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38-754: It is mentioned in the 1513 treatise Obra de Agricultura by Gabriel Alonso de Herrera . It may have originated in the Alentejo region of Portugal, although it is now rare in that area. Cayetana Blanca was the third most planted white grape variety in Spain, with 39,919 ha (98,640 acres) in 2015, totalling 4% of the grapes and 9% of the white variety hectarage . Cayetana blanca is also known under several synonyms, including multiple spelling variant for each: Other synonyms include Aujubi, Dedo or Dedro, Hoja vuelta, Mariouti, Neruca and Tierra de Barros. However, some synonyms can lead to confusion. In Spain, Cayetana blanca

76-884: A BA in 1838 as a 4th Wrangler (the 4th highest scoring student in his graduating class, coming after James Joseph Sylvester who scored 2nd). Following his graduation, Green was elected a fellow of the Cambridge Philosophical Society . Even without his stellar academic standing, the Society had already read and made note of his Essay and three other publications, so Green was welcomed. The next two years provided an unparalleled opportunity for Green to read, write, and discuss his scientific ideas. In this short time he published an additional six publications with applications to hydrodynamics, sound, and optics. In his final years at Cambridge, Green became rather ill, and in 1840 he returned to Sneinton , only to die

114-492: A baptismal name. The youngest child was born 13 months before Green's death. Green provided for his (so-called) common-law wife and children in his will. When Green was thirty, he became a member of the Nottingham Subscription Library . This library exists today, and was likely the main source of Green's advanced mathematical knowledge. Unlike more conventional libraries, the subscription library

152-428: A copy and encouraged Green to do further work in mathematics. Not believing the offer was sincere, Green did not contact Bromhead for two years. By the time Green's father died in 1829, the senior Green had become one of the gentry due to his considerable accumulated wealth and land owned, roughly half of which he left to his son and the other half to his daughter. The young Green, now thirty-six years old, consequently

190-418: A fire if they ran out of grain to grind. Every month the stones, which weighed over a ton, would have to be replaced or repaired. In 1823 Green formed a relationship with Jane Smith, the daughter of William Smith, hired by Green Senior as mill manager. Although Green and Jane Smith never married, Jane eventually became known as Jane Green and the couple had seven children together; all but the first had Green as

228-519: A memorial stone for Green in the nave adjoining the graves of Sir Isaac Newton and Lord Kelvin. His work and influence on 19th-century applied physics had been largely forgotten until the publication of his biography by Mary Cannell in 1993. Recent historical research suggests that the pivotal figure in Green's mathematical education was John Toplis (c1774-1857), who graduated in mathematics from Cambridge as 11th Wrangler before becoming headmaster of

266-467: A visit to Nottingham in 1930, Albert Einstein commented that Green had been 20 years ahead of his time. The theoretical physicist Julian Schwinger , who used Green's functions in his ground-breaking works, published a tribute entitled "The Greening of Quantum Field Theory: George and I" in 1993. The George Green Library at the University of Nottingham is named after him, and houses the majority of

304-531: A year later. There are rumours that at Cambridge, Green had "succumbed to alcohol", and some of his earlier supporters, such as Sir Edward Bromhead, tried to distance themselves from him. Green's work was not well known in the mathematical community during his lifetime. Besides Green himself, the first mathematician to quote his 1828 work was the Briton Robert Murphy (1806–1843) in his 1833 work. In 1845, four years after Green's death, Green's work

342-556: Is also known as Jaén (including the variants Jaén blanco and Jaén rosado), but his is ambiguous since there are other varieties with the same name, such as Mencía (from El Bierzo and Ribeira Sacra ), which is known as Jaén colorado in Léon and as Jaen do Dão in Dão , Portugal, and Jaén tinto from Andalusia. In English sources Jaén with the Spanish accent often refers to Cayetana, while

380-561: The Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism in 1828. The essay introduced several important concepts, among them a theorem similar to the modern Green's theorem , the idea of potential functions as currently used in physics , and the concept of what are now called Green's functions . Green was the first person to create a mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism and his theory formed

418-493: The English town of Sneinton , Nottinghamshire, now part of the city of Nottingham . His father, also named George, was a baker who had built and owned a brick windmill used to grind grain. In his youth, Green was described as having a frail constitution and a dislike for doing work in his father's bakery. He had no choice in the matter, however, and as was common for the time he likely began working daily to earn his living at

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456-465: The Latin word tractatus , which is a form of the verb tractare , meaning "to handle," "to manage," or "to deal with". The Latin roots suggest a connotation of engaging with or discussing a subject in depth, which aligns with the modern understanding of a treatise as a formal and systematic written discourse on a specific topic. The works presented here have been identified as influential by scholars on

494-481: The Portuguese spelling without the accent ( Jaen ) refers to Mencía. Avesso , which may be related to Jaen, is also often mistaken for Cayetana blanca. Albillo Mayor ( Ribera del Duero ), Calagraño (La Rioja), Doradilla and Xarel·lo from Catalonia are commonly confused as well. Treatise A treatise is a formal and systematic written discourse on some subject concerned with investigating or exposing

532-513: The Robert Goodacre Academy. He stayed for only four terms (one school year), and it was speculated by his contemporaries that he had exhausted all they had to teach him. In 1773 George's father moved to Nottingham , which at the time had a reputation for being a pleasant town with open spaces and wide roads. By 1831, however, the population had increased nearly five times, in part due to the budding Industrial Revolution , and

570-722: The age of five. During this era it was common for only 25–50% of children in Nottingham to receive any schooling. The majority of schools were Sunday schools, run by the Church, and children would typically attend for one or two years only. Recognizing the young Green's above average intellect, and being in a strong financial situation due to his successful bakery, his father enrolled him in March 1801 at Robert Goodacre's Academy in Upper Parliament Street. Robert Goodacre

608-537: The city became known as one of the worst slums in England. There were frequent riots by starving workers, often associated with special hostility towards bakers and millers on the suspicion that they were hiding grain to drive up food prices. For these reasons, in 1807, George Green senior bought a plot of land in Sneinton. On this plot of land he built a "brick wind corn mill", now referred to as Green's Windmill . It

646-821: The development of human civilization. Euclid's Elements has appeared in more editions than any other books except the Bible and is one of the most important mathematical treatises ever. It has been translated to numerous languages and remains continuously in print since the beginning of printing. Before the invention of the printing press, it was manually copied and widely circulated. When scholars recognized its excellence, they removed inferior works from circulation in its favor. Many subsequent authors, such as Theon of Alexandria , made their own editions, with alterations, comments, and new theorems or lemmas. Many mathematicians were influenced and inspired by Euclid's masterpiece. For example, Archimedes of Syracuse and Apollonius of Perga ,

684-453: The forerunner of Nottingham High School 1806–1819, and lived in the same neighbourhood as Green and his family. Toplis was an advocate of the continental school of mathematics, and fluent in French, having translated Laplace's celebrated work on celestial mechanics . The possibility that Toplis played a role in Green's mathematical education would resolve several long-standing questions about

722-411: The foundation for the work of other scientists such as James Clerk Maxwell , William Thomson , and others. His work on potential theory ran parallel to that of Carl Friedrich Gauss . Green's life story is remarkable in that he was almost entirely self-taught. He received only about one year of formal schooling as a child, between the ages of 8 and 9. Green was born and lived for most of his life in

760-517: The geometry of three-dimensional objects such as polyhedra), number theory, and the theory of proportions. It was essentially a compilation of all mathematics known to the Greeks up until Euclid's time. Drawing on the work of his predecessors, especially the experimental research of Michael Faraday , the analogy with heat flow by William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) and the mathematical analysis of George Green , James Clerk Maxwell synthesized all that

798-427: The greatest mathematicians of their time, received their training from Euclid's students and his Elements and were able to solve many open problems at the time of Euclid. It is a prime example of how to write a text in pure mathematics, featuring simple and logical axioms, precise definitions, clearly stated theorems, and logical deductive proofs. The Elements consists of thirteen books dealing with geometry (including

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836-776: The late George Green for publication. Green's work on the motion of waves in a canal (resulting in what is known as Green's law ) anticipates the WKB approximation of quantum mechanics , while his research on light-waves and the properties of the Aether produced what is now known as the Cauchy-Green tensor . Green's theorem and functions were important tools in classical mechanics, and were revised by Schwinger 's 1948 work on electrodynamics that led to his 1965 Nobel prize (shared with Feynman and Tomonaga ). Green's functions later also proved useful in analysing superconductivity . On

874-461: The phenomenon of light dispersion where other models failed. John William Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) and Josiah Willard Gibbs then proved that the optical equations derived from Maxwell's theory are the only self-consistent description of the reflection, refraction, and dispersion of light consistent with experimental results. Optics thus found a new foundation in electromagnetism . Hertz's experimental work in electromagnetism stimulated interest in

912-522: The possibility of wireless communication, which did not require long and expensive cables and was faster than even the telegraph. Guglielmo Marconi adapted Hertz's equipment for this purpose in the 1890s. He achieved the first international wireless transmission between England and France in 1900 and by the following year, he succeeded in sending messages in Morse code across the Atlantic. Seeing its value,

950-597: The principles of the subject and its conclusions. A monograph is a treatise on a specialized topic. The word "treatise" has its origins in the early 14th century, derived from the Anglo-French term tretiz , which itself comes from the Old French traitis , meaning "treatise" or "account." This Old French term is rooted in the verb traitier , which means "to deal with" or "to set forth in speech or writing". The etymological lineage can be traced further back to

988-473: The shipping industry adopted this technology at once. Radio broadcasting became extremely popular in the twentieth century and remains in common use in the early twenty-first. But it was Oliver Heaviside , an enthusiastic supporter of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, who deserves most of the credit for shaping how people understood and applied Maxwell's work for decades to come; he was responsible for considerable progress in electrical telegraphy, telephony, and

1026-539: The sources of Green's mathematical knowledge. For example, Green made use of "the Mathematical Analysis", a form of calculus derived from Leibniz which was virtually unheard of, or even actively discouraged, in England at the time (due to Leibniz being a contemporary of Newton , who had his own methods that were championed in England). This form of calculus, and the developments of mathematicians such as

1064-427: The study of the propagation of electromagnetic waves. Independent of Gibbs, Heaviside assembled a set of mathematical tools known as vector calculus to replace the quaternions , which were in vogue at the time but which Heaviside dismissed as "antiphysical and unnatural." George Green (mathematician) George Green (14 July 1793 – 31 May 1841) was a British mathematical physicist who wrote An Essay on

1102-442: The university's science and engineering Collection. The George Green Institute for Electromagnetics Research , a research group in the University of Nottingham engineering department, is also named after him. In 1986, Green's Mill, Sneinton in Nottingham was restored to working order. It now serves both as a working example of a 19th-century windmill and as a museum and science centre dedicated to Green. Westminster Abbey has

1140-664: Was a well-known science populariser and educator of the time. He published Essay on the Education of Youth , in which he wrote that he did not "study the interest of the boy but the embryo Man". To a non-specialist, he would have seemed deeply knowledgeable in science and mathematics, but a close inspection of his essay and curriculum revealed that the extent of his mathematical teachings was limited to algebra, trigonometry and logarithms. Thus, Green's later mathematical contributions, which exhibited knowledge of very modern developments in mathematics, could not have resulted from his tenure at

1178-519: Was able to use this wealth to abandon his miller duties and pursue mathematical studies. Members of the Nottingham Subscription Library who knew Green repeatedly insisted that he obtain a proper University education. In particular, one of the library's most prestigious subscribers was Sir Edward Bromhead, with whom Green shared many correspondences; he insisted that Green go to Cambridge. In 1832, aged nearly forty, Green

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1216-427: Was admitted as an undergraduate at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge . He was particularly insecure about his lack of knowledge of Greek and Latin , which were prerequisites, but it turned out not to be as hard for him to learn these as he had envisaged, as the degree of mastery required was not as high as he had expected. In the mathematics examinations, he won the first-year mathematical prize. He graduated with

1254-423: Was confirmed by Heinrich Hertz . In the process, Hertz generated and detected what are now called radio waves and built crude radio antennas and the predecessors of satellite dishes. Hendrik Lorentz derived, using suitable boundary conditions, Fresnel's equations for the reflection and transmission of light in different media from Maxwell's equations. He also showed that Maxwell's theory succeeded in illuminating

1292-475: Was exclusive to a hundred or so subscribers, and the first on the list of subscribers was the Duke of Newcastle. This library catered to requests for specialised books and journals that satisfied the particular interests of their subscribers. In 1828, Green published An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism , which is the essay he is most famous for today. It

1330-553: Was known about electricity and magnetism into a single mathematical framework, Maxwell's equations . Originally, there were 20 equations in total. In his Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (1873), Maxwell reduced them to eight. Maxwell used his equations to predict the existence of electromagnetic waves, which travel at the speed of light. In other words, light is but one kind of electromagnetic wave. Maxwell's theory predicted there ought to be other types, with different frequencies. After some ingenious experiments, Maxwell's prediction

1368-426: Was published privately at the author's expense, because he thought it would be presumptuous for a person like himself, with no formal education in mathematics, to submit the paper to an established journal. When Green published his Essay , it was sold on a subscription basis to 51 people, most of whom were friends who probably could not understand it. The wealthy landowner and mathematician Sir Edward Bromhead bought

1406-451: Was rediscovered by the young William Thomson (then aged 21), later known as Lord Kelvin , who popularised it for future mathematicians. According to the book "George Green" by D.M. Cannell, William Thomson noticed Murphy's citation of Green's 1828 essay but found it difficult to locate Green's 1828 work; he finally got some copies of Green's 1828 work from William Hopkins in 1845. In 1871 N. M. Ferrers assembled The Mathematical Papers of

1444-583: Was technologically impressive for its time, but required nearly twenty-four-hour maintenance, which was to become Green's burden for the next twenty years. Just as with baking, Green found the responsibilities of operating the mill annoying and tedious. Grain from the fields was arriving continuously at the mill's doorstep, and the sails of the windmill had to be constantly adjusted to the windspeed, both to prevent damage in high winds, and to maximise rotational speed in low winds. The millstones that would continuously grind against each other, could wear down or cause

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