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80-656: The Garden Island Tunnel System , also known as Garden Island tunnels , Garden Island Tunnel Complex and Potts Point Tunnels , is a former tunnel warfare system in Garden Island , Sydney , Australia . Used in World War II by the Royal Australian Navy in 1941, the tunnels were dug from sandstone beneath Potts Point after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor , to shelter the men working at

160-455: A butane lighter to the multi-chambered cryogenic Space Shuttle external tank . Typically, a fuel tank must allow or provide the following: Plastic ( high-density polyethylene HDPE) as a fuel tank material of construction, while functionally viable in the short term, has a long term potential to become saturated as fuels such as diesel and gasoline permeate the HDPE material. Considering

240-400: A petrol tank or gas tank ) is a safe container for flammable fluids, often gasoline or diesel fuel . Though any storage tank for fuel may be so called, the term is typically applied to part of an engine system in which the fuel is stored and propelled ( fuel pump ) or released (pressurized gas) into an engine . Fuel tanks range in size and complexity from the small plastic tank of

320-493: A wild west mine, and concrete-lined with dented cuts into the rock for stretcher-bearing, casualty clearing stations , backup generators , telephone exchange , bathrooms and toilet facilities, some of which are located in the northernmost bunker . Other tunnels were constructed to store pumping valves at the Captain Cook Graving Dock. In early 1941, former prime minister of Australia and minister for

400-631: A Japanese invasion of Australia . There are other military fortifications in coastal Sydney that feature a tunnel warfare system, such as the Georges Head Battery (which was constructed in 1801 and was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register in 1999), Lower Georges Heights Commanding Position (which was built in 1877 and became part of the Sydney Harbour defences , where

480-724: A Japanese submarine in June 1942. This is the only place on the mainland of Australia known to have returned fire. The batteries at Shepherds Hill formed an integrated system with the batteries at Fort Scratchley, Fort Wallace at Stockton and at Tomaree on Port Stephens . During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines , the Ilagan Japanese Tunnel was part of a military base built by the Japanese government as headquarters for its soldiers during World War II. In

560-423: A breach is made, the ditch or moat makes exploiting the breach difficult. Defenders could also dig counter mines. From these they could then dig into the attackers' tunnels and sortie into them to either kill the miners or to set fire to the pit-props to collapse the attackers' tunnel. Alternatively they could under-mine the attackers' tunnels and create a camouflet to collapse the attackers' tunnels. Finally if

640-535: A closed-in night combat environment. The Greek historian Polybius , in his Histories , gives a graphic account of mining and counter mining at the Roman siege of Ambracia : The Aetolians ... offered a gallant resistance to the assault of the siege artillery and [the Romans], therefore, in despair had recourse to mines and tunnels. Having safely secured the central one of their three works, and carefully concealed

720-572: A crater that afterwards measured 130 metres (430 ft) from rim to rim. Now known as the Pool of Peace, it is large enough to house a 12 m (40 ft) deep lake. On May 10, 1933, Paraguayan troops used a tunnel to attack in the rear of the Bolivian troops. They were victorious. The term tunnel war or tunnel warfare (地道战) was first used for the guerrilla tactic employed by the Chinese in

800-547: A degree of cover and allowed better logistics support . In addition to building underground shelters and covered supply routes for their soldiers, both sides also attempted to break the stalemate of trench warfare by tunneling under no man's land and placing explosive charges beneath the enemy's positions. Their efforts in high mountain peaks such as Col di Lana , Lagazuoi and Marmolada were portrayed in fiction in Luis Trenker 's Mountains on Fire film of 1931. On

880-509: A distance of about fifty yards they could be used to detect tunneling. The Kremlin had such tunnels. Since the 16th century, during assault on enemy positions, saps began to be used. The Austrian general of Italian origin Raimondo Montecuccoli (1609–1680) in his classic work on military affairs described methods of destruction and countering of enemy saps. In his paper on "the assaulting of fortresses" Vauban (1633–1707)

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960-453: A large secondary tank (or "sub-tank") to increase the range of the vehicle. A racing fuel cell has a rigid outer shell and flexible inner lining to minimize the potential for punctures in the event of a collision or other mishap resulting in serious damage to the vehicle. It is filled with an open-cell foam core to prevent explosion of vapor in the empty portion of the tank and to minimize sloshing of fuel during competition that may unbalance

1040-428: A minimum design consideration. While most tanks are manufactured, some fuel tanks are still fabricated by metal craftsmen or hand-made in the case of bladder-style tanks. These include custom and restoration tanks for automotive, aircraft, motorcycles, boats and even tractors. Construction of fuel tanks follows a series of specific steps. The craftsman generally creates a mockup to determine the accurate size and shape of

1120-513: A small "day tank" and a much larger bulk storage fuel tank. Proper design and construction of a fuel tank play a major role in the safety of the system of which the tank is a part. In most cases intact fuel tanks are very safe, as the tank is full of fuel vapour/air mixture that is well above the flammability limits , and thus cannot burn even if an ignition source were present (which is rare). Bunded oil tanks are used for safely storing domestic heating oil and other hazardous materials. Bunding

1200-631: A total of 227 mine explosions in one month – one detonation every three hours. Large battles, like the Battle of the Somme in 1916 (see mines on the Somme ) and the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917, were also supported by mine explosions. Well known examples are the mines on the Italian Front laid by Austro-Hungarian and Italian miners, where the largest individual mine contained a charge of 50,000 kilograms (110,000 lb) of blasting gelatin , and

1280-594: A tunnel and place a mine. As well as digging their own tunnels, the military engineers had to listen out for enemy tunnellers. On occasions miners accidentally dug into the opposing side's tunnel and an underground fight took place. When an enemy's tunnel was found it was usually destroyed by placing an explosive charge inside. During the height of the underground war on the Western Front in June 1916, British tunnellers fired 101 mines or camouflets, while German tunnellers fired 126 mines or camouflets. This amounts to

1360-459: Is 50–60 L (12–16 US gal). The most common materials for fuel tanks are metal or plastic. Metal ( steel or aluminium ) fuel tanks are usually built by welding stamped sheetmetal parts together. Plastic fuel tanks usually built using blow molding , which allows more complex shapes to be used. Some vehicles include a smaller reserve tank to be used when the main fuel tank is empty. Some other vehicles, typically 4WD vehicles, have

1440-788: Is often a feature, though usually a minor one, of urban warfare. A good example of this was seen in the Syrian Civil War in Aleppo , where in March 2015 rebels planted a large amount of explosives under the Syrian Air Force Intelligence Directorate headquarters. Tunnels are narrow and restrict fields of fire; thus, troops in a tunnel usually have only a few areas exposed to fire or sight at any one time. They can be part of an extensive labyrinth and have cul-de-sacs and reduced lighting, typically creating

1520-422: Is often required by insurance companies, rather than single skinned oil storage tanks. Several systems, such as BattleJacket and rubber bladders, have been developed and deployed for use in protecting (from explosion caused by enemy fire) the fuel tanks of military vehicles in conflict zones. For stationary fuel tanks, an economical way to protect them from hazards like extremes of temperature and vehicle crashes

1600-506: Is sapping the wall, where engineers would dig at the base of a wall with crowbars and picks. Peter of les Vaux-de-Cernay recounts how at the battle of Carcassonne, during the Albigensian Crusade, "after the top of the wall had been somewhat weakened by bombardment from petraries, our engineers succeeded with great difficulty in bringing a four-wheeled wagon, covered in oxhides, close to the wall, from which they set to work to sap

1680-635: The Battle of Corregidor , the third lateral on the north side from the Malinta Tunnel's east entrance served as the headquarters of General Douglas MacArthur and the USAFFE . Malinta Tunnel also served as the seat of government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines . At the vicinity of the tunnel's west entrance in the afternoon of 30 December 1941, Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña took their oaths of office as President and Vice-president of

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1760-775: The Illowra Battery and Drummond Battery . To the north of Sydney, in Newcastle , the Shepherds Hill military installations , a NSW state heritage-listed site , was built from 1890 to 1940 and consists of a former military gun battery emplacement, a 100 metres (330 ft) long tunnel and an observation post. As part of the strengthening of Newcastle's defense system, various new projects were undertaken at Shepherds Hill during WWII, such as accommodation for troops stationed. Fort Scratchley , which had close ties to Shepherds Hill, responded to an attack on Newcastle by

1840-545: The Philippines campaign (1941–1942) , Philippines President Manuel L. Quezon , General MacArthur, other high-ranking military officers and diplomats and families escaped the bombardment of Manila and were housed in Corregidor 's Malinta Tunnel . Prior to their arrival, Malinta's laterals had served as high command headquarters, hospital and storage of food and arms. In March 1942, several U.S. Navy submarines arrived on

1920-594: The Second Sino-Japanese War . The tunnel systems were fast and easy to construct and enabled a small force to successfully fight superior enemies. One particular tunnel network called the "Ranzhuang tunnel" evolved in the course of resisting Japanese counterinsurgency operations in Hebei . Particularly, the Chinese Communist forces or local peasant resistance used tunnel war tactics against

2000-670: The Siege of Petersburg by the Union Army of the Potomac, a mine made of 3,600 kilograms (8,000 lb) of gunpowder was set off approximately 6 metres (20 ft) under Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside's IX Corps sector. The explosion blew a gap in the Confederate defenses of Petersburg, Virginia , creating a crater 52 metres (170 ft) long, 30 to 37 metres (100 to 120 ft) wide, and at least 9 metres (30 ft) deep. The combat

2080-430: The Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855) underground fighting became immense. At first the allies began digging saps without any precautions. After a series of explosions caused by counter mine action the allies increased the depth of the tunnels but began to meet rocky ground and the underground war had to return to higher levels. During the siege Russian sappers dug 6.8 kilometres (4.2 mi) of saps and counter mines. During

2160-470: The Sydney Harbour . In the 1960s, there still existed some tables, papers on walls and old telephones, but the tunnel complex became abandoned and the roof timber set either decayed or it got consumed by termites . In the 1970s, the tunnels were renovated with new steel roof supports and concrete after the fleecy sandstone walls and timber struts became weathered . Today, the tunnels are primarily used for storage and to provide fuel and communication lines at

2240-572: The battles of the Western Pacific , they would maximize their capabilities by establishing a strong point defense, using cave warfare. The first encounter of the US Marines with this new tactic was the island of Peleliu . The invading marines suffered twice as many casualties as on Tarawa , where the old Japanese tactic of defending the beach had been employed. The pinnacle of this form of defense, however, can be found on Iwo Jima , where

2320-532: The tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers concentrated on constructing deep dugouts for troop accommodation. The largest single mines at Messines were at St Eloi , which was charged with 43,400 kilograms (95,600 lb) of ammonal , at Maedelstede Farm, which was charged with 43,000 kg (94,000 lb), and beneath German lines at Spanbroekmolen, which was charged with 41,000 kg (91,000 lb) of ammonal. The Spanbroekmolen mine created

2400-457: The Japanese (and later the Kuomintang during Chinese Civil War ). The tunnels were dug beneath the earth to cover the battlefield with numerous hidden gun holes to make a surprise attack. Entrances usually were hidden beneath a straw mat inside a house, or down a well. This allowed for flexible manoeuvers or exits. The main disadvantage of tunnel war was that usually the Japanese could fill

2480-417: The Japanese engineered the whole Mount Suribachi with many tunnels leading to defensive emplacements, or exits for quick counterattacks. Tunnel warfare by the Japanese forced the US Marines to adopt the "blowtorch and corkscrew" tactics to systematically flush out the Japanese defenders, one cave at a time. In Australia, the demand for protection from air attack became more serious in the early 1940s when there

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2560-588: The Pearl Harbor bombing, the five tunnels were constructed to provide an airstrike shelter for the 2,500 waterfront staff at Garden Island Naval Base, in case the Royal Australian Navy base that lies there were attacked. The tunnel system would have been able to protect the workers on Garden Island from 70 tons of bombs dropped within 24 hours. Though the tunnels did not provide room for the public population, as civilians could have sought cover in

2640-705: The Philippine Commonwealth in simple ceremonies attended by members of the garrison. On the Korean Peninsula , the underground war reached a massive scale. From experience in the Second World War, the US relied upon aviation. North Korean forces suffered heavy losses from air strikes which obliged them to construct underground shelters. Initially underground fortifications were built independently by individual units and their placement

2720-722: The Romans were themselves on the defensive the large underground aqueduct system was used in the defense of Rome , as well as to evacuate fleeing leaders. The use of tunnels as a means of guerrilla-like warfare against the Roman Empire was also a common practice of the Jewish rebels in Judea during the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 AD). With time the Romans understood that efforts should be made to expose these tunnels. Once an entrance

2800-407: The Western Front, the main objective of tunnel warfare was to place large quantities of explosives beneath enemy defensive positions. When it was detonated, the explosion would destroy that section of the trench. The infantry would then advance towards the enemy front-line hoping to take advantage of the confusion that followed the explosion of an underground mine. It could take as long as a year to dig

2880-597: The activities of the Tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers on the Western Front. At the beginning of the Somme offensive , the British simultaneously detonated 19 mines of varying sizes beneath the German positions, including two mines that contained 18,000 kilograms (40,000 lb) of explosives. In January 1917, General Plumer gave orders for over 20 mines to be placed under German lines at Messines . Over

2960-474: The advantage of wider terrain. Hidden trenches to assemble for surprise attacks were dug, connected via tunnels for secure fallback. In action, often barriers were used to prevent the enemy from pursuing. Roman legions entering the country soon learned to fear this warfare, as the ambushing of marching columns caused high casualties. Therefore, they approached possibly fortified areas very carefully, giving time to evaluate, assemble troops and organize them. When

3040-490: The battle, and four were outside the area of the offensive. On 17 July 1955, a lightning strike set off one of these four latter mines. There were no human casualties, but one cow was killed. Another of the unused mines is believed to have been found in a location beneath a farmhouse, but no attempt has been made to remove it. The last mine fired by the British in World War I was near Givenchy on 10 August 1917, after which

3120-402: The city, the commanders of the besieged garrison set to work vigorously digging a trench inside, parallel to the wall and to the stoa which faced the towers. When the trench was made to the required depth, they next placed in a row along the side of the trench nearest the wall a number of brazen vessels made very thin; and, as they walked along the bottom of the trench past these, they listened for

3200-510: The city, the defenders used large bellows to pump smoke into the tunnels in order to suffocate the intruders. In warfare during the Middle Ages , a "mine" was a tunnel dug to bring down castles and other fortifications. Attackers used this technique when the fortification was not built on solid rock, developing it as a response to stone-built castles that could not be burned like earlier-style wooden forts. A tunnel would be excavated under

3280-424: The crater was formed, but the attackers were eventually forced to withdraw. The increased firepower that came with the use of smokeless powder , cordite and dynamite by the end of the 19th century made it very expensive to build above-ground fortifications that could withstand any attack. As a result, fortifications were covered with earth and eventually were built entirely underground to maximize protection. For

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3360-489: The creator of the French School of Fortification gave a theory of mine attack and how to calculate various saps and the amount of gunpowder needed for explosions. As early as 1840 Eduard Totleben and Schilder-Schuldner had been engaged on questions of organisation and conduct of underground attacks. They began to use electric current to disrupt charges. Special boring instruments of complex design were developed. In

3440-422: The end of the fabrication process. Baffles and ends can be riveted into place. The heads of the rivets are frequently brazed or soldered to prevent tank leaks. Ends can then be hemmed in and soldered, or flanged and brazed (and/or sealed with an epoxy-type sealant) or the ends can be flanged and then welded. Once the soldering, brazing or welding is complete, the fuel tank is leak-tested. In the aerospace industry,

3520-570: The higher inner walls. A major change took place in the art of tunnel warfare in the 15th century in Italy with the development of gunpowder , since its use reduced the effort required to undermine a wall while also increasing lethality. Ivan the Terrible took Kazan with the use of gunpowder explosions to undermine its walls. Many fortresses built counter mine galleries, "hearing tunnels" which were used to listen for enemy mines being built. At

3600-522: The holes or pour water in to suffocate the soldiers inside the tunnels. This proved to be a major problem but was later solved by installing filters that would consume the water and poisonous gases. It is said that there were even women and children who voluntarily fought in the tunnels. The movie Tunnel War , which is based on the stories about fighting Japanese in tunnels, made tunnel warfare well known in China. More films were soon produced and adapted in

3680-399: The inertia and kinetic energy of fuel in a plastic tank being transported by a vehicle, environmental stress cracking is a definite potential. The flammability of fuel makes stress cracking a possible cause of catastrophic failure. Emergencies aside, HDPE plastic is suitable for short term storage of diesel and gasoline. In the U.S., Underwriters Laboratories approved (UL 142) tanks would be

3760-503: The little town of Prinassos , according to Polybius , "the ground around the town were extremely rocky and hard, making any siege-mining virtually impossible. However, Philip ordered his soldiers during the cover of night collect earth from elsewhere and throw it all down at the fake tunnel's entrance, making it look like the Macedonians were almost finished completing the tunnels. Eventually, when Philip V announced that large parts of

3840-447: The naval base from air raids . Some of the tunnels feature names such as Petticoat Lane (named after London's landmark ), North-West Passage and Lambeth Walk . The tunnel system featured a power station , a command centre , offices and air raid shelters. Today, the tunnels and chambers are used for electrical wiring and communications. Four days after the Japanese air-raided Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, excavation began on

3920-405: The naval base. As of October 2023, the defense base in the tunnels is going through a half-a-billion dollar, three-year infrastructure upgrade. The warship wharves have been adjusted, in addition to replacement of a fuel tank for the ships and improvement to the island's structure that includes fuel, electricity, sewerage and water, which run through the tunnels. A part of Petticoat Lane, which

4000-469: The navy, Billy Hughes , stated that he did not want to alarm people by having them think Sydney was about to be bombarded . Hughes organized over a hundred of brodie helmets for the air raid officers and as well as training them in case if a chemical warfare were to occur. A pit constructed in the 1800s would have been used to store provisions if the island were to be sieged . In December 1941, due to concerns that an aerial attack on Sydney could follow

4080-555: The next five months more than 8,000 m (26,000 ft) of tunnel were dug and 450–600 tons of explosive were placed in position. Simultaneous explosion of the mines took place at 3:10 a.m. on 7 June 1917. The blast killed an estimated 10,000 soldiers and was so loud it was heard in London. The near simultaneous explosions created 19 large craters and ranks among the largest non-nuclear explosions of all time. Two mines were not ignited in 1917 because they had been abandoned before

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4160-405: The noise of the digging outside. Having marked the spot indicated by any of these brazen vessels, which were extraordinarily sensitive and vibrated to the sound outside, they began digging from within, at right angles to the trench, another tunnel leading under the wall, so calculated as to exactly hit the enemy's tunnel. This was soon accomplished, for the Romans had not only brought their mine up to

4240-486: The north side of Corregidor. The Navy brought in mail, orders, and weaponry. During the re-taking of the island by U.S. forces in 1945, Japanese soldiers who had been trapped in the tunnel after the entrance was blocked as a result of gunfire from USS  Converse  (DD-509) began committing suicide by detonating explosives within the tunnel complex the night of 23 February 1945. The collapsed laterals resulting from these explosions have never been excavated. During

4320-477: The outer defenses either to provide access into the fortification or to collapse the walls. These tunnels would normally be supported by temporary wooden props as the digging progressed. Once the excavation was complete, the attackers would collapse the wall or tower being undermined by filling the excavation with combustible material that, when lit, would burn away the props leaving the structure above unsupported and thus liable to collapse. A tactic related to mining

4400-398: The proximate railway stations of Sydney . The tunnels were also used to transport guns and ammunition from one side of the island to the other side. The demand for protection from air attack became more serious in 1942, when Japan occupied Singapore on 15 February, and attacked Darwin on 19 February, and eventually, on 31 May, when three Japanese midget submarines entered and attacked

4480-473: The purpose of firing artillery and machine guns , emplacements had loopholes . Mining saw a particular resurgence as a military tactic during the First World War , when army engineers attempted to break the stalemate of trench warfare by tunneling under no man's land and laying large quantities of explosives beneath the enemy's trenches. As in siege warfare, tunnel warfare was possible due to

4560-463: The same period the allies dug 1.3 kilometres (0.81 mi). The Russians expended 12 tons of gunpowder in the underground war while the allies used 64 tons. These figures show that the Russians tried to create a more extensive network of tunnels and carried out better targeted attacks with only minimal use of gunpowder. The allies used outdated fuses so that many charges failed to go off. Conditions in

4640-484: The same setting. After the war, the Ranzhuang tunnel site became a key heritage preservation unit promoting patriotism and national defense education. Being a famous war tourism site in China, it attracted tens of thousands of visitors each year. Most of the villagers were working in tourism service industry, an industry worth US$ 700,000 each year. The first to copy tunnel warfare were the Japanese themselves. In

4720-438: The shaft with wattle screens, they erected in front of it a covered walk or stoa about two hundred feet long, parallel with the wall; and beginning digging from that, they carried it on unceasingly day and night, working in relays. For a considerable number of days the besieged did not discover them carrying the earth away through the shaft; but when the heap of earth thus brought out became too high to be concealed from those inside

4800-401: The siting of a castle could make mining difficult. The walls of a castle could be constructed either on solid rock or on sandy or water-logged land, making it difficult to dig mines. A very deep ditch or moat could be constructed in front of the walls, as was done at Pembroke Castle, or even artificial lakes, as was done at Kenilworth Castle. This makes it more difficult to dig a mine, and even if

4880-582: The static nature of the fighting. On the Western and Italian Front during the First World War , the military employed specialist miners to dig tunnels. On the Italian Front, the high peaks of the Dolomites range were an area of fierce mountain warfare and mining operations . In order to protect their soldiers from enemy fire and the hostile alpine environment, both Austro-Hungarian and Italian military engineers constructed fighting tunnels which offered

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4960-407: The surface, the many false targets (bunkers, trenches and decoy entrances to the tunnel system) made it difficult to detect true targets, forcing US forces to waste ammunition. Directly under the surface, spacious barracks were built, allowing whole units to be quickly brought to the surface for a short time and as quickly returned to shelter underground. Fuel tank A fuel tank (also called

5040-421: The tank, usually out of foam board. Next, design issues that affect the structure of the tank are addressed - such as where the outlet, drain, fluid level indicator, seams, and baffles go. Then the craftsmen must determine the thickness, temper and alloy of the sheet he will use to make the tank. After the sheet is cut to the shapes needed, various pieces are bent to create the basic shell and/or ends and baffles for

5120-419: The tank. Many fuel tanks' baffles (particularly in aircraft and racecars) contain lightening holes . These flanged holes serve two purposes, they reduce the weight of the tank while adding strength to the baffles. Toward the end of construction, openings are added for the filler neck, fuel pickup, drain, and fuel-level sending unit. Sometimes these holes are created on the flat shell, other times they are added at

5200-599: The town-walls were undermined, the citizens surrendered without delay." Polybius also describes the Seleucids and Parthians employing tunnels and counter-tunnels during the siege of Sirynx. The oldest known sources about employing tunnels and trenches for guerrilla-like warfare are Roman . After the Revolt of the Batavi , the insurgent tribes soon started to change defensive practices, from only local strongholds to using

5280-479: The tunnels in Potts Point . The tunnel system was approved at an estimated cost of £15,150. After Sydney's shelling in June 1942, this pushed the exigent to excavate the five interlinked tunnels and multiple chambers underneath the base's northern point. A second tunnel system that runs all the way to Kings Cross exists, but little is known about it. The Garden Island tunnels are perfectly straight, resembling

5360-404: The tunnels were severe: wax candles often went out, sappers fainted due to stale air, ground water flooded tunnels and counter mines. The Russians repulsed the siege and started to dig tunnels under the allies fortifications. The Russian success in the underground war was recognised by the allies. The Times noted that the laurels for this kind of warfare must go to the Russians. In 1864, during

5440-508: The underground rooms and tunnels were used to store ammunition), Henry Head Battery (which was constructed in 1892 and was re-employed during World War II to defend the approaches to Botany Bay ), the Middle Head Fortifications (a heritage-listed fort built in 1801), Malabar Battery (a coastal defense battery built in 1943) and the smaller Steel Point Battery . In Wollongong , just south of Sydney, there exists

5520-440: The use of Fuel Tank Sealants is a common application for high temperature integral fuel tanks. This provides excellent resistance to fluids such as water, alcohols, synthetic oils and petroleum-based hydraulic fluids. A larger fuel-tank results in a greater range for the car between refills, however the weight and space requirements of a larger tank are undesirable, especially in smaller cars. The average fuel tank capacity for cars

5600-476: The vehicle or cause inadequate fuel delivery to the motor ( fuel starvation ). The ship in a bottle fuel tank is a manufacturing design developed by TI Automotive in Rastatt, Germany wherein all fuel delivery components including the pump, control electronics and most hosing are encased within a blow-molded plastic fuel tank, and named after the traditional ship-in-a-bottle mechanical puzzle. The technique

5680-444: The wall". As in the siege of Carcassonne, defenders worked to prevent sapping by dumping anything they had down on attackers who tried to dig under the wall. Successful sapping usually ended the battle, since the defenders would no longer be able to defend their position and would surrender, or the attackers could enter the fortification and engage the defenders in close combat. Several methods resisted or countered undermining. Often

5760-399: The wall, but had under-pinned a considerable length of it on either side of their mine; and thus the two parties found themselves face to face. The Aetolians then countered the Roman mine with smoke from burning feathers with charcoal. - In essence an early form of chemical warfare . Another extraordinary use of siege-mining in ancient Greece was during Philip V of Macedon 's siege of

5840-423: The walls were breached, they could either place obstacles in the breach, for example a cheval de frise to hinder a forlorn hope , or construct a coupure . The great concentric ringed fortresses, like Beaumaris Castle on Anglesey , were designed so that the inner walls were ready-built coupures: if an attacker succeeded in breaching the outer walls, he would enter a killing field between the lower outer walls and

5920-553: Was accordingly known as the Battle of the Crater . From this propitious beginning, everything deteriorated rapidly for the Union attackers. Unit after unit charged into and around the crater, where soldiers milled in confusion. The Confederates quickly recovered and launched several counterattacks led by Brig. Gen. William Mahone . The breach was sealed off, and Union forces were repulsed with severe casualties. The horror of this engagement

6000-565: Was chaotic. Subsequently, underground fortifications were united into a single large system. The length of the front was 250 kilometres (160 mi) while the length of tunnels was 500 kilometres (310 mi); for every kilometre of front, there were two kilometres of tunnels. A total of 2,000,000 cubic metres (71,000,000 cu ft) of rocks were extracted. North Korea developed a theory of underground warfare. Manpower, warehouses and small calibre guns were completely housed underground making them less vulnerable to air strikes and artillery. On

6080-541: Was developed to reduce fuel vapor emissions in response to Partial Zero-Emission Vehicle (PZEV) requirements. Aircraft typically use three types of fuel tanks: integral, rigid removable, and bladder. Fuel tanks have been implicated in aviation disasters , being the cause of the accident or worsening it (fuel tank explosion ). For example: In some areas, an aircraft's fuel tank is also referred to as an aircraft fuel cell . Water supply systems can have primary or backup power supplied by diesel-fueled generators fed by

6160-596: Was discovered fire was lit, either smoking out the rebels or suffocating them to death. Well-preserved evidence of mining and counter-mining operations has been unearthed at the fortress of Dura-Europos , which fell to the Sassanians in 256/7 AD during Roman–Persian wars . Mining was a siege method used in ancient China from at least the Warring States (481–221 BC) period forward. When enemies attempted to dig tunnels under walls for mining or entry into

6240-476: Was portrayed in the Charles Frazier novel, and subsequent Anthony Minghella movie, Cold Mountain . During the Siege of Vicksburg , in 1863, Union troops led by General Ulysses S. Grant tunnelled under the Confederate trenches and detonated a mine beneath the 3rd Louisiana Redan on June 25, 1863. The subsequent assault, led by General John A. Logan, gained a foothold in the Confederate trenches where

6320-484: Was significant axis naval activity in Australian waters and when three Japanese midget submarines entered and attacked the Sydney Harbour in 1942. In Sydney in 1941, the Royal Australian Navy excavated a series of tunnels to shelter over 2,500 men working at the naval base from air raids , and as well as to transport guns and ammunition within the tunnels after the Australian government and people expected

6400-458: Was used to insulate boilers and pipage on ships, is gated off with a warning sign that indicates the presence of asbestos . Tunnel warfare Since antiquity, sappers have used mining against walled cites, fortresses, castles or other strongly held and fortified military positions. Defenders have dug counter-mines to attack miners or destroy a mine threatening their fortifications. Since tunnels are commonplace in urban areas, tunnel warfare

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