin extraction, although it also contains a moderate number of words of Germanic and Celtic origin, among other substrates and adstrates , having also received, mainly via Spanish, a number of nouns from Andalusian Arabic . The language is officially regulated in Galicia by the Royal Galician Academy . Other organizations without institutional support, such as

11284-534: The monastery around the iron industries, but the installation of the reformed order ended the written language, until its re-emergence in the late 19th century. The area where the dialects are spoken includes the Asturian municipalities of Boal , Castropol , Coaña , Eilao , El Franco , Grandas de Salime , Pezós , San Martín de Ozcos , Santalla de Ozcos , Santiso de Abres , Tapia de Casariego , Taramundi , A Veiga , Vilanova de Ozcos , and partially those of Navia , Ibias , Villayón , and Allande ; as well as

11408-459: The most genuine examples of the medieval Galician-Portuguese language and many of its documents are cited as the earliest written samples of this language. For the early stage, there are only documented translations of copies of ancient Latin deeds that were beginning to be unintelligible to the common people, (v. AHN sec. clergy, carp. 1617, AHN, Sec Clergy, carp. No. 1617. 15, no. 2, Sec AHN clergy carp. 1621 No 15 etc.), and there would not be until

11532-489: The official (written) language for royal documents; the spoken language did not have a name and was simply known as lingua vulgar ("ordinary language", that is Vulgar Latin) or á lenguage ("the language") until it was named "Portuguese" in King Dinis' reign. "Galician–Portuguese" and português arcaico ("Old Portuguese") are modern terms for the common ancestor of modern Portuguese and modern Galician. Compared to

11656-411: The old documents of the Eonavian monastery of Oscos, written from the late 12th to early 14th century to 16th century, shows a clear identification of this language with the Galician-Portuguese linguistic group; while contemporary parchments elsewhere in Asturias are written in Spanish. The two most important traits of those commonly used to tell apart Galician-Portuguese and Asturian-Leonese varieties are

11780-659: The parliament of Galicia unanimously approved Law 1/2014 regarding the promotion of the Portuguese language and links with the Lusophony . Similarly, on 20 October 2016, the city of Santiago de Compostela , the capital of Galicia , approved by unanimity a proposal to become an observer member of the Union of Portuguese-Speaking Capitals ( UCCLA ). Also, on 1 November 2016, the Council of Galician Culture ( Consello da Cultura Galega , an official institution of defence and promotion of

11904-463: The personal and toponymic references. Nonetheless, the edition dealt with the issue only as far as 1200. In 1994, the Britonia journal published the second serial of the monastery's parchments, edited by Floriano Llorente, covering until the first half of the 13th century. The edition, however, failed to meet the editors' expectations.because no documents were produced in Romance so Britonia published

12028-470: The present, the singular imperative and all of the subjunctive) and -e-in the weak vowels. Western Asturian occurs accentuates the first and second persons of the plural present subjunctive. Garcia Garcia admit the existence of composite shapes with verb 'ter' as an assistant. However, that is more an approach particular of the authors on the morphosyntax of the compound forms than as the existence of their own specialty in Eonavian. For some scholars this fact

12152-495: The preservation of the mid-open vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ , which became diphthongs in Asturian-Leonese, and the loss of intervocalic /n/ , preserved in the latter language. Porque no mundo mengou a verdade, punhei um dia de a ir buscar; e, u por ela fui nom preguntar, disserom todos: «Alhur la buscade, ca de tal guisa se foi a perder, que nom podemos en novas haver nem já nom anda na irmaindade.» Because in

12276-612: The region Navia-Eo (a fala), which are formed with "has" + "ter" + participle and "habías" + ter + participle. One of the most relevant aspects of the language is the study of its evolution in the Middle Ages through the parchments which are kept in the Villanueva de Oscos Chartulary, the fourth most important in Asturias after San Pelayo, San Vicente and the Oviedo Cathedral . It is very interesting its conservation by

12400-440: The reign of Alfonso X , Spanish became the official language of the chancellery of the Kingdom of Castile. However, in Galicia and neighboring regions of Asturias and León in 1200–1500, the local languages remained the usual written languages in any type of document, either legal or narrative, public or private. Spanish was progressively introduced through Royal decrees and the edicts of foreign churchmen and officials. This led, from

12524-687: The rest of Spain, in Latin America including Puerto Rico , the United States, Switzerland and elsewhere in Europe. Modern Galician is classified as part of the West Iberian languages group, a family of Romance languages . Galician evolved locally from Vulgar Latin and developed from what modern scholars have called Galician-Portuguese . The earliest document written integrally in the local Galician variety dates back to 1230, although

12648-605: The rest of the Asturian cartularies and specifically with the Fuero de Avilés, of which many of these texts are contemporary, became evident. In this sense, Rafael Lapesa, when dealing with the evolution of "Western Asturian" during the High Middle Ages, expressly excluded from his study the region to the west of the river Navia because he considered that it did not present any speciality in relation to other Galician-Portuguese cartularies. Many subsequent studies have dealt with

12772-552: The same historical period. The main extant sources of Galician–Portuguese lyric poetry are these: The language was used for literary purposes from the final years of the 12th century to roughly the middle of the 14th century in what are now Spain and Portugal and was, almost without exception, the only language used for the composition of lyric poetry. Over 160 poets are recorded, among them Bernal de Bonaval , Pero da Ponte, Johan Garcia de Guilhade, Johan Airas de Santiago, and Pedr' Amigo de Sevilha. The main secular poetic genres were

12896-399: The singular and the third person plural. Foe verbs ending in in-cer, the first person singular present indicative and subjunctive present are treated as ces: ce lluzo, lluce, lluza, lluzas, lluza. There is an alternation between open and closed in the thematic vowel tonic of most verbs in -er. Closed -e- is typical for all persons in the plural of the perfect, six of pluperfect simple, all

13020-430: The sound of variant pairs can be considered, each with their own archiphonemes , keeping the following system: -i-, E-, a,-O-, u. There are three unstressed vowels in final position: -e-,-o-and-a -. There is the loss of the -o endings -ene and -inu , 'sen', 'fren', 'centen', 'allén', 'padrín', 'camín'..., an overall conservation "-e" syllables end, after '-ete' and 'ite' headquarters, 'rede', 'vide', 'parede', etc. It

13144-427: The specific features of the Galician-Portuguese languages found in this cartulary, particularly the conjugated infinitive or articles system. The cartulary of Oscos is an essential landmark for understanding the evolution of the Galician-Portuguese language , but the monastery's influence was ended with the arrival of the Castillian congregation in 1511. That started another period of great economic and social growth of

13268-481: The strong and weak of forms other than monosyllabic verbs if the stressed vowel of the root morpheme and the match, except for the verbs given duty and irregular in Galician–Asturian. These are the main features of the verb forms in the language: The –des is in the second person plural of every conjugation. García García confirms that although the ending is maintained stably in the second and third conjugations, in

13392-411: The subjacent Romance permeates most written Latin local charters since the High Middle Ages, being specially noteworthy in personal and place names recorded in those documents, as well as in terms originated in languages other than Latin. The earliest reference to Galician-Portuguese as an international language of culture dates to 1290, in the Regles de Trobar by Catalan author Jofre de Foixà , where it

13516-568: The syllables ended in nasal coda are always opened, the necessary consequence of velarization, the stage prior to the formation of the nasal. A change in unstressed vowels when absolute enclitic position has labial consonant and vowel assimilation. Regarding the unstressed vowels, as pointed out by García García, "Unlike other areas of the Galaicofonía, the relevant differences between open e-y-o and closed sounds can be considered such as variants of two separate couples archiphoneme, keeping to

13640-431: The territories of the old Kingdom of Galicia , Galicia and Northern Portugal , as a Western Romance language . In the 13th century it became a written and cultivated language with two main varieties, but during the 14th century the standards of these varieties, Galician and Portuguese, began to diverge, as Portuguese became the official language of the independent Kingdom of Portugal and its chancellery, while Galician

13764-439: The world the truth has faded, I decided to go a-searching for it and wherever I went asking for it everybody said: 'Search elsewhere because truth is lost in such a way such as we can have no news of it nor is it around here anymore.' Airas Nunes (B 871, V 455. 13th century) Latinate Galician charters from the 8th century onward show that the local written Latin was heavily influenced by local spoken Romance, yet

13888-554: The writing of relatively modern Rexurdimento authors, who largely adapted Spanish orthography to the then mostly unwritten language. Most Galician speakers regard Galician as a separate language, which evolved without interruption and in situ from Latin, with Galician and Portuguese maintaining separate literary traditions since the 14th century. Portuguese Early Modern Era grammars and scholars, at least since Duarte Nunes de Leão in 1606, considered Portuguese and Galician two different languages derived from old Galician, understood as

14012-405: The writings of the bishops' notaries of Oviedo in these villages, but if the influence of Castilian was growing in the urban centres, the manuscripts of the monastery notaries still kept the original features of this language, and others were added that then appeared. Since 1865, when Aureliano Fernández Guerra y Orbe published the first texts of the monastery of Oscos, the enormous divergences with

14136-528: The year 800 Galician–Portuguese had already become the vernacular of northwestern Iberia. The first known phonetic changes in Vulgar Latin, which began the evolution to Galician–Portuguese, took place during the rule of the Germanic groups, the Suebi (411–585) and Visigoths (585–711). And the Galician–Portuguese "inflected infinitive" (or "personal infinitive") and the nasal vowels may have evolved under

14260-420: The younger generations, and the phonetics and lexicon of many occasional users is heavily influenced by Spanish. Portuguese continues to grow and, today, is the sixth most spoken language in the world. /s/ and /z/ were apico-alveolar , and /ts/ and /dz/ were lamino-alveolar . Later, all the affricate sibilants became fricatives, with the apico-alveolar and lamino-alveolar sibilants remaining distinct for

14384-399: Was devoted to the research and study of the Galician culture. It was created by a group of students: Fermín Bouza Brey , Xosé Filgueira Valverde , Lois Tobío Fernández , with the collaboration of Ricardo Carvalho Calero , Antón Fraguas and Xaquín Lorenzo Fernández . Following the victory of Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War , the written or public use of the Galician language

14508-402: Was displaced by Castilian Spanish , which was the official language of the Crown of Castille . Galician slowly became mainly an oral language, preserved by the majority rural or "uneducated" population living in the villages and towns, and Castilian was taught as the "correct" language to the bilingual educated elite in the cities. During most of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, its written use

14632-532: Was extended southward during the Reconquista, the increasingly-distinctive Portuguese language was adopted by the people in those regions, supplanting the earlier Arabic and other Romance/Latin languages that were spoken in these conquered areas during the Moorish era. Meanwhile, Galician was influenced by the neighbouring Leonese language, especially during the time of kingdoms of Leon and Leon-Castile, and in

14756-503: Was in fact one of the first comprehensive studies on sound change and evolution of any European language. He also defended that teaching in Galicia should be conducted in Galician, since it was the common language of most people. During the 19th century a thriving literature developed, in what was called the Rexurdimento (Resurgence), of the Galician language. It was headed by three main authors: Rosalia de Castro , an intimist poet; Eduardo Pondal , of nationalist ideology, who championed

14880-477: Was largely reduced to popular literature and theatre and private letters. From the 18th century onward grew the interest for the language by the studies of illustrious writers such as Martin Sarmiento , who studied the evolution of Galician from Latin and prepared the foundations for the first dictionary of Galician, José Cornide, and father Sobreira. In the 19th century a true literature in Galician emerged during

15004-542: Was later extended south of the Douro by the Reconquista . It is the common ancestor of modern Portuguese , Galician , and Fala varieties, all of which maintain a very high level of mutual intelligibility . The term "Galician–Portuguese" also designates the subdivision of the modern West Iberian group of Romance languages. Galician–Portuguese developed in the region of the former Roman province of Gallaecia , from

15128-461: Was not until the 18th century that linguists elaborated the first Galician dictionaries, and the language did not recover a proper literature until the 19th century; only since the last quarter of the 20th century is it taught in schools and used in lawmaking. The first complete translation of the Bible from the original languages dates from 1989. Currently, at the level of rural dialects, Galician forms

15252-410: Was outlawed. Publishing of Galician-language material revived on a small scale in the 1950s. With the advent of democracy, Galician has been brought into the country's institutions, and it is now co-official with Spanish in Galicia. Galician is taught in schools, and there is a public Galician-language television channel, Televisión de Galicia . Today, the most common language for everyday use in

15376-520: Was the language of the scriptoria of the lawyers, noblemen and churchmen of the Kingdom of Galicia, then integrated in the crown of Castile and open to influence from Spanish language, culture, and politics. During the 16th century the Galician language stopped being used in legal documentation, becoming de facto an oral language spoken by the vast majority of the Galicians, but having just some minor written use in lyric, theatre and private letters. It

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