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63-503: Edson Fessenden Gallaudet (April 21, 1871 – July 1, 1945) was a pioneer in the field of aviation. He was best known for his development of practical airfoils and aircraft propulsion systems for use in early seaplanes . Edson Gallaudet was born April 21, 1871 in Washington, D.C. to Edward Miner Gallaudet , founder of Gallaudet University and son of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet . Both his father and grandfather were famous educators in

126-458: A fluid deflects the oncoming fluid (for fixed-wing aircraft, a downward force), resulting in a force on the airfoil in the direction opposite to the deflection. This force is known as aerodynamic force and can be resolved into two components: lift ( perpendicular to the remote freestream velocity ) and drag ( parallel to the freestream velocity). The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack . Most foil shapes require

189-522: A crew of 561 officers and enlisted men, which increased to 779–813. The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 in (305 mm) /40 caliber guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft. The secondary battery consisted of sixteen 6 in (152 mm) /50 caliber Mark 6 guns, which were placed in casemates in the hull . For close-range defense against torpedo boats , she carried six 3 in (76 mm) /50 caliber guns mounted in casemates along

252-638: A general purpose airfoil that finds wide application, and pre–dates the NACA system, is the Clark-Y . Today, airfoils can be designed for specific functions by the use of computer programs. The various terms related to airfoils are defined below: The geometry of the airfoil is described with a variety of terms : The shape of the airfoil is defined using the following geometrical parameters: Some important parameters to describe an airfoil's shape are its camber and its thickness . For example, an airfoil of

315-435: A large range of angles can be used without boundary layer separation . Subsonic airfoils have a round leading edge, which is naturally insensitive to the angle of attack. The cross section is not strictly circular, however: the radius of curvature is increased before the wing achieves maximum thickness to minimize the chance of boundary layer separation. This elongates the wing and moves the point of maximum thickness back from

378-427: A lower-pressure "shadow" above and behind itself. This pressure difference is accompanied by a velocity difference, via Bernoulli's principle , so the resulting flowfield about the airfoil has a higher average velocity on the upper surface than on the lower surface. In some situations (e.g., inviscid potential flow ) the lift force can be related directly to the average top/bottom velocity difference without computing

441-729: A member of the Aero Club of America , Sigma Xi , Engineers' Club . He was a member of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences . He worked at Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania from 1896 to 1897, then became an instructor of physics at Yale, where he taught from 1897 to 1900. From 1900 to 1903 he worked at William Cramp & Sons' Ship and Engine Building Company in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and then, in 1903, worked at

504-631: A naval review for Roosevelt. Missouri spent the next several years laid up , with periodic reactivations for summer training cruises for midshipmen from the US Naval Academy . She was reduced temporarily to reserve status on 1 May 1910 in Boston, though she was recommissioned on 1 June 1911 for service with the Atlantic Fleet. In June 1912, the ship was deployed to Cuba with a contingent of Marines to protect American interests during

567-539: A pilot's brevet with the Aero Club of France flying a Nieuport monoplane. In 1908 Gallaudet founded the Gallaudet Engineering Company in Norwich, Connecticut where, as President, he did work as a mechanical and consulting engineer and, in 1909, built his first airplane. In 1914 he patented a radical new aircraft propulsion system that was later incorporated into his first seaplane prototype,

630-444: A positive angle of attack to generate lift, but cambered airfoils can generate lift at zero angle of attack. Airfoils can be designed for use at different speeds by modifying their geometry: those for subsonic flight generally have a rounded leading edge , while those designed for supersonic flight tend to be slimmer with a sharp leading edge. All have a sharp trailing edge . The air deflected by an airfoil causes it to generate

693-521: A rebellion in the country. She conducted a midshipmen training cruise in July before being decommissioned a second time on 9 September, this time at Philadelphia. She returned to service on 16 March 1914 for another midshipmen cruise, which visited Italy and Great Britain. On 2 December, she was again decommissioned before returning to service on 15 April 1915 for a midshipmen cruise in the Caribbean, through

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756-421: A subsonic flow about a thin airfoil can be described in terms of an outer region, around most of the airfoil chord, and an inner region, around the nose, that asymptotically match each other. As the flow in the outer region is dominated by classical thin airfoil theory, Morris's equations exhibit many components of thin airfoil theory. In thin airfoil theory, the width of the (2D) airfoil is assumed negligible, and

819-844: A tour of the Mediterranean, arriving back in New York on 17 December. She remained with the North Atlantic Fleet for the next three years conducting normal peacetime training. During this period, the fleet was renamed the Atlantic Fleet . Missouri assisted in relief work in Kingston, Jamaica from 17 to 19 January 1907, following a severe earthquake there. That April, she participated in the Jamestown Exposition . The ceremonies were held to commemorate

882-457: Is shown on the right. The curve represents an airfoil with a positive camber so some lift is produced at zero angle of attack. With increased angle of attack, lift increases in a roughly linear relation, called the slope of the lift curve. At about 18 degrees this airfoil stalls , and lift falls off quickly beyond that. The drop in lift can be explained by the action of the upper-surface boundary layer , which separates and greatly thickens over

945-401: Is the position at which the pitching moment M ′ does not vary with a change in lift coefficient: ∂ ( C M ′ ) ∂ ( C L ) = 0 . {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial (C_{M'})}{\partial (C_{L})}}=0{\text{.}}} Thin-airfoil theory shows that, in two-dimensional inviscid flow,

1008-495: The Biot–Savart law , the vorticity γ( x ) produces a flow field w ( x ) = 1 2 π ∫ 0 c γ ( x ′ ) x − x ′ d x ′ , {\displaystyle w(x)={\frac {1}{2\pi }}\int _{0}^{c}{\frac {\gamma (x')}{x-x'}}\,dx'{\text{,}}} oriented normal to

1071-1000: The Gallaudet D-1 that was first tested on the Thames River in Connecticut. The need for larger facilities and a better location to test his seaplanes, he moved his company to Chepiwanoxet Point on the Narragansett Bay coast in Rhode Island. The Gallaudet Engineering Company was incorporated as the Gallaudet Aircraft Corporation in 1917. In 1923 Gallaudet built an all-metal aircraft, the TW-3 that first flew on June 20, 1923 at Wilbur Wright Field in Ohio. In 1924 Gallaudet retired from

1134-879: The National Cash Register Company in Dayton, Ohio . He married Marion Cockrell on February 14, 1903. From 1903 to 1908 he worked as an assistant to the President and General Superintendent of the Stillwell Bierce & Smith Vaile Company in Dayton (which later became the Platt Iron Works Company). In 1908 he worked for the New England Refrigerator Company in Norwich, Connecticut . Gallaudet

1197-464: The Navier–Stokes equations in the linear regime shows that a negative pressure gradient along the flow has the same effect as reducing the speed. So with the maximum camber in the middle, maintaining a laminar flow over a larger percentage of the wing at a higher cruising speed is possible. However, some surface contamination will disrupt the laminar flow, making it turbulent. For example, with rain on

1260-750: The Panama Canal , and to visit ports in California. After arriving back in Philadelphia, she was reduced to the Reserve Fleet yet again on 18 October. Another period of active service began on 2 May 1916 for a training cruise along the east coast of the United States and into the Caribbean, before Missouri was again laid up late in the year. On 6 April 1917, the United States declared war on Germany, entering World War I . Missouri

1323-1287: The change of variables x = c ⋅ 1 + cos ⁡ ( θ ) 2 , {\displaystyle x=c\cdot {\frac {1+\cos(\theta )}{2}},} and then expanding both dy ⁄ dx and γ( x ) as a nondimensionalized Fourier series in θ with a modified lead term: d y d x = A 0 + A 1 cos ⁡ ( θ ) + A 2 cos ⁡ ( 2 θ ) + … γ ( x ) = 2 ( α + A 0 ) ( sin ⁡ θ 1 + cos ⁡ θ ) + 2 A 1 sin ⁡ ( θ ) + 2 A 2 sin ⁡ ( 2 θ ) + … . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\frac {dy}{dx}}=A_{0}+A_{1}\cos(\theta )+A_{2}\cos(2\theta )+\dots \\&\gamma (x)=2(\alpha +A_{0})\left({\frac {\sin \theta }{1+\cos \theta }}\right)+2A_{1}\sin(\theta )+2A_{2}\sin(2\theta )+\dots {\text{.}}\end{aligned}}} The resulting lift and moment depend on only

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1386-648: The convolution equation ( α − d y d x ) V = − w ( x ) = − 1 2 π ∫ 0 c γ ( x ′ ) x − x ′ d x ′ , {\displaystyle \left(\alpha -{\frac {dy}{dx}}\right)V=-w(x)=-{\frac {1}{2\pi }}\int _{0}^{c}{\frac {\gamma (x')}{x-x'}}\,dx'{\text{,}}} which uniquely determines it in terms of known quantities. An explicit solution can be obtained through first

1449-411: The trailing edge angle . The slope is greatest if the angle is zero; and decreases as the angle increases. For a wing of finite span, the aspect ratio of the wing also significantly influences the slope of the curve. As aspect ratio decreases, the slope also decreases. Thin airfoil theory is a simple theory of airfoils that relates angle of attack to lift for incompressible, inviscid flows . It

1512-663: The 1/4 chord point will thus be C M ( 1 / 4 c ) = − π / 4 ( A 1 − A 2 ) . {\displaystyle C_{M}(1/4c)=-\pi /4(A_{1}-A_{2}){\text{.}}} From this it follows that the center of pressure is aft of the 'quarter-chord' point 0.25 c , by Δ x / c = π / 4 ( ( A 1 − A 2 ) / C L ) . {\displaystyle \Delta x/c=\pi /4((A_{1}-A_{2})/C_{L}){\text{.}}} The aerodynamic center

1575-467: The 1980s revealed the practicality and usefulness of laminar flow wing designs and opened the way for laminar-flow applications on modern practical aircraft surfaces, from subsonic general aviation aircraft to transonic large transport aircraft, to supersonic designs. Schemes have been devised to define airfoils – an example is the NACA system . Various airfoil generation systems are also used. An example of

1638-725: The 300th anniversary of the Jamestown colony . An international fleet that included British, French, German, Japanese, and Austro-Hungarian warships joined the US Navy at the event. Missouri ' s next significant action was the cruise of the Great White Fleet around the world, which started with a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt in Hampton Roads . The cruise of the Great White Fleet

1701-821: The Indian Ocean; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said , Egypt. The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar , where an international fleet of British, Russian, French, and Dutch warships greeted the Americans. The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909, having traveled 46,729 nautical miles (86,542 km; 53,775 mi). There, they conducted

1764-409: The NACA 4-digit series such as the NACA 2415 (to be read as 2 – 4 – 15) describes an airfoil with a camber of 0.02 chord located at 0.40 chord, with 0.15 chord of maximum thickness. Finally, important concepts used to describe the airfoil's behaviour when moving through a fluid are: In two-dimensional flow around a uniform wing of infinite span, the slope of the lift curve is determined primarily by

1827-888: The Pacific to Australia, stopping in Hawaii on the way. Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne , Sydney, and Auckland . After leaving Australia, the fleet turned north for the Philippines, stopping in Manila , before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama . Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November. The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered

1890-673: The aerodynamic center is at the quarter-chord position. USS Missouri (BB-11) USS Missouri (BB-11) , a Maine -class battleship , was the second ship of her class and of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the 24th state . Missouri was laid down in February 1900 at the Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Company , was launched in December 1901, and was commissioned into

1953-428: The airfoil at x . Since the airfoil is an impermeable surface , the flow w ( x ) {\displaystyle w(x)} must balance an inverse flow from V . By the small-angle approximation , V is inclined at angle α- dy ⁄ dx relative to the blade at position x , and the normal component is correspondingly (α- dy ⁄ dx ) V . Thus, γ( x ) must satisfy

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2016-466: The airfoil generates a circulation around the blade, which can be modeled as a vortex sheet of position-varying strength γ( x ) . The Kutta condition implies that γ( c )=0 , but the strength is singular at the bladefront, with γ( x )∝ 1 ⁄ √ x for x ≈ 0 . If the main flow V has density ρ , then the Kutta–Joukowski theorem gives that

2079-399: The airfoil itself replaced with a 1D blade along its camber line, oriented at the angle of attack α . Let the position along the blade be x , ranging from 0 at the wing's front to c at the trailing edge; the camber of the airfoil, dy ⁄ dx , is assumed sufficiently small that one need not distinguish between x and position relative to the fuselage. The flow across

2142-407: The chord line.) Also as a consequence of (3), the section lift coefficient of a cambered airfoil of infinite wingspan is: Thin airfoil theory assumes the air is an inviscid fluid so does not account for the stall of the airfoil, which usually occurs at an angle of attack between 10° and 15° for typical airfoils. In the mid-late 2000s, however, a theory predicting the onset of leading-edge stall

2205-483: The company he had founded. The company assets were acquired by Major Reuben H. Fleet , who used them as the core around which he founded Consolidated Aircraft Corporation . Edson's wife Marion Cockrell Gallaudet, daughter of Francis Marion Cockrell , launched USS Missouri (BB-11) . He died in 1945 in Pine Orchard, Connecticut . Airfoils When oriented at a suitable angle, a solid body moving through

2268-542: The deck of a bridge, the object will experience drag and also an aerodynamic force perpendicular to the wind. This does not mean the object qualifies as an airfoil. Airfoils are highly-efficient lifting shapes, able to generate more lift than similarly sized flat plates of the same area, and able to generate lift with significantly less drag. Airfoils are used in the design of aircraft, propellers, rotor blades, wind turbines and other applications of aeronautical engineering. A lift and drag curve obtained in wind tunnel testing

2331-642: The field of deaf education. He received his B.A. from Yale University in 1893, and his Ph.D. in electrical engineering from Johns Hopkins University in 1896. As a student at Yale in the class of 1893 he was a member of Psi Upsilon and Skull and Bones . He was an associate fellow with the Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences , a member of the American Society of Aeronautic Engineers, Fédération Aéronautique Internationale , and

2394-598: The first few terms of this series. The lift coefficient satisfies C L = 2 π ( α + A 0 + A 1 2 ) = 2 π α + 2 ∫ 0 π d y d x ⋅ ( 1 + cos ⁡ θ ) d θ {\displaystyle C_{L}=2\pi \left(\alpha +A_{0}+{\frac {A_{1}}{2}}\right)=2\pi \alpha +2\int _{0}^{\pi }{{\frac {dy}{dx}}\cdot (1+\cos \theta )\,d\theta }} and

2457-521: The fleet in December 1903. She was armed with a main battery of four 12-inch (305 mm) guns and could steam at a top speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). Missouri spent her entire career in the Atlantic with the North Atlantic Fleet , later renamed the Atlantic Fleet . In late 1907, she and the rest of the Atlantic Fleet circumnavigated the globe as the so-called Great White Fleet , which ended in February 1909. The ship

2520-525: The fleet on 1 December 1903. The ship was assigned to the North Atlantic Fleet after entering service. She steamed out of Norfolk to begin her sea trials off the Virginia Capes on 4 February 1904 before joining the rest of the fleet in the Caribbean for training exercises. On 13 April, the ship suffered an accident during gunnery training; the port 12-inch gun in her rear turret flared backward on firing and ignited three propellant charges in

2583-761: The fleet steamed out of Hampton Roads and cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America, making stops in Port of Spain , Rio de Janeiro, Punta Arenas , and Valparaíso , among other cities. After arriving in Mexico in March 1908, the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice. The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas, stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing

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2646-405: The following important properties of airfoils in two-dimensional inviscid flow: As a consequence of (3), the section lift coefficient of a thin symmetric airfoil of infinite wingspan is: (The above expression is also applicable to a cambered airfoil where α {\displaystyle \alpha \!} is the angle of attack measured relative to the zero-lift line instead of

2709-499: The leading edge. Supersonic airfoils are much more angular in shape and can have a very sharp leading edge, which is very sensitive to angle of attack. A supercritical airfoil has its maximum thickness close to the leading edge to have a lot of length to slowly shock the supersonic flow back to subsonic speeds. Generally such transonic airfoils and also the supersonic airfoils have a low camber to reduce drag divergence . Modern aircraft wings may have different airfoil sections along

2772-747: The moment coefficient C M = − π 2 ( α + A 0 + A 1 − A 2 2 ) = − π 2 α − ∫ 0 π d y d x ⋅ cos ⁡ ( θ ) ( 1 + cos ⁡ θ ) d θ . {\displaystyle C_{M}=-{\frac {\pi }{2}}\left(\alpha +A_{0}+A_{1}-{\frac {A_{2}}{2}}\right)=-{\frac {\pi }{2}}\alpha -\int _{0}^{\pi }{{\frac {dy}{dx}}\cdot \cos(\theta )(1+\cos \theta )\,d\theta }{\text{.}}} The moment about

2835-461: The pressure by using the concept of circulation and the Kutta–Joukowski theorem . The wings and stabilizers of fixed-wing aircraft , as well as helicopter rotor blades, are built with airfoil-shaped cross sections. Airfoils are also found in propellers, fans , compressors and turbines . Sails are also airfoils, and the underwater surfaces of sailboats, such as the centerboard , rudder , and keel , are similar in cross-section and operate on

2898-413: The same principles as airfoils. Swimming and flying creatures and even many plants and sessile organisms employ airfoils/hydrofoils, common examples being bird wings, the bodies of fish, and the shape of sand dollars . An airfoil-shaped wing can create downforce on an automobile or other motor vehicle, improving traction . When the wind is obstructed by an object such as a flat plate, a building, or

2961-476: The side of the hull, eight 3-pounder guns, and six 1-pounder guns. As was standard for capital ships of the period, Missouri carried two 18 in (457 mm) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside . Missouri ' s main armored belt was 11 in (279 mm) thick over the magazines and the propulsion machinery spaces and 8 in (203 mm) elsewhere. The main battery gun turrets had 12-inch (305 mm) thick faces, and

3024-436: The stall point. Airfoil design is a major facet of aerodynamics . Various airfoils serve different flight regimes. Asymmetric airfoils can generate lift at zero angle of attack, while a symmetric airfoil may better suit frequent inverted flight as in an aerobatic airplane. In the region of the ailerons and near a wingtip a symmetric airfoil can be used to increase the range of angles of attack to avoid spin – stall . Thus

3087-428: The supporting barbettes had the same thickness of armor plating on their exposed sides. Armor that was 6 in thick protected the secondary battery. The conning tower had 10 inches (254 mm) thick sides. Missouri was laid down at the Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Company on 7 February 1900, the third member of the class to be begun. She was launched on 28 December 1901 and commissioned into

3150-458: The total lift force F is proportional to ρ V ∫ 0 c γ ( x ) d x {\displaystyle \rho V\int _{0}^{c}\gamma (x)\,dx} and its moment M about the leading edge proportional to ρ V ∫ 0 c x γ ( x ) d x . {\displaystyle \rho V\int _{0}^{c}x\;\gamma (x)\,dx.} From

3213-470: The turret. The resulting fire suffocated 36 men in the turret, though quick action among surviving members of the turret crew prevented the fire from spreading to the magazines, where it would have destroyed the ship. For their actions, three men were awarded the Medal of Honor . Missouri returned to Newport News for repairs, which were completed by early June. On 9 June, Missouri left Newport News for

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3276-409: The upper surface at and past the stall angle. The thickened boundary layer's displacement thickness changes the airfoil's effective shape, in particular it reduces its effective camber , which modifies the overall flow field so as to reduce the circulation and the lift. The thicker boundary layer also causes a large increase in pressure drag , so that the overall drag increases sharply near and past

3339-419: The wing span, each one optimized for the conditions in each section of the wing. Movable high-lift devices, flaps and sometimes slats , are fitted to airfoils on almost every aircraft. A trailing edge flap acts similarly to an aileron; however, it, as opposed to an aileron, can be retracted partially into the wing if not used. A laminar flow wing has a maximum thickness in the middle camber line. Analyzing

3402-729: The wing, the flow will be turbulent. Under certain conditions, insect debris on the wing will cause the loss of small regions of laminar flow as well. Before NASA's research in the 1970s and 1980s the aircraft design community understood from application attempts in the WW II era that laminar flow wing designs were not practical using common manufacturing tolerances and surface imperfections. That belief changed after new manufacturing methods were developed with composite materials (e.g. laminar-flow airfoils developed by Professor Franz Wortmann for use with wings made of fibre-reinforced plastic ). Machined metal methods were also introduced. NASA's research in

3465-522: Was conceived as a way to demonstrate American military power, particularly to Japan. Tensions had begun to rise between the United States and Japan after the latter's victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, particularly over racist opposition to Japanese immigration to the United States. The press in both countries began to call for war, and Roosevelt hoped to use the demonstration of naval might to deter Japanese aggression. On 17 December,

3528-520: Was decommissioned in 1910, with periodic reactivations for summer training cruises over the followed six years. After America entered World War I in April 1917, Missouri was brought back into service to train personnel for the expanding wartime Navy. She served briefly as a troopship in 1919, carrying American soldiers back from France, before being decommissioned in September that year. Ultimately, she

3591-427: Was devised by German mathematician Max Munk and further refined by British aerodynamicist Hermann Glauert and others in the 1920s. The theory idealizes the flow around an airfoil as two-dimensional flow around a thin airfoil. It can be imagined as addressing an airfoil of zero thickness and infinite wingspan . Thin airfoil theory was particularly notable in its day because it provided a sound theoretical basis for

3654-457: Was powered by two-shaft triple-expansion steam engines rated at 16,000 indicated horsepower (12,000 kW), driving two screw propellers . Steam was provided by twelve coal-fired Thornycroft boilers , which were vented into three funnels . The propulsion system generated a top speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). As built, she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were quickly replaced by cage masts in 1909. She had

3717-418: Was proposed by Wallace J. Morris II in his doctoral thesis. Morris's subsequent refinements contain the details on the current state of theoretical knowledge on the leading-edge stall phenomenon. Morris's theory predicts the critical angle of attack for leading-edge stall onset as the condition at which a global separation zone is predicted in the solution for the inner flow. Morris's theory demonstrates that

3780-544: Was recommissioned on 23 April for service as a training ship for gunners and engine room personnel, based in the Chesapeake Bay . Rear Admiral Hugh Rodman hoisted his flag aboard Missouri on 26 August, as the commander of the 2nd Division, Atlantic Fleet. On 11 November 1918, Germany signed the Armistice that ended the war. Missouri was subsequently used to ferry American soldiers back from Europe as part of

3843-664: Was sold for scrapping in January 1922. The United States Congress passed a major naval construction program in response to the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in 1898; the program included three new battleships, which were to become the Maine class. The class incorporated several significant technological developments, including smaller caliber main guns that used smokeless powder to achieve greater muzzle velocity (and thus penetrating power), Krupp cemented armor that

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3906-444: Was stronger than Harvey armor used on earlier vessels, and water-tube boilers that provided more power for the engines. Missouri was 393 feet 11 inches (120.07 m) long overall and had a beam of 72 ft 3 in (22.02 m) and a draft of 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m). She displaced 12,362 long tons (12,560  t ) as designed and up to 13,700 long tons (13,900 t) at full load . The ship

3969-640: Was the first person to experiment with warped wings in 1896, and in 1898 he built a warping-wing kite to test his invention of a warping-wing mechanism; this kite survives and is on display in the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. In 1911 he obtained US pilot's license No. 32 with the Aero Club of America, flying a Wright biplane in Garden City, New York . Also in 1911 he earned

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