Extreme conservatives [ ko ] )
101-662: The Gapsin Coup , also known as the Gapsin Revolution , was a failed three-day coup d'état that occurred in Korea during 1884. Korean reformers in the Enlightenment Party sought to initiate rapid changes within the country, including eliminating social distinctions by abolishing the legal privileges of the yangban class. The coup d'état attempt, with Japanese support, began on December 4, 1884, with seizure of
202-655: A pronunciamiento , in which the military deposes the existing government and hands over power to a new, ostensibly civilian government. A "barracks revolt" or cuartelazo is another type of military revolt, from the Spanish term cuartel ('quarter' or 'barracks'), in which the mutiny of specific military garrisons sparks a larger military revolt against the government. Other types of actual or attempted seizures of power are sometimes called "coups with adjectives". The appropriate term can be subjective and carries normative, analytical, and political implications. While
303-642: A Chinese -English dictionary) which was a beginning for his series of later books. In 1862, he visited Europe as one of the two English translators in the First Japanese Embassy to Europe . During its year in Europe, the Embassy conducted negotiations with France , England , the Netherlands , Prussia , and finally Russia . In Russia, the embassy attempted unsuccessfully to negotiate for
404-462: A coup , is typically an illegal and overt attempt by a military organization or other government elites to unseat an incumbent leadership. A self-coup is when a leader, having come to power through legal means, tries to stay in power through illegal means. By one estimate, there were 457 coup attempts from 1950 to 2010, half of which were successful. Most coup attempts occurred in the mid-1960s, but there were also large numbers of coup attempts in
505-617: A coup is usually a conspiracy of a small group, a revolution or rebellion is usually started spontaneously by larger groups of uncoordinated people. The distinction between a revolution and a coup is not always clear. Sometimes, a coup is labelled as a revolution by its plotters to feign democratic legitimacy. According to Clayton Thyne and Jonathan Powell's coup data set, there were 457 coup attempts from 1950 to 2010, of which 227 (49.7%) were successful and 230 (50.3%) were unsuccessful. They find that coups have "been most common in Africa and
606-418: A coup. A 2019 study found that states that had recently signed civil war peace agreements were much more likely to experience coups, in particular when those agreements contained provisions that jeopardized the interests of the military. Research suggests that protests spur coups, as they help elites within the state apparatus to coordinate coups. A 2019 study found that regional rebellions made coups by
707-569: A coup. The authors of the study provide the following logic for why this is: Autocratic incumbents invested in spatial rivalries need to strengthen the military in order to compete with a foreign adversary. The imperative of developing a strong army puts dictators in a paradoxical situation: to compete with a rival state, they must empower the very agency—the military—that is most likely to threaten their own survival in office. However, two 2016 studies found that leaders who were involved in militarized confrontations and conflicts were less likely to face
808-659: A disturbance and escorted him to a small palace, the Gyoengu Palace, where they placed him in the custody of Japanese legation guards. They then proceeded to kill and wound several senior officials of the Sadaedang faction. After the coup, the Enlightenment Party members formed a new government and devised a program of reform. The radical 14-point reform proposal stated that the following conditions be met: an end to Korea's tributary relationship with China;
909-844: A fixed succession rule being much less plagued by instability than less institutionalized autocracies. A 2014 study of 18 Latin American countries in the 20th-century study found the legislative powers of the presidency does not influence coup frequency. A 2019 study found that when a country's politics is polarized and electoral competition is low, civilian-recruited coups become more likely. A 2023 study found that civilian elites are more likely to be associated with instigating military coups while civilians embedded in social networks are more likely to be associated with consolidating military coups. A 2017 study found that autocratic leaders whose states were involved in international rivalries over disputed territory were more likely to be overthrown in
1010-443: A good marriage was always the best outcome for a young woman, and according to some of Fukuzawa's personal letters, he discouraged his friends from sending their daughters on to higher education so that they would not become less desirable marriage candidates. While some of Yukichi’s other proposed reforms, such as education reforms, found an eager audience, his ideas about women received a less enthusiastic reception. After suffering
1111-512: A greater consultation of regional and local-specific sources. Successful coups are one method of regime change that thwarts the peaceful transition of power . A 2016 study categorizes four possible outcomes to coups in dictatorships : The study found that about half of all coups in dictatorships—both during and after the Cold War—install new autocratic regimes. New dictatorships launched by coups engage in higher levels of repression in
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#17327658940401212-816: A major threat to dictators. The Harem conspiracy of the 12th century BC was one of the earliest. Palace coups were common in Imperial China . They have also occurred among the Habsburg dynasty in Austria, the Al-Thani dynasty in Qatar , and in Haiti in the 19th to early 20th centuries. The majority of Russian tsars between 1725 and 1801 were either overthrown or usurped power in palace coups. The term putsch ( [pʊtʃ] , from Swiss German for 'knock'), denotes
1313-526: A new queen for his son, an orphaned girl from among the Yeoheung Min clan , a clan which lacked powerful political connections. With Queen Min as his daughter-in-law and the royal consort, the Daewongun felt secure in his power. However, after she had become queen, Min recruited all her relatives and had them appointed to influential positions in the name of the king. The Queen also allied herself with
1414-656: A prestigious lineage related to the royal family, was 23, Hong was 29, Seo Gwang-beom was 25, and Soh Jaipil was 20, with Kim Ok-gyun being the oldest, at 33. All had spent some time in Japan. In 1882, Pak Yung-hio had been part of a mission sent to Japan to apologize for the Imo incident. He had been accompanied by Kim Ok-gyun, who later come under the influence of Japanese modernizers such as Fukuzawa Yukichi and also by Seo Gwang-beom. Kim Ok-gyun, while also studying in Japan, had cultivated friendships with influential Japanese figures and
1515-405: A putsch. Pronunciamiento ( ' pronouncement ' ) is a term of Spanish origin for a type of coup d'état . Specifically the pronunciamiento is the formal declaration deposing the previous government and justifying the installation of the new government by the golpe de estado . One author distinguishes a coup, in which a military or political faction takes power for itself, from
1616-674: A self-determining social morality for a Japan still reeling from both the political upheavals wrought by the unwanted end to its isolationism and the cultural upheavals caused by the inundation of so much novelty in products, methods, and ideas, Fukuzawa hoped to instill a sense of personal strength among the people of Japan so they could build a nation to rival all others. To his understanding, Western nations had become more powerful than other regions because their societies fostered education , individualism (independence), competition and exchange of ideas. Fukuzawa published many influential essays and critical works. A particularly prominent example
1717-629: A semi-colony and its policy towards Korea substantially changed to a new imperialistic one where the suzerain state demanded certain privileges in her vassal state". On October 4, 1882, the Korean government signed a new set of trade regulations with the China–Korea Treaty of 1882 that permitted Chinese merchants to trade in Korea and gave them substantial advantages over the Japanese and Westerners,
1818-572: A somewhat higher chance of success in Africa and Asia. Numbers of successful coups have decreased over time. A number of political science datasets document coup attempts around the world and over time, generally starting in the post-World War II period. Major examples include the Global Instances of Coups dataset, the Coups & Political Instability dataset by the Center of Systemic Peace,
1919-552: A stroke on January 25, 1901, Fukuzawa Yukichi died on February 3. He was buried at Zenpuku-ji , in the Azabu area of Tokyo. Alumni of Keio-Gijuku University hold a ceremony there every year on February 3. Fukuzawa's writings may have been the foremost of the Edo period and Meiji period . They played a large role in the introduction of Western culture into Japan. In 1860, he published English-Japanese Dictionary ("Zōtei Kaei Tsūgo"). It
2020-422: A strong influence among the people, and in particular to transmit to the public the government's views on the projected national assembly , and as reforms began, Fukuzawa, whose fame was already unquestionable, began production of Jiji Shinpo , which received wide circulation, encouraging the people to enlighten themselves and to adopt a moderate political attitude towards the change that was being engineered within
2121-601: A time when the Japanese people were undecided on whether they should be bitter about the American and European forced treaties and imperialism, or to understand the West and move forward. Fukuzawa greatly aided the ultimate success of the pro-modernization forces. Fukuzawa appeared on the 10,000- yen banknote in the 1984 and 2004 issues, and has been compared to Benjamin Franklin in the United States . Franklin appears on
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#17327658940402222-425: A two-sided impact on coup attempts, depending on the state of the economy. During periods of economic expansion, elections reduced the likelihood of coup attempts, whereas elections during economic crises increased the likelihood of coup attempts. A 2021 study found that oil wealthy nations see a pronounced risk of coup attempts but these coups are unlikely to succeed. A 2014 study of 18 Latin American countries in
2323-480: Is Bunmeiron no Gairyaku ( 文明論之概略 , An Outline of a Theory of Civilization [ Wikidata ] ) published in 1875, in which he details his own theory of civilization. It was influenced by Histoire de la civilisation en Europe (1828; Eng. trans in 1846) by François Guizot and History of Civilization in England (1872–1873, 2nd London ed.) by Henry Thomas Buckle . According to Fukuzawa, civilization
2424-489: Is "independence". Fukuzawa Yukichi believed that national independence was the framework to society in the West. However, to achieve this independence, as well as personal independence, Fukuzawa advocated Western learning. He believed that public virtue would increase as people became more educated. Fukuzawa Yukichi's childhood home in the Rusui-cho neighbourhood of the city of Nakatsu in Ōita Prefecture still exists. It
2525-399: Is a typical samurai residence of the late Edo Period and is a one-story wooden, thatch roof building with two 6- tatami , one 8- tatami , and one 4.5 tatami rooms. The north of the main building is a two-story kura storehouse with a tile roof. In 1971 this former residence and the ruins of a former residence across the street were designated as a National Historic Site . The house and
2626-589: Is an editor's note in the London Morning Chronicle ,1804, reporting the arrest by Napoleon in France, of Moreau , Berthier , Masséna , and Bernadotte : "There was a report in circulation yesterday of a sort of coup d'état having taken place in France, in consequence of some formidable conspiracy against the existing government." In the British press , the phrase came to be used to describe
2727-664: Is located on the lower reaches of the Nakatsu River, almost due east of Nakatsu Castle ( 33°36′26″N 131°11′27″E / 33.60722°N 131.19083°E / 33.60722; 131.19083 ). Fukuzawa Yukichi was born in 1835 in the Nakatsu Domain warehouse in Osaka and the family returned to Nakatsu after his father's death when he was 18 months old. He lived in this house in Nakatsu until age 19. The structure
2828-533: Is more likely in former French colonies. A 2018 study in the Journal of Peace Research found that leaders who survive coup attempts and respond by purging known and potential rivals are likely to have longer tenures as leaders. A 2019 study in Conflict Management and Peace Science found that personalist dictatorships are more likely to take coup-proofing measures than other authoritarian regimes;
2929-529: Is relative to time and circumstance, as well in comparison. For example, at the time China was relatively civilized in comparison to some African colonies, and European nations were the most civilized of all. Colleagues in the Meirokusha intellectual society shared many of Fukuzawa's views, which he published in his contributions to Meiroku zasshi (Meiji Six Magazine), a scholarly journal he helped publish. In his books and journals, he often wrote about
3030-612: The Chinese . Consequently, even before the reform measures were made public, within three days the coup was suppressed by the Chinese troops who attacked and defeated the Japanese forces and restored power to the pro-Chinese Sadaedang faction. During the ensuing melee Hong Yeong-sik was killed, the Japanese legation building was burned down and forty Japanese soldiers were killed. The surviving Korean coup leaders, including Kim Ok-gyun, Park Yung-hyo , Seo Gwang-beom, and Soh Jaipil, escaped to
3131-618: The Chinese model . Consequently, the Min clan became advocates of the "dongdo seogi" ( Adopting Western knowledge while keeping Eastern values ) philosophy, which had originated from the ideas of moderate Chinese reformers who had emphasized the need to maintain the perceived superior cultural values and heritage of the Sino-centric world while recognizing the importance of acquiring and adopting Western technology, particularly military technology, in order to preserve autonomy. Hence, rather than
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3232-598: The Cultural Revolution . Fukuzawa Yukichi Fukuzawa Yukichi ( 福澤 諭吉 , January 10, 1835 – February 3, 1901) was a Japanese educator, philosopher, writer, entrepreneur and samurai who founded Keio University , the newspaper Jiji-Shinpō , and the Institute for Study of Infectious Diseases . Fukuzawa was an early advocate for reform in Japan . His ideas about the organization of government and
3333-547: The Enlightenment Party and had become frustrated at the limited scale and arbitrary pace of reforms. The members who constituted the Enlightenment Party were youthful, well-educated Koreans and most were from the yangban class. They were impressed by the developments in Meiji Japan and were eager to emulate them. Its members included Kim Ok-gyun , Park Yung-hyo , Hong Yeong-sik , Seo Gwang-beom , and Soh Jaipil . The group were all relatively young; Pak Yung-hio came from
3434-743: The Naeamun was responsible for military matters and internal affairs. At the recommendation of the Chinese two advisors were appointed to the foreign office: the German Paul Georg von Möllendorff who had served in the Chinese Maritime Customs Service and the Chinese diplomat Ma Jianzhong . A new Korean military formation, the Chingunyeong ( Capital Guards Command ), was also created and trained along Chinese lines by Yuan Shikai . The Chinese also supervised
3535-563: The Perry Expedition 's arrival in Japan marking the beginning of the opening of Japan to trade via Gunboat diplomacy . As the family patriarch Fukuzawa's brother asked him to travel to Nagasaki , where the Dutch colony at Dejima was located, in order to enter a school of Dutch studies ( rangaku ). He instructed Yukichi to learn Dutch so that he might study European cannon designs and gunnery . Fukuzawa’s early life consisted of
3636-635: The Tekijuku school run by physician and rangaku scholar Ogata Kōan . Fukuzawa studied at Tekijuku for three years and became fully proficient in the Dutch language. In 1858, he was appointed the official Dutch teacher of Nakatsu , and was sent to Edo to teach the family's vassals there. The following year, Japan opened up three of its ports to American and European ships, and Fukuzawa, intrigued with Western civilization , traveled to Kanagawa to see them. When he arrived, he discovered that virtually all of
3737-437: The United States . He believed that the problem in Japan was the undervalued mathematics and science. Also, these suffered from a "lack of the idea of independence". The Japanese conservatives were not happy about Fukuzawa's view of Western education. Since he was a family friend of conservatives, he took their stand to heart. Fukuzawa later came to state that he went a little too far. One word sums up his entire theme and that
3838-456: The head of government assume dictatorial powers. A soft coup , sometimes referred to as a silent coup or a bloodless coup , is an illegal overthrow of a government, but unlike a regular coup d'état it is achieved without the use of force or violence. A palace coup or palace revolution is a coup in which one faction within the ruling group displaces another faction within a ruling group. Along with popular protests, palace coups are
3939-420: The paramilitary faction led by Ernst Röhm , but Nazi propaganda justified it as preventing a supposed putsch planned or attempted by Röhm. The Nazi term Röhm-Putsch is still used by Germans to describe the event, often with quotation marks as the 'so-called Röhm Putsch'. The 1961 Algiers putsch and the 1991 August Putsch also use the term. The 2023 Wagner Group rebellion has also been described as
4040-444: The rents that an incumbent can extract . One reason why authoritarian governments tend to have incompetent militaries is that authoritarian regimes fear that their military will stage a coup or allow a domestic uprising to proceed uninterrupted – as a consequence, authoritarian rulers have incentives to place incompetent loyalists in key positions in the military. A 2016 study shows that the implementation of succession rules reduce
4141-537: The royal palace in Seoul and the killing of several members of the pro-Chinese conservative faction. However, the coup was eventually suppressed by a Chinese garrison stationed in the country. Thwarted by the Chinese actions, some of the pro-Japanese faction leaders found exile in Japan. The event led to informal Chinese domination of Korea from 1885 to 1894. Within the Joseon court, Chinese influence grew particularly under
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4242-429: The 20th century study found that coup frequency does not vary with development levels, economic inequality , or the rate of economic growth. In what is referred to as "coup-proofing", regimes create structures that make it hard for any small group to seize power. These coup-proofing strategies may include the strategic placing of family, ethnic, and religious groups in the military; creation of an armed force parallel to
4343-604: The Americas (36.5% and 31.9%, respectively). Asia and the Middle East have experienced 13.1% and 15.8% of total global coups, respectively. Europe has experienced by far the fewest coup attempts: 2.6%." Most coup attempts occurred in the mid-1960s, but there were also large numbers of coup attempts in the mid-1970s and the early 1990s. From 1950 to 2010, a majority of coups failed in the Middle East and Latin America. They had
4444-686: The Chinese Resident and continued to interfere with Korean domestic politics. The coup significantly disrupted reform efforts that arose from the 1883 Korean special mission to the United States . Some of the mission's members were part of the Gaehwa Party, and were either killed or forced into exile. Coup d%27%C3%A9tat A coup d'état ( / ˌ k uː d eɪ ˈ t ɑː / ; French: [ku deta] ; lit. ' stroke of state ' ), or simply
4545-692: The Countries of the World, for Children Written in Verse", 1869) became a best seller and was used as an official school textbook. His inspiration for writing the books came when he tried to teach world geography to his sons. At the time there were no textbooks on the subject, so he decided to write one himself. He started by buying a few Japanese geography books for children, named Miyakoji ("City roads") and Edo hōgaku ("Tokyo maps"), and practiced reading them aloud. He then wrote Sekai Kunizukushi in six volumes in
4646-574: The Coup d'etat Project by the Cline Center, the Colpus coup dataset, and the Coups and Agency Mechanism dataset. A 2023 study argued that major coup datasets tend to over-rely on international news sources to gather their information, potentially biasing the types of events included. Its findings show that while such a strategy is sufficient for gathering information on successful and failed coups, attempts to gather data on coup plots and rumors require
4747-489: The Daewongun's political enemies, so that by late 1873 she had mobilized enough influence to oust the Daewongun from power. In October 1873, when the Confucian scholar Choe Ik-hyeon submitted a memorial to King Gojong urging him to rule in his own right, Queen Min seized the opportunity to force her father-in-law's retirement as regent. The Daewongun's departure led to Korea's abandonment of its isolationist policy. Through
4848-719: The European merchants there were speaking English rather than Dutch. He then began to study English, but at that time, English-Japanese interpreters were rare and dictionaries nonexistent, so his studies were slow. In 1859, the Tokugawa shogunate sent their first diplomatic mission to the United States . Fukuzawa volunteered his services to Admiral Kimura Yoshitake . Kimura's ship, the Kanrin Maru , arrived in San Francisco, California , in 1860. The delegation stayed in
4949-418: The Japanese envoy, Foreign Minister Inoue Kaoru . The treaty restored diplomatic relations between the two nations, and the Korean government agreed to pay the Japanese ¥ 100,000 for damages to their legation and provide a site and buildings for a new legation. Prime minister Ito Hirobumi , in order to overcome Japan's disadvantageous position in Korea followed by the abortive coup, visited China to discuss
5050-599: The Resident-General Yuan Shikai . After the Imo Incident of 1882, early reform efforts in Korea suffered a major setback. The aftermath of the event also brought the Chinese into the country where they began to directly interfere in Korean internal affairs, undertaking several initiatives to gain significant influence over the Korean government. A Korean historian stated that "the Chinese government began to turn its former tributary state into
5151-467: The abolition of ruling-class privilege and the establishment of equal rights for all; the reorganization of the government as virtually a constitutional monarchy; the revision of land tax laws; cancellation of the grain loan system; the unification of all internal fiscal administrations under the jurisdiction of the Ho-jo; the suppression of privileged merchants and the development of free commerce and trade,
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#17327658940405252-412: The above factors are connected to military culture and power dynamics. These factors can be divided into multiple categories, with two of these categories being a threat to military interests and support for military interests. If interests go in either direction, the military will find itself either capitalizing off that power or attempting to gain it back. Oftentimes, military spending is an indicator of
5353-443: The ascendancy of Queen to the throne, the Min clan had also been able to use the newly created institutions by the government as bases for political power, and with their growing monopoly of key positions they frustrated the ambitions of the Enlightenment Party. After the Imo incident in 1882, the Min clan pursued a pro-Chinese policy. This was partly a matter of opportunism as the intervention by Chinese troops led to subsequent exile of
5454-424: The authors argue that this is because "personalists are characterized by weak institutions and narrow support bases, a lack of unifying ideologies and informal links to the ruler". In their 2022 book Revolution and Dictatorship: The Violent Origins of Durable Authoritarianism , political scientists Steven Levitsky and Lucan Way found that political-military fusion, where the ruling party is highly interlinked with
5555-469: The building of things that are basic and useful to other people. In short, to Fukuzawa, "civilization" essentially meant the furthering of knowledge and education. Fukuzawa's most important contribution to the reformation effort, though, came in the form of a newspaper called Jiji Shinpō [ Wikidata ] ( 時事新報 , "Current Events"), which he started in 1882, after being prompted by Inoue Kaoru , Ōkuma Shigenobu , and Itō Hirobumi to establish
5656-485: The city for a month, during which time Fukuzawa had himself photographed with an American girl, and also found a Webster's Dictionary , from which he began serious study of the English language. Upon his return in 1860, Fukuzawa became an official translator for the Tokugawa shogunate . Shortly afterwards he brought out his first publication, an English-Japanese dictionary which he called "Kaei Tsūgo" (translated from
5757-455: The contextualized idea of a 'knockout blow to the existing administration within a state'. One early use within text translated from French was in 1785 in a printed translation of a letter from a French merchant, commenting on an arbitrary decree, or arrêt , issued by the French king restricting the import of British wool. What may be its first published use within a text composed in English
5858-471: The country it is today. He never accepted any high position and remained a normal Japanese citizen for his whole life. By the time of his death, he was revered as one of the founders of modern Japan. All of his work was written and was released at a critical juncture in the Japanese society and uncertainty for the Japanese people about their future after the signing of the Unequal treaties , their realization in
5959-477: The coup and demanding repatriation of the conspirators. The Japanese government instead demanded an apology and reparations for damages from the Korean government over the incident. In January 1885, with a show of force, the Japanese dispatched two battalions and seven warships to Korea, which resulted in the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1885 (Treaty of Hanseong), signed on 9 January 1885 by the Korean government with
6060-489: The coup attempt will be successful. The number of successful coups has decreased over time. Failed coups in authoritarian systems are likely to strengthen the power of the authoritarian ruler. The cumulative number of coups is a strong predictor of future coups, a phenomenon referred to as the "coup trap". In what is referred to as "coup-proofing", regimes create structures that make it hard for any small group to seize power. These coup-proofing strategies may include
6161-609: The coup trap and reduces cycles of political instability. Hybrid regimes are more vulnerable to coups than very authoritarian states or democratic states. A 2021 study found that democratic regimes were not substantially more likely to experience coups. A 2015 study finds that terrorism is strongly associated with re-shuffling coups. A 2016 study finds that there is an ethnic component to coups: "When leaders attempt to build ethnic armies, or dismantle those created by their predecessors, they provoke violent resistance from military officers." Another 2016 study shows that protests increase
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#17327658940406262-489: The creation of a Korean Maritime Customs Service in 1883 with von Möellendorff as its head. Korea was again reduced to a tributary state of China with King Gojong unable to appoint diplomats without Chinese approval and troops stationed in Seoul in order to protect Chinese interests in the country. China also obtained concessions in Korea, notably the Chinese concession of Incheon . A small group of reformers had emerged around
6363-473: The creation of a modern police system including police patrols and royal guards; and severe punishment of corrupt officials. However the new government failed, lasting no longer than a few days, especially as the members of Gaehwapa were supported by no more than 140 Japanese troops facing at least 1,500 Chinese garrisoned in Seoul under the command of General Yuan Shikai . Facing this threat to her power, Queen Min secretly requested military intervention from
6464-408: The difference between the weak and the powerful and large and small was just a matter of difference between their knowledge and education. He argued that Japan should not import guns and materials. Instead it should support the acquisition of knowledge, which would eventually take care of the material necessities. He talked of the Japanese concept of being practical or pragmatic ( 実学 , jitsugaku ) and
6565-637: The dull and backbreaking work typical of a lower-level samurai in Japan during the Tokugawa period . Although Fukuzawa did travel to Nagasaki, his stay was brief as he quickly began to outshine his host in Nagasaki, Okudaira Iki. Okudaira planned to get rid of Fukuzawa by writing a letter saying that Fukuzawa's mother was ill. Seeing through the fake letter, Fukuzawa planned to travel to Edo and continue his studies there, since he would be unable to do so in his home domain of Nakatsu . However, upon his return to Osaka, his brother persuaded him to stay and enroll at
6666-468: The education of girls as well as boys, and the equal love of daughters and sons. At the same time, he called attention to harmful practices such as women’s inability to own property in their own name and the familial distress that took place when married men took mistresses. However, even Fukuzawa was not willing to propose completely equal rights for men and women; only for husbands and wives. He also stated in his 1899 book New Greater Learning for Women that
6767-413: The educational system's curriculum. While Keiō's initial identity was that of a private school of Western studies (Keio-gijuku), it expanded and established its first university faculty in 1890. Under the name Keio-Gijuku University , it became a leader in Japanese higher education. Fukuzawa was also a strong advocate for women’s rights . He often spoke up in favor of equality between husbands and wives,
6868-551: The government and subsequently were unable to implement their reform plans. As a consequence, they were prepared to seize power by all means necessary. An opportunity presented itself to stage a coup d’état in August 1884. As hostilities between France and China erupted over Annam , half of the Chinese troops were withdrawn from Korea. On December 4, 1884, with the help of the Japanese minister Takezoe Shinichiro , who promised to mobilize Japanese legation guards to provide assistance,
6969-483: The importance of equality of opportunity as a principle, explores his understanding of the principle, and stresses that education is the key to taking best advantage of the principle and achieving greatness. For these reasons, he was an avid supporter of public schools and believed in a firm mental foundation through learning and studiousness. Fukuzawa also advocated in these writings his most lasting motto, "national independence through personal independence." By creating
7070-419: The likelihood of a coup taking place. Nordvik found that about 75% of coups that took place in many different countries rooted from military spending and oil windfalls. The accumulation of previous coups is a strong predictor of future coups, a phenomenon called the coup trap . A 2014 study of 18 Latin American countries found that the establishment of open political competition helps bring countries out of
7171-435: The likelihood of coups. A fifth 2016 study finds no evidence that coups are contagious; one coup in a region does not make other coups in the region likely to follow. One study found that coups are more likely to occur in states with small populations, as there are smaller coordination problems for coup-plotters. In autocracies, the frequency of coups seems to be affected by the succession rules in place, with monarchies with
7272-464: The major institutional reforms such as the adaptation of new values such as legal equality or introducing modern education like in Meiji Japan, the advocates of this school of thought sought piecemeal adoptions of institutions that would strengthen the state while preserving the basic social, political, and cultural order. The Gaehwapa members had failed to secure appointments to vital offices in
7373-564: The matter with his Chinese counterpart, Li Hongzhang . The two parties succeeded in concluding the Convention of Tianjin on May 31, 1885. The two parties also pledged to withdraw their troops from Korea within four months, with prior notification to the other, if troops were to be sent to Korea in the future. After both countries withdrew their forces, they left behind a precarious balance of power on Korean peninsula between those two nations. Meanwhile, Yuan Shikai remained in Seoul appointed as
7474-637: The members of the Gaehwapa staged their coup under the guise of a banquet hosted by Hong Yeong-sik, director of the General Postal Administration ( Ujeong Chongguk ) to celebrate the opening of the new national post office. King Gojong was expected to attend together with several foreign diplomats and high-ranking officials, most of whom were members of the pro-Chinese Sadaedang faction. Kim Ok-gyun and his comrades approached King Gojong, falsely stating that Chinese troops had created
7575-427: The mid-1970s and the early 1990s. Coups occurring in the post- Cold War period have been more likely to result in democratic systems than Cold War coups, though coups still mostly perpetuate authoritarianism . Many factors may lead to the occurrence of a coup, as well as determine the success or failure of a coup. Once a coup is underway, coup success is driven by coup-makers' ability to get others to believe that
7676-674: The military and created the administrative structures of the military from its inception, is extremely effective at preventing military coups. For example, the People's Liberation Army was created by the Chinese Communist Party during the Chinese Civil War , and never instigated a military coup even after large-scale policy failures (i.e. the Great Leap Forward ) or the extreme political instability of
7777-400: The military more likely. A 2018 study found that "oil price shocks are seen to promote coups in onshore-intensive oil countries, while preventing them in offshore-intensive oil countries". The study argues that states which have onshore oil wealth tend to build up their military to protect the oil, whereas states do not do that for offshore oil wealth. A 2020 study found that elections had
7878-509: The occurrence of coup attempts. Succession rules are believed to hamper coordination efforts among coup plotters by assuaging elites who have more to gain by patience than by plotting. According to political scientists Curtis Bell and Jonathan Powell, coup attempts in neighbouring countries lead to greater coup-proofing and coup-related repression in a region. A 2017 study finds that countries' coup-proofing strategies are heavily influenced by other countries with similar histories. Coup-proofing
7979-712: The political-military actions of an unsuccessful minority reactionary coup. The term was initially coined for the Züriputsch of 6 September 1839 in Switzerland. It was also used for attempted coups in Weimar Germany , such as the 1920 Kapp Putsch , Küstrin Putsch , and Adolf Hitler 's 1923 Beer Hall Putsch . The 1934 Night of the Long Knives was Hitler's purge to eliminate opponents, particularly
8080-502: The port of Chemulpo under escort of the Japanese minister Takezoe. From there they boarded a Japanese ship for exile in Japan. On 23 October, 9 participants including Kim Ok-gyun, Seo Jae-pil, Ryu Hyeok-ro , Byeon Su, Lee Kyu-wan , Jeong Nan-gyou, Shin Ung-hui successfully exiled to Japan. After the abortive coup, King Gojong voided the reform measures proposed by the coup leaders and sent an envoy to Japan protesting its involvement in
8181-440: The regular military; and development of multiple internal security agencies with overlapping jurisdiction that constantly monitor one another. It may also involve frequent salary hikes and promotions for members of the military, and the deliberate use of diverse bureaucrats. Research shows that some coup-proofing strategies reduce the risk of coups occurring. However, coup-proofing reduces military effectiveness, and limits
8282-642: The regulations also granted the Chinese unilateral extraterritoriality privileges in civil and criminal cases. Although it allowed Koreans reciprocally to trade in Beijing the agreement was not a treaty but was in effect issued as a regulation for a vassal, it also reasserted Korea's dependency on China. In December, two high-level offices, the Oeamun ( Foreign Office ) and the Naeamun ( Home Office ) were established. The Oeamun dealt with foreign affairs and trade while
8383-401: The risk of coups, presumably because they ease coordination obstacles among coup plotters and make international actors less likely to punish coup leaders. A third 2016 study finds that coups become more likely in the wake of elections in autocracies when the results reveal electoral weakness for the incumbent autocrat. A fourth 2016 study finds that inequality between social classes increases
8484-536: The rival Daewongun in Tianjin and the expansion of Chinese influence in Korea. The Sadaedang was a group of conservatives, which included not only Min Yeong-ik from the Min family but also prominent political figures such as Kim Yun-sik and Eo Yun-jung that wanted to maintain power with China's help. Although the members of the Sadaedang supported the enlightenment policy they favored gradual changes based on
8585-604: The same lyrical style. The first volume covered Asia, the second Africa, the third Europe, the fourth South America, and the fifth both North America and Australia. The sixth volume was an appendix that gave an introduction to world geography. Influenced by the 1835 and 1856 editions of Elements of Moral Science by Brown University President Francis Wayland , from 1872-76 Fukuzawa published 17 volumes of Gakumon no Susume ( 学問のすすめ , An Encouragement of Learning [ Wikidata ] or more idiomatically "On Studying" ). Through these writings, Fukuzawa develops his views on
8686-443: The similarly-valued $ 100 bill . Although all other figures appearing on Japanese banknotes changed when the 2004 series was released, Fukuzawa remained on the 10,000-yen note. His image was eventually replaced by Shibusawa Eiichi in 2024. Fukuzawa Yukichi was a firm believer that Western education surpassed Japan's. However, he did not like the idea of parliamentary debates. As early as 1860, Fukuzawa Yukichi traveled to Europe and
8787-411: The social and political structures of Japan. He translated many books and journals into Japanese on a wide variety of subjects, including chemistry , the arts , military and society , and published many books (in multiple volumes) and journals himself describing Western society, his own philosophy and change, etc. Fukuzawa was one of the most influential people ever that helped Japan modernize into
8888-534: The southern end of Sakhalin (in Japanese Karafuto ), a long-standing source of dispute between the two countries. The information collected during these travels resulted in his famous work Seiyō Jijō ( 西洋事情 , Things western [ Wikidata ] ), which he published in ten volumes in 1867, 1868 and 1870. The books describe western culture and institutions in simple, easy to understand terms, and they became immediate best-sellers. Fukuzawa
8989-400: The strategic placing of family, ethnic, and religious groups in the military and the fragmenting of military and security agencies. However, coup-proofing reduces military effectiveness as loyalty is prioritized over experience when filling key positions within the military. The term comes from French coup d'État , literally meaning a 'stroke of state' or 'blow of state'. In French,
9090-595: The structure of social institutions made a lasting impression on a rapidly changing Japan during the Meiji period . He appears on the 10,000- Japanese yen banknote from 1984 to 2024. Fukuzawa Yukichi was born into an impoverished low-ranking samurai (military nobility) family of the Okudaira Clan of Nakatsu Domain (present-day Ōita , Kyushu ) in 1835. His family lived in Osaka , the main trading center for Japan at
9191-513: The time. His family was poor following the early death of his father, who was also a Confucian scholar. At the age of 5 he started Han learning , and by the time he turned 14, he had studied major writings such as the Analects , Tao Te Ching , Zuo Zhuan and Zhuangzi . Fukuzawa was greatly influenced by his lifelong teacher, Shōzan Shiraishi, who was a scholar of Confucianism and Han learning . Yukichi turned 19 in 1854, shortly after
9292-457: The top, is a form of coup d'état in which a political leader, having come to power through legal means, stays in power through illegal means through the actions of themselves and/or their supporters. The leader may dissolve or render powerless the national legislature and unlawfully assume extraordinary powers not granted under normal circumstances. Other measures may include annulling the nation's constitution , suspending civil courts, and having
9393-664: The various murders by Napoleon's alleged secret police , the Gens d'Armes d'Elite , who executed the Duke of Enghien : "the actors in torture, the distributors of the poisoning draughts, and the secret executioners of those unfortunate individuals or families, whom Bonaparte's measures of safety require to remove. In what revolutionary tyrants call grand[s] coups d'état , as butchering, or poisoning, or drowning, en masse, they are exclusively employed." A self-coup , also called an autocoup (from Spanish autogolpe ) or coup from
9494-410: The war's duration. A 2003 review of the academic literature found that the following factors influenced coups: The literature review in a 2016 study includes mentions of ethnic factionalism, supportive foreign governments, leader inexperience, slow growth, commodity price shocks, and poverty. Coups have been found to appear in environments that are heavily influenced by military powers. Multiple of
9595-503: The weakness of the Japanese government at the time (Tokugawa Shogunate) and its inability to repel the American and European influence. It should also be noted that there were bands of samurai that forcefully opposed the Americans and Europeans and their friends through murder and destruction. Fukuzawa was in danger of his life as a samurai group killed one of his colleagues for advocating policies like those of Fukuzawa. Fukuzawa wrote at
9696-410: The word État ( French: [eta] ) is capitalized when it denotes a sovereign political entity. Although the concept of a coup d'état has featured in politics since antiquity, the phrase is of relatively recent coinage. It did not appear within an English text before the 19th century except when used in the translation of a French source, there being no simple phrase in English to convey
9797-478: The word "civilization" and what it meant. He advocated a move toward "civilization", by which he meant material and spiritual well-being, which elevated human life to a "higher plane". Because material and spiritual well-being corresponded to knowledge and "virtue", to "move toward civilization" was to advance and pursue knowledge and virtue themselves. He contended that people could find the answer to their life or their present situation from "civilization." Furthermore,
9898-575: The year after the coup than existed in the year before the coup. One-third of coups in dictatorships during the Cold War and 10% of later ones reshuffled the regime leadership. Democracies were installed in the wake of 12% of Cold War coups in dictatorships and 40% of post-Cold War ones. Coups occurring in the post- Cold War period have been more likely to result in democratic systems than Cold War coups, though coups still mostly perpetuate authoritarianism . Coups that occur during civil wars shorten
9999-547: Was his first publication. He bought English-Chinese Dictionary ("Kaei Tsūgo") in San Francisco in 1860. He translated it to Japanese and he added the Japanese translations to the original textbook. In his book, he invented the new Japanese characters VU ( ヴ ) to represent the pronunciation of VU, and VA ( ヷ ) to represent the pronunciation of VA. For example, the name Beethoven is written as ベートー ヴ ェン in modern Japanese. His famous textbook Sekai Kunizukushi ("All
10100-411: Was soon regarded as the foremost expert on western civilization, leading him to conclude that his mission in life was to educate his countrymen in new ways of thinking in order to enable Japan to resist European imperialism . In 1868 he changed the name of the school he had established to teach Dutch to Keio Gijuku , and from then on devoted all his time to education. He also added public speaking to
10201-426: Was the de facto leader of the group. They were also strongly nationalistic and desired to make their country truly independent by ending Chinese interference in Korea's internal affairs. In Korean history, the king's in-laws enjoyed great power, and the regent Daewongun acknowledged that any future sons-in-law might threaten his authority. Therefore, he attempted to prevent any possible threat to his rule by selecting
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