Korean shamanism , also known as musok ( Korean : 무속 ; Hanja : 巫俗 ) or Mu-ism ( 무교 ; 巫敎 ; Mugyo ), is a religion from Korea . Scholars of religion classify it as a folk religion and sometimes regard it as one facet of a broader Korean vernacular religion distinct from Buddhism , Daoism , and Confucianism . There is no central authority in control of musok , with much diversity of belief and practice evident among practitioners.
157-492: In Korean shamanism , Gasin ( Korean : 가신 ; Hanja : 家神 ; lit. God of the house) are a branch of deities believed to protect the various objects and rooms of the house, such as jangdok or the kitchen. The Gasin faith is the faith based on worshipping these deities. The worshipping of the Gasin form a central and integral part of the traditional Korean folk religion . The faith of Joryeong
314-441: A mudang who keeps the image. Musindo paintings range from being crude to more sophisticated. Traditionally they use colors associated with the five directions ( 오방색 ; obangsaek ): red, blue/green, yellow, white, and black. Painters who produce musindo are traditionally expected to adhere to standards of purity while producing these artworks, bathing beforehand and refraining from eating fish or meat. Since
471-441: A mudang who keeps the image. Musindo paintings range from being crude to more sophisticated. Traditionally they use colors associated with the five directions ( 오방색 ; obangsaek ): red, blue/green, yellow, white, and black. Painters who produce musindo are traditionally expected to adhere to standards of purity while producing these artworks, bathing beforehand and refraining from eating fish or meat. Since
628-590: A Shinto shrine during the Japanese occupation, at which it moved to Inwangsan , a mountain to the north of the city. The growing urbanisation of South Korea since the late 20th century has meant that many are now surrounded by other buildings, sometimes including other kuttang . The increasingly cramped nature of Korean urban living may have encouraged the increasing popularity of kuttang in isolated locations like mountains. Kuttang often operate as businesses. They rent out rooms for mudang to use,
785-534: A Shinto shrine during the Japanese occupation, at which it moved to Inwangsan , a mountain to the north of the city. The growing urbanisation of South Korea since the late 20th century has meant that many are now surrounded by other buildings, sometimes including other kuttang . The increasingly cramped nature of Korean urban living may have encouraged the increasing popularity of kuttang in isolated locations like mountains. Kuttang often operate as businesses. They rent out rooms for mudang to use,
942-463: A matriarchic entity called 'Josang Halmae', or 'Grandmother Ancestor'. Samsin is the goddess of childbirth. Her entity was believed to be bound to the Samsin Danji, a pot kept in the inner wing of the house. The pot was filled with rice, then covered in paper and sealed with a knot tied counterclockwise. However, some households perform Geongung Samsin, or the act of honoring Samsin only in
1099-483: A spirit medium , is sometimes used synonymously with mudang but at other times describes a distinct group of practitioners. Another term some mudang adopt for themselves is posal ( bosal ), originally a Korean term for a Buddhist bodhisattva , and which is favored more by female than male practitioners. Conversely, some mudang maintain that the term posal should be reserved for diviners who are possessed by child spirits but who do not perform
1256-483: A spirit medium , is sometimes used synonymously with mudang but at other times describes a distinct group of practitioners. Another term some mudang adopt for themselves is posal ( bosal ), originally a Korean term for a Buddhist bodhisattva , and which is favored more by female than male practitioners. Conversely, some mudang maintain that the term posal should be reserved for diviners who are possessed by child spirits but who do not perform
1413-527: A chest. In addition to entities associated with musok specifically, shrines may also include images of Buddhist deities. Alongside representations of such beings, shrines typically have candles, incense holders, and offering bowls; there may also be toys or dolls to amuse the child gods. The mudang's altar will also often be a place to store or display their ritual paraphernalia, such as costumes. To sustain their ongoing favor, mudang often worship their deities daily. Thus, they often bow when in
1570-527: A chest. In addition to entities associated with musok specifically, shrines may also include images of Buddhist deities. Alongside representations of such beings, shrines typically have candles, incense holders, and offering bowls; there may also be toys or dolls to amuse the child gods. The mudang's altar will also often be a place to store or display their ritual paraphernalia, such as costumes. To sustain their ongoing favor, mudang often worship their deities daily. Thus, they often bow when in
1727-644: A child getting into university, financial woes, business concerns, or physical ailments. Some clients turn to the mudang after being dissatisfied with the diagnosis or treatment administered by medical professionals. Although both sexes do consult mudang , most clients are female. From his fieldwork in the 1990s, Chongho Kim found that most clients were women in their late fifties and early sixties, while that same decade Kendall noted that most clients in Seoul and its environs were small entrepreneurs, such as owners of small companies, shops, and restaurants. By
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#17328021359241884-592: A child getting into university, financial woes, business concerns, or physical ailments. Some clients turn to the mudang after being dissatisfied with the diagnosis or treatment administered by medical professionals. Although both sexes do consult mudang , most clients are female. From his fieldwork in the 1990s, Chongho Kim found that most clients were women in their late fifties and early sixties, while that same decade Kendall noted that most clients in Seoul and its environs were small entrepreneurs, such as owners of small companies, shops, and restaurants. By
2041-443: A compulsion to go to a shrine or sacred mountain. Alternatively, they have described encounters with spirits, sometimes while wandering in a wild environment, or otherwise through dreams, with dreams and visions sometimes revealing which deities the future mudang is expected to serve. Once the person has accepted the calling, they must find an established mudang willing to train them. They become this person's apprentice,
2198-443: A compulsion to go to a shrine or sacred mountain. Alternatively, they have described encounters with spirits, sometimes while wandering in a wild environment, or otherwise through dreams, with dreams and visions sometimes revealing which deities the future mudang is expected to serve. Once the person has accepted the calling, they must find an established mudang willing to train them. They become this person's apprentice,
2355-400: A folk religion, a popular religion, and an indigenous religion . It is a non-institutionalized tradition, rather than being an organized religion akin to Buddhism or Christianity. It has no doctrine, nor any overarching hierarchy, and is orally transmitted. It displays considerable regional variation, as well as variation according to the choices of individual practitioners. Over time,
2512-400: A folk religion, a popular religion, and an indigenous religion . It is a non-institutionalized tradition, rather than being an organized religion akin to Buddhism or Christianity. It has no doctrine, nor any overarching hierarchy, and is orally transmitted. It displays considerable regional variation, as well as variation according to the choices of individual practitioners. Over time,
2669-510: A hereditary fashion, not all sesŭp-mu do so, while some kangsin-mu continue the role of a family member as if maintaining a hereditary tradition. Yun commented that dividing the mudang into distinct typologies "cannot explain complex reality." Certain regional terms are also used for the mudang . The sesŭp-mu are often called tanggol in Jeolla Province , and simbang on Jeju Island . The latter term
2826-446: A hereditary fashion, not all sesŭp-mu do so, while some kangsin-mu continue the role of a family member as if maintaining a hereditary tradition. Yun commented that dividing the mudang into distinct typologies "cannot explain complex reality." Certain regional terms are also used for the mudang . The sesŭp-mu are often called tanggol in Jeolla Province , and simbang on Jeju Island . The latter term
2983-472: A large assortment of offerings thus gives the impression of a financially successful ritual specialist. Deities are often believed to be present in all houses. Historical accounts often reference the presence of earthen jars ( tok , hangari , tanji ) filled with grain, or smaller baskets or pouches, as offerings to household deities and ancestors. This practice was declining in South Korea by
3140-412: A large assortment of offerings thus gives the impression of a financially successful ritual specialist. Deities are often believed to be present in all houses. Historical accounts often reference the presence of earthen jars ( tok , hangari , tanji ) filled with grain, or smaller baskets or pouches, as offerings to household deities and ancestors. This practice was declining in South Korea by
3297-518: A largely "residual" category into which all Korean religious practices that were not Buddhist , Confucian , or Christian were placed. Scholars like Griffin Dix, Kil-sŏng Ch'oe and Don Baker have conversely presented Korean shamanism as just one facet of "Korean folk religion," the latter sometimes called minsok chonggyo in Korean . Korean shamanism has varyingly been labelled a vernacular religion,
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#17328021359243454-417: A largely "residual" category into which all Korean religious practices that were not Buddhist , Confucian , or Christian were placed. Scholars like Griffin Dix, Kil-sŏng Ch'oe and Don Baker have conversely presented Korean shamanism as just one facet of "Korean folk religion," the latter sometimes called minsok chonggyo in Korean . Korean shamanism has varyingly been labelled a vernacular religion,
3611-438: A means of choosing specific locales for the placement of kuttang . Some are located at especially auspicious places, such as at an area below a mountain, the myŏngdang , where positive spiritual energy is thought to congregate. Kuttang sometimes move over time. The Kuksadang , which Kendall described as "Seoul's most venerable kuttang ", for instance was originally on South Mountain, before being displaced by
3768-438: A means of choosing specific locales for the placement of kuttang . Some are located at especially auspicious places, such as at an area below a mountain, the myŏngdang , where positive spiritual energy is thought to congregate. Kuttang sometimes move over time. The Kuksadang , which Kendall described as "Seoul's most venerable kuttang ", for instance was originally on South Mountain, before being displaced by
3925-499: A name for the religion. Alternative terms include mugyo , muijŭm , and mu . In Korea, the term misin ("superstition") is sometimes used for this religion, but is also applied to other religious and cultural practices like geomancy . While misin carries negative connotations in Korean culture, some mudang use it to describe what they do. Since the late 19th century, English language studies have referred to
4082-446: A name for the religion. Alternative terms include mugyo , muijŭm , and mu . In Korea, the term misin ("superstition") is sometimes used for this religion, but is also applied to other religious and cultural practices like geomancy . While misin carries negative connotations in Korean culture, some mudang use it to describe what they do. Since the late 19th century, English language studies have referred to
4239-499: A new financial venture, such as the opening of a mall or an office building. As well as being performed for clients, the mudang will sometimes perform these rituals for their own personal reasons; in the 1990s, for instance, the prominent mudang Kim Kŭm-hwa performed a kut for Korean reunification . Korean shamanism Korean shamanism , also known as musok ( Korean : 무속 ; Hanja : 巫俗 ) or Mu-ism ( 무교 ; 巫敎 ; Mugyo ),
4396-618: A number of myths that discuss the origins of shamans or the shamanic religion. These include, the Princess Bari myth, the Gongsim myth, and the Chogong bon-puri myth. Origin myths are often called ponp'uri . These narratives have been extensively collected and studied by Korean scholars. During a kut ritual held for the dead, an epic ballad called the Tale of Princess Pari
4553-400: A number of myths that discuss the origins of shamans or the shamanic religion. These include, the Princess Bari myth, the Gongsim myth, and the Chogong bon-puri myth. Origin myths are often called ponp'uri . These narratives have been extensively collected and studied by Korean scholars. During a kut ritual held for the dead, an epic ballad called the Tale of Princess Pari
4710-466: A practice perhaps originating in the late Joseon period. The kuttang will have a shrine keeper, who may be a mudang themselves. Other staff based there may include musicians called chaebi , cooks who prepare food for kut rituals, and a maid, the kongyangju , who is a trainee mudang yet to undergo their initiation rite. As well as spaces for ritual, kuttang also provide places for networking, allowing mudang to witness
4867-466: A practice perhaps originating in the late Joseon period. The kuttang will have a shrine keeper, who may be a mudang themselves. Other staff based there may include musicians called chaebi , cooks who prepare food for kut rituals, and a maid, the kongyangju , who is a trainee mudang yet to undergo their initiation rite. As well as spaces for ritual, kuttang also provide places for networking, allowing mudang to witness
Gasin faith - Misplaced Pages Continue
5024-404: A prescribed liturgy, and can last for up to several days. A kut is sponsored for a specific purpose. A kut may be arranged due to an illness, domestic quarrel, or financial loss. It might be undertaken to propitiate the spirit of a deceased family member, or to increase prosperity and good fortune; in the 21st century, it has become increasingly common to sponsor a kut to mark
5181-404: A prescribed liturgy, and can last for up to several days. A kut is sponsored for a specific purpose. A kut may be arranged due to an illness, domestic quarrel, or financial loss. It might be undertaken to propitiate the spirit of a deceased family member, or to increase prosperity and good fortune; in the 21st century, it has become increasingly common to sponsor a kut to mark
5338-508: A private home or in a kuttang shrine, often located on a mountain. The mudang divide into regional sub-types, the largest being the mansin or kangsin-mu , historically dominant in Korea's northern regions, whose rituals involve them being personally possessed by deities or ancestral spirits. Another type is the sesŭp-mu of eastern and southern regions, whose rituals entail spirit mediumship but not possession. Elements of
5495-404: A shrine in their home in which they host various gods and ancestors, sometimes set up in a cabinet. Shrines might alternatively be found outdoors, often incorporating a stone or old tree, while a mudang will often establish a temporary altar in a client's home. While each altar often has its own idiosyncratic elements, they are typically dominated by bright, primary colors, in contrast to
5652-404: A shrine in their home in which they host various gods and ancestors, sometimes set up in a cabinet. Shrines might alternatively be found outdoors, often incorporating a stone or old tree, while a mudang will often establish a temporary altar in a client's home. While each altar often has its own idiosyncratic elements, they are typically dominated by bright, primary colors, in contrast to
5809-456: A spirit realm, a practice not found in Korean traditional religion. Many scholars avoid the term "shaman" as a cross-cultural category altogether. Its application to Korean religion is controversial, with Chongho Kim deeming it "often unhelpful". The scholar Suk-Jay Yim proposed mu-ism as a more appropriate label than "Korean shamanism," while Dix thought "spirit mediumship" more suitable than "shamanism". Prior to Christianity's arrival in
5966-456: A spirit realm, a practice not found in Korean traditional religion. Many scholars avoid the term "shaman" as a cross-cultural category altogether. Its application to Korean religion is controversial, with Chongho Kim deeming it "often unhelpful". The scholar Suk-Jay Yim proposed mu-ism as a more appropriate label than "Korean shamanism," while Dix thought "spirit mediumship" more suitable than "shamanism". Prior to Christianity's arrival in
6123-588: Is mu , the latter synonymous with the Chinese word wu ( Hanja : 巫 ), also used for ritual specialists. Several modern mudang advocacy groups have adopted the term musogin , meaning "people who do mu ." While the term mudang can apply to a man or woman, specific terms for male musok specialists include paksu , or, more commonly used in the past, kyŏksa . Modern advocacy groups have also described supporters as sindo (believers, Hanja : 信徒 ) or musindo (believers in
6280-533: Is mu , the latter synonymous with the Chinese word wu ( Hanja : 巫 ), also used for ritual specialists. Several modern mudang advocacy groups have adopted the term musogin , meaning "people who do mu ." While the term mudang can apply to a man or woman, specific terms for male musok specialists include paksu , or, more commonly used in the past, kyŏksa . Modern advocacy groups have also described supporters as sindo (believers, Hanja : 信徒 ) or musindo (believers in
6437-439: Is a religion from Korea . Scholars of religion classify it as a folk religion and sometimes regard it as one facet of a broader Korean vernacular religion distinct from Buddhism , Daoism , and Confucianism . There is no central authority in control of musok , with much diversity of belief and practice evident among practitioners. A polytheistic religion, musok revolves around deities and ancestral spirits. Central to
Gasin faith - Misplaced Pages Continue
6594-651: Is accompanied with Mom Ogari , which are smaller potteries. The name of the ancestor or rice is put in the Mom Ogari. In the Yeongnam region, Jeseok Ogari and Mom Ogari is called Sejon Danji and Josang Dangsegi. In festivals and birthdays, the family holds a jesa to the Jeseok Ogari and Mom Ogaris. In the jesa, the family prays for good harvests and prosperity. Curiously, the Joryeong faith seems to be based on
6751-457: Is an economic activity, and they operate as free agents rather than members of an ordained clergy. For many practitioners, being a mudang is a full-time job on which they financially depend, although some fail to earn a living through this ritual vocation. To succeed financially, mudang must attract regular clientele, and to that end modern South Korean practitioners have advertised their services in brochures, fliers, newspapers, and on
6908-457: Is an economic activity, and they operate as free agents rather than members of an ordained clergy. For many practitioners, being a mudang is a full-time job on which they financially depend, although some fail to earn a living through this ritual vocation. To succeed financially, mudang must attract regular clientele, and to that end modern South Korean practitioners have advertised their services in brochures, fliers, newspapers, and on
7065-434: Is often a source of mistrust between clients and mudang . Concerns about money are heightened by the lack of an "institutional buffer" between the client and ritual practitioner, such as a temple or church. Most musok rituals center around altars —referred to as sinbang , harabŏjiŭibang , or pŏptang —and which serve as places for mudang to engage with supernatural beings. Mudang typically have
7222-434: Is often a source of mistrust between clients and mudang . Concerns about money are heightened by the lack of an "institutional buffer" between the client and ritual practitioner, such as a temple or church. Most musok rituals center around altars —referred to as sinbang , harabŏjiŭibang , or pŏptang —and which serve as places for mudang to engage with supernatural beings. Mudang typically have
7379-578: Is often recited. One of the common myths in Korean Shamanism is known as the Myth of Tangun. Tangun is sometimes considered the first mudang . This myth refers to the belief that God would come from heaven. This would result in the earth and heaven being unified. God and human beings would be unified as well. Korean Shamanism believes that the goddess mother of earth is married to the heavenly God. A common belief in Korean vernacular religion
7536-460: Is often recited. One of the common myths in Korean Shamanism is known as the Myth of Tangun. Tangun is sometimes considered the first mudang . This myth refers to the belief that God would come from heaven. This would result in the earth and heaven being unified. God and human beings would be unified as well. Korean Shamanism believes that the goddess mother of earth is married to the heavenly God. A common belief in Korean vernacular religion
7693-482: Is possible through prayer and devotion. The dead are regarded as intrinsically dangerous to the living as their touch causes affliction, regardless of whether they mean harm or not. Those who died prematurely or who feel their life was unfulfilled, such as grandparents who never saw their grandchildren, a first wife who was replaced by a second wife, those who died by drowning, and young people who died before they could marry, are all considered especially antagonistic to
7850-482: Is possible through prayer and devotion. The dead are regarded as intrinsically dangerous to the living as their touch causes affliction, regardless of whether they mean harm or not. Those who died prematurely or who feel their life was unfulfilled, such as grandparents who never saw their grandchildren, a first wife who was replaced by a second wife, those who died by drowning, and young people who died before they could marry, are all considered especially antagonistic to
8007-488: Is that spirits of the dead wander the human world before entering the afterlife. After death, the soul must stand trial in court and pass through gates kept by the Ten Kings. At this court, the dead are judged for their conduct in life. The Ten Gates of Hell are regarded as places of punishment for the wicked, typified by grotesque and gory scenes. According to the Princess Bari narrative, Ascension from Hell to Paradise
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#17328021359248164-431: Is that spirits of the dead wander the human world before entering the afterlife. After death, the soul must stand trial in court and pass through gates kept by the Ten Kings. At this court, the dead are judged for their conduct in life. The Ten Gates of Hell are regarded as places of punishment for the wicked, typified by grotesque and gory scenes. According to the Princess Bari narrative, Ascension from Hell to Paradise
8321-547: Is the sesŭp-mu of eastern and southern regions, whose rituals entail spirit mediumship but not possession. Elements of the musok tradition may derive from prehistory. During the Joseon period, Confucian elites suppressed the mudang with taxation and legal restrictions, deeming their rites to be improper. From the late 19th century, modernisers – many of whom were Christian – characterised musok as misin (superstition) and supported its suppression. During
8478-421: Is the core practice for most mudang , even those who have built celebrity status through their performance of staged kut . In some areas, including Jeju, clients are called tan'gol . Clients seek solutions to their practical problems, typically hoping that the mudang can ascertain the cause of misfortune they have suffered. Common reasons for doing so include recurring nightmares, concerns about
8635-421: Is the core practice for most mudang , even those who have built celebrity status through their performance of staged kut . In some areas, including Jeju, clients are called tan'gol . Clients seek solutions to their practical problems, typically hoping that the mudang can ascertain the cause of misfortune they have suffered. Common reasons for doing so include recurring nightmares, concerns about
8792-629: Is the deification of one's ancestors. The earliest mention of the faith is in the Samguk Sagi , a Medieval Korean history book, which mentions the 'golden chest' of Kim Alji , the first member of the Gyeongju Kim clan. This bears resemblance to modern ancestor worship. In the modern Honam region in southwest Korea, Koreans keep a large pot in the house, filled with rice. This is called the Jeseok Ogari , and holds rice. The Jeseok Ogari
8949-482: Is the deities who decide if a person is to become a mudang and that they will torment an individual with misfortune, illness or madness to encourage them into adopting the profession. This process is termed the sinŭi kamul ("the drought caused by the gods"), sinbyŏng ("spirit possession sickness"), or mubyŏng (" mu sickness"). Mudang have for instance reported partial paralysis and hallucinations before turning to this ritual vocation, or else
9106-482: Is the deities who decide if a person is to become a mudang and that they will torment an individual with misfortune, illness or madness to encourage them into adopting the profession. This process is termed the sinŭi kamul ("the drought caused by the gods"), sinbyŏng ("spirit possession sickness"), or mubyŏng (" mu sickness"). Mudang have for instance reported partial paralysis and hallucinations before turning to this ritual vocation, or else
9263-500: Is the goddess of the storage and wealth in Korean mythology and shamanism . She is one of the Gasin , or deities that protect the house. However, unlike other Gasin, who were believed to embody pots, paper, and other inanimate objects, Eopsin is special in that she appears in an animal form. This is because Koreans considered snakes and weasels, who ate mice and rats, holy. Munshin ( 문신 ; 門神 ; lit. Door god), known in
9420-468: The chagŭn mudang . Apprentices are usually aged over 18, although there are examples of children becoming apprentices. The apprentice of a mudang may be called their sinttal or sinddal (spirit daughter) if female, or sinadul (spirit son) if male. The mudang will be that novice's sineomeoni . The neophyte must ultimately perform an initiation ritual to open up malmun (the "gates of speech") that will allow them to receive
9577-468: The chagŭn mudang . Apprentices are usually aged over 18, although there are examples of children becoming apprentices. The apprentice of a mudang may be called their sinttal or sinddal (spirit daughter) if female, or sinadul (spirit son) if male. The mudang will be that novice's sineomeoni . The neophyte must ultimately perform an initiation ritual to open up malmun (the "gates of speech") that will allow them to receive
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#17328021359249734-622: The kut rituals of the mudang . Musok is polytheistic . Supernatural beings are called kwisin , or sin . The mudang divide these beings into two main groups, the gods and the ancestral spirits, although may use the term sin for all of them. Supernatural beings are seen as volatile; if humans do well by them, they can receive good fortune, but if they offend these entities then they may suffer. Devotees of these deities believe that they can engage, converse, and bargain with them. Each mudang will have their own personal pantheon of deities, one that may differ from
9891-622: The kut rituals of the mudang . Musok is polytheistic . Supernatural beings are called kwisin , or sin . The mudang divide these beings into two main groups, the gods and the ancestral spirits, although may use the term sin for all of them. Supernatural beings are seen as volatile; if humans do well by them, they can receive good fortune, but if they offend these entities then they may suffer. Devotees of these deities believe that they can engage, converse, and bargain with them. Each mudang will have their own personal pantheon of deities, one that may differ from
10048-406: The kut rituals to feast and entertain them. The mudang 's ability to perform their rituals successfully is deemed to come from myŏnggi ("divine energy") bestowed upon them by the deities. Thus, divine favor must be gained through purification and supplication, prayer and pilgrimage. Individual mudang can be regarded as having particular specialities. For the mudang , ritual
10205-406: The kut rituals to feast and entertain them. The mudang 's ability to perform their rituals successfully is deemed to come from myŏnggi ("divine energy") bestowed upon them by the deities. Thus, divine favor must be gained through purification and supplication, prayer and pilgrimage. Individual mudang can be regarded as having particular specialities. For the mudang , ritual
10362-492: The mudang as "shamans" and their practices as "Korean shamanism", a label rendered into Korean as shyamŏnijŭm . Introduced to English from the Tungusic languages at the end of the 17th century, the term "shamanism" has never received a commonly agreed definition and has been used in at least four distinct ways. A common definition uses "shamanism" to describe traditions involving visionary flights to perform rituals in
10519-437: The mudang as "shamans" and their practices as "Korean shamanism", a label rendered into Korean as shyamŏnijŭm . Introduced to English from the Tungusic languages at the end of the 17th century, the term "shamanism" has never received a commonly agreed definition and has been used in at least four distinct ways. A common definition uses "shamanism" to describe traditions involving visionary flights to perform rituals in
10676-415: The mudang have nevertheless long been marginalised. Disapproval of mudang , often regarded as charlatans, remains widespread in South Korea, especially among Christians. Musok has also influenced some Korean new religions, such as Cheondoism and Jeungsanism . The anthropologist Chongho Kim noted that defining Korean shamanism was "really problematic". He characterised "Korean shamanism" as
10833-415: The mudang have nevertheless long been marginalised. Disapproval of mudang , often regarded as charlatans, remains widespread in South Korea, especially among Christians. Musok has also influenced some Korean new religions, such as Cheondoism and Jeungsanism . The anthropologist Chongho Kim noted that defining Korean shamanism was "really problematic". He characterised "Korean shamanism" as
10990-404: The mudang is called kut . These are large-scale rites, characterised by rhythmic movements, songs, oracles and prayers. They are the only rituals in traditional Korean religion believed to give supernatural entities the ability to speak directly to humans, and are meant to create welfare, promoting commitment between supernatural beings and humankind. The purpose of a kut is to get
11147-404: The mudang is called kut . These are large-scale rites, characterised by rhythmic movements, songs, oracles and prayers. They are the only rituals in traditional Korean religion believed to give supernatural entities the ability to speak directly to humans, and are meant to create welfare, promoting commitment between supernatural beings and humankind. The purpose of a kut is to get
11304-494: The mudang occurred in South Korea from the late 1970s onward, especially as practitioners were associated with the minjung pro-democracy movement and came to be regarded as a source of Korean cultural identity. Musok is primarily found in South Korea, where there are around 200,000 mudang , although practitioners are also found abroad. While Korean attitudes to religion have historically been fairly inclusive, allowing for syncretism between musok and Buddhism,
11461-603: The mudang would be brought in on rarer occasions. Korea has seen particular syncretism between musok and Buddhism; mudang often identify as Buddhists, and commonly worship Buddhist deities, while some Korean Buddhist temples venerate deities traditionally associated with musok . In contemporary South Korea, it remains possible for followers of most religions (barring Christianity) to involve themselves in musok with little censure from their fellow religionists. Meanwhile, mudang based in Europe have merged
11618-550: The mudang would be brought in on rarer occasions. Korea has seen particular syncretism between musok and Buddhism; mudang often identify as Buddhists, and commonly worship Buddhist deities, while some Korean Buddhist temples venerate deities traditionally associated with musok . In contemporary South Korea, it remains possible for followers of most religions (barring Christianity) to involve themselves in musok with little censure from their fellow religionists. Meanwhile, mudang based in Europe have merged
11775-416: The mudang , and then engage in an introductory conversation. Through this, the mudang will hope to ascertain more about the client and their problems. The mudang then uses divination and trance visions to determine the source of their client's trouble; in musok , neglecting ancestors and gods is seen as the primary cause of affliction. The mudang may then try to convince their client of
11932-416: The mudang , and then engage in an introductory conversation. Through this, the mudang will hope to ascertain more about the client and their problems. The mudang then uses divination and trance visions to determine the source of their client's trouble; in musok , neglecting ancestors and gods is seen as the primary cause of affliction. The mudang may then try to convince their client of
12089-531: The musok tradition may derive from prehistory. During the Joseon period, Confucian elites suppressed the mudang with taxation and legal restrictions, deeming their rites to be improper. From the late 19th century, modernisers – many of whom were Christian – characterised musok as misin (superstition) and supported its suppression. During the Japanese occupation of the early 20th century , nationalistically oriented folklorists began promoting
12246-544: The sesŭp-mu tradition, teachings are often passed down hereditarily although in other instances a sesŭp-mu adopts a non-relative, rather than their child, as an apprentice. Not all practitioners want their children to follow them into the profession, however. When mudang do not wish a family member to continue their vocation, they may ensure that their ritual paraphernalia is burned or buried at their death; doing so severs any connection between their person deities and their surviving family. Serving private clients
12403-544: The sesŭp-mu tradition, teachings are often passed down hereditarily although in other instances a sesŭp-mu adopts a non-relative, rather than their child, as an apprentice. Not all practitioners want their children to follow them into the profession, however. When mudang do not wish a family member to continue their vocation, they may ensure that their ritual paraphernalia is burned or buried at their death; doing so severs any connection between their person deities and their surviving family. Serving private clients
12560-594: The Japanese occupation of the early 20th century , nationalistically oriented folklorists began promoting the idea that musok represented Korea's ancient religion and a manifestation of its national culture; an idea later heavily promoted by mudang themselves. In the mid-20th century, persecution of mudang continued under the Marxist government of North Korea and through the New Community Movement in South Korea. More positive appraisal of
12717-434: The hearth , her worship forms a minor part of the Gasin cult. She is believed to reside in the outhouse. Korean shamanism A polytheistic religion, musok revolves around deities and ancestral spirits. Central to the tradition are ritual specialists, the majority of them female, called mudang ( 무당 ; 巫堂 ) or mu ( 무 ; 巫 ). In English they have sometimes been called " shamans ", although
12874-432: The 17th and 18th centuries, Korean religion was rarely exclusivist, with many Koreans practising Daoism , Buddhism, Confucianism, and musok simultaneously. Despite shared underlying beliefs, these traditions undertook a "division of ritual and cosmological responsibility" between each other. Confucian rituals were for example primarily concerned with ancestor veneration and tended to be simpler and more regular, whereas
13031-432: The 17th and 18th centuries, Korean religion was rarely exclusivist, with many Koreans practising Daoism , Buddhism, Confucianism, and musok simultaneously. Despite shared underlying beliefs, these traditions undertook a "division of ritual and cosmological responsibility" between each other. Confucian rituals were for example primarily concerned with ancestor veneration and tended to be simpler and more regular, whereas
13188-576: The 1960s and 1970s. By the latter decades of the 20th century, cardboard boxes had become common receptacles for these household offerings. Some mudang have suggested that, because most South Koreans now live in apartments, the Sŏngju must be venerated in a way that ensures it is mobile and can be transported to a new home. Specialised buildings at which musok rituals are performed are called kuttang or kut dang ( 굿당 ) and are typically located on mountains. Kuttang are often identified on
13345-527: The 1960s and 1970s. By the latter decades of the 20th century, cardboard boxes had become common receptacles for these household offerings. Some mudang have suggested that, because most South Koreans now live in apartments, the Sŏngju must be venerated in a way that ensures it is mobile and can be transported to a new home. Specialised buildings at which musok rituals are performed are called kuttang or kut dang ( 굿당 ) and are typically located on mountains. Kuttang are often identified on
13502-413: The 1970s, musindo have commonly been produced in commercial workshops, although a small number of traditional artists remain in South Korea. After a mudang 's death, their musindo were often ritually de-animated and then burned during the 20th century. Some musindo have been donated to museums; certain musok practitioners believe that the deity leaves the image if that occurs. On
13659-413: The 1970s, musindo have commonly been produced in commercial workshops, although a small number of traditional artists remain in South Korea. After a mudang 's death, their musindo were often ritually de-animated and then burned during the 20th century. Some musindo have been donated to museums; certain musok practitioners believe that the deity leaves the image if that occurs. On
13816-518: The 20th century retained associations with measles and chickenpox . Popular cosmological deities include Ch'ilsŏng , the spirit of the seven stars of the Big Dipper , who is regarded as a merciful Buddhist figure that cares for children. Yŏngdŏng is a goddess of the wind, popular in southern areas including Jeju. The mountain god, or mountain gods more broadly, are called sansin , or sometimes sansillyŏng , and are typically seen as
13973-459: The 20th century retained associations with measles and chickenpox . Popular cosmological deities include Ch'ilsŏng , the spirit of the seven stars of the Big Dipper , who is regarded as a merciful Buddhist figure that cares for children. Yŏngdŏng is a goddess of the wind, popular in southern areas including Jeju. The mountain god, or mountain gods more broadly, are called sansin , or sometimes sansillyŏng , and are typically seen as
14130-542: The Internet. Some followers of musok are unhappy with this situation, believing that the practice has degenerated under capitalism and modernisation ; they feel that modern mudang display a more materialistic and self-interested approach than their historical predecessors. Many mudang report that they never wanted to take up the profession, resisting the calling due to the social disapproval that practitioners often face. However, musok teaches that it
14287-486: The Internet. Some followers of musok are unhappy with this situation, believing that the practice has degenerated under capitalism and modernisation ; they feel that modern mudang display a more materialistic and self-interested approach than their historical predecessors. Many mudang report that they never wanted to take up the profession, resisting the calling due to the social disapproval that practitioners often face. However, musok teaches that it
14444-461: The Korean peninsula, the latter in southern parts below the Han River . The kangsin-mu tradition later spread and by the late 20th century was dominant across South Korea, with its ritual costumes and paraphernalia being widely adopted. Lines between the sesŭp-mu and kangsin-mu are nevertheless blurred. Although the sesŭp-mu are typically presented as inheriting the role in
14601-405: The Korean peninsula, the latter in southern parts below the Han River . The kangsin-mu tradition later spread and by the late 20th century was dominant across South Korea, with its ritual costumes and paraphernalia being widely adopted. Lines between the sesŭp-mu and kangsin-mu are nevertheless blurred. Although the sesŭp-mu are typically presented as inheriting the role in
14758-584: The Seongjudok, or the pottery in which Seongju was considered to dwell, was filled with barley every spring and rice every autumn. However, in Jeollabukdo , the people practiced Tteunseongju, or worshipping Seongju only in thoughts. In other regions, Seongju was mostly believed to embody a piece of paper, which was attached to the central pillar. Every birthday or festival, a Jesa was done for Seongju, where housewives prayed for abundance and peace. Seongju
14915-405: The accuracy of this term is debated among anthropologists . The mudang serve as mediators between paying clients and the supernatural world, employing divination to determine the cause of their clients' misfortune. They also perform kut rituals, during which they offer food and drink to the gods and spirits or entertain them with storytelling, song, and dance. Kut may take place in
15072-527: The altar, they are usually considered the most important objects present. They are regarded as seats for the deities, literally manifesting the latter's presence rather than just visually depicting them, an idea similar to those found across much of Asia, as in Buddhism and Hinduism . As well as being invited to inhabit a painting, a deity may also be petitioned to depart it; they are sometimes believed to leave of their own accord, for instance if they abandon
15229-471: The altar, they are usually considered the most important objects present. They are regarded as seats for the deities, literally manifesting the latter's presence rather than just visually depicting them, an idea similar to those found across much of Asia, as in Buddhism and Hinduism . As well as being invited to inhabit a painting, a deity may also be petitioned to depart it; they are sometimes believed to leave of their own accord, for instance if they abandon
15386-468: The ancestors to convey messages directly to the living. Certain ancestral spirits can also form part of a mudang's personal pantheon. A personal spiritual guardian is the momju (plural momjusin ). The momjusin of male mudang are usually deemed female; those of female mudang are typically male. In Korean religion, a "fundamental cosmology" has influenced various traditions, including musok . Korean shamanic narratives include
15543-468: The ancestors to convey messages directly to the living. Certain ancestral spirits can also form part of a mudang's personal pantheon. A personal spiritual guardian is the momju (plural momjusin ). The momjusin of male mudang are usually deemed female; those of female mudang are typically male. In Korean religion, a "fundamental cosmology" has influenced various traditions, including musok . Korean shamanic narratives include
15700-514: The chief of which is Sŏngju, the principal house guardian. Others include T'oju taegum, who patrols the precincts of the household, Chowang the kitchen spirit, and Pyŏnso Kakssi, the protector of the toilet. Keeping these entities happy was traditionally regarded as the role of the housewife, and is achieved through offering them food and drink. These informal rituals do not require the involvement of mudang , who would only be called in for special occasions. Pollution caused by births or deaths in
15857-514: The chief of which is Sŏngju, the principal house guardian. Others include T'oju taegum, who patrols the precincts of the household, Chowang the kitchen spirit, and Pyŏnso Kakssi, the protector of the toilet. Keeping these entities happy was traditionally regarded as the role of the housewife, and is achieved through offering them food and drink. These informal rituals do not require the involvement of mudang , who would only be called in for special occasions. Pollution caused by births or deaths in
16014-692: The deities are called janggunsin , and typically take human form. The pantheon of deities, which has changed over time, is termed sindang , with over 130 musok divinities having been identified. The deities can be divided into those embodying natural or cosmological forces and those who were once human, including monarchs, officials, and generals. Some derive from Daoist or Buddhist traditions and others are unique to Korean vernacular religion. They are deemed capable of manifesting in material forms, as in paintings or statues, or as inhabiting landscape locations such as trees, rocks, springs, and stone piles. The anthropologist Laurel Kendall suggested that
16171-692: The deities are called janggunsin , and typically take human form. The pantheon of deities, which has changed over time, is termed sindang , with over 130 musok divinities having been identified. The deities can be divided into those embodying natural or cosmological forces and those who were once human, including monarchs, officials, and generals. Some derive from Daoist or Buddhist traditions and others are unique to Korean vernacular religion. They are deemed capable of manifesting in material forms, as in paintings or statues, or as inhabiting landscape locations such as trees, rocks, springs, and stone piles. The anthropologist Laurel Kendall suggested that
16328-455: The deities desire food and drink, spend money, and enjoy song and dance, and thus receive these things as offerings. Spirits of the dead are thought to yearn for the activities and pleasures they enjoyed in life; spirits of military generals are for instance believed to like dangerous games. The associations of particular deities can change over time; Hogu Pyŏlsŏng was for instance a goddess of smallpox , but after that disease's eradication in
16485-455: The deities desire food and drink, spend money, and enjoy song and dance, and thus receive these things as offerings. Spirits of the dead are thought to yearn for the activities and pleasures they enjoyed in life; spirits of military generals are for instance believed to like dangerous games. The associations of particular deities can change over time; Hogu Pyŏlsŏng was for instance a goddess of smallpox , but after that disease's eradication in
16642-429: The early 21st century, Sarfati observed, many young people had become clients of mudang as part of a spiritual search or for counselling. Clients do not generally regard themselves as being committed exclusively to musok , and may deem themselves Buddhists or Christians, but mudang often think that their rituals will please the spirits regardless of their client's beliefs. A client will often arrive, greet
16799-429: The early 21st century, Sarfati observed, many young people had become clients of mudang as part of a spiritual search or for counselling. Clients do not generally regard themselves as being committed exclusively to musok , and may deem themselves Buddhists or Christians, but mudang often think that their rituals will please the spirits regardless of their client's beliefs. A client will often arrive, greet
16956-436: The exterior by a t'aegŭk symbol, a circular swirl of red, blue, and yellow that symbolizes the cosmos. The main ritual room is called the kut bang , and often contains a table on which offerings are placed. Mudang often rent a kuttang to perform their rituals, especially if they do not have space for such rites in their home. Practitioners often believe that deities communicate with humans through dreams as
17113-436: The exterior by a t'aegŭk symbol, a circular swirl of red, blue, and yellow that symbolizes the cosmos. The main ritual room is called the kut bang , and often contains a table on which offerings are placed. Mudang often rent a kuttang to perform their rituals, especially if they do not have space for such rites in their home. Practitioners often believe that deities communicate with humans through dreams as
17270-763: The family compound and cause trouble. Villages traditionally had Jangseung , timber or occasionally stone posts representing two generals that guard the settlement from harmful spirits. On Jeju, these were constructed of volcanic rock and were respectively called the Harubang (grandfather) and Halmang (grandmother). Historically, villages would often hold annual festivals to thank their tutelary deities. These would often be overseen by local men and reflect Confucian traditions, although sometimes mudang did participate. In Korean society, rapid urbanisation has radically changed how people interact with their local deities. Korean vernacular religion includes household deities,
17427-708: The family compound and cause trouble. Villages traditionally had Jangseung , timber or occasionally stone posts representing two generals that guard the settlement from harmful spirits. On Jeju, these were constructed of volcanic rock and were respectively called the Harubang (grandfather) and Halmang (grandmother). Historically, villages would often hold annual festivals to thank their tutelary deities. These would often be overseen by local men and reflect Confucian traditions, although sometimes mudang did participate. In Korean society, rapid urbanisation has radically changed how people interact with their local deities. Korean vernacular religion includes household deities,
17584-500: The five cardinal points. Among the sinjang are historical figures like Ch'oeyŏng, Im Kyŏngŏp, Oh, and Chang, as well as more recent military figures; around Inchon , various mudang have venerated General Douglas MacArthur as a hero of the Korean War . Child deities are tongja . The Korean traditional cosmology also includes mischievous spirits called tokkaebi , and entities called tongt'o that can lodge in
17741-442: The five cardinal points. Among the sinjang are historical figures like Ch'oeyŏng, Im Kyŏngŏp, Oh, and Chang, as well as more recent military figures; around Inchon , various mudang have venerated General Douglas MacArthur as a hero of the Korean War . Child deities are tongja . The Korean traditional cosmology also includes mischievous spirits called tokkaebi , and entities called tongt'o that can lodge in
17898-429: The gods and spirits or entertain them with storytelling, song, and dance. Kut may take place in a private home or in a kuttang shrine, often located on a mountain. The mudang divide into regional sub-types, the largest being the mansin or kangsin-mu , historically dominant in Korea's northern regions, whose rituals involve them being personally possessed by deities or ancestral spirits. Another type
18055-491: The hearth in Korean shamanism . As the goddess of the hearth, the rituals dedicated to her were generally kept alive by housewives. She is no longer the subject of worship, but still remains one of the most famous Korean deities. Teojushin ( 터주신 ; 터主神 ) is the patron of the ground on which the house is built in the Gashin cult of Korea . She is also known as Jishin ( 地神 ), or 'earth goddess'. Eopsin ( 업신 ; 業神 )
18212-426: The household are believed to result in Sŏngju leaving, meaning that he must be encouraged to return through ritual. Sŏngju may also require propitiation if expensive goods are brought into the home, as he expects a portion of the expenditure to be devoted to him. Ancestral spirits are called chosang . Tutelary ancestors are termed tangju . Ancestors who may be venerated in musok rituals are broader than
18369-426: The household are believed to result in Sŏngju leaving, meaning that he must be encouraged to return through ritual. Sŏngju may also require propitiation if expensive goods are brought into the home, as he expects a portion of the expenditure to be devoted to him. Ancestral spirits are called chosang . Tutelary ancestors are termed tangju . Ancestors who may be venerated in musok rituals are broader than
18526-401: The idea that musok represented Korea's ancient religion and a manifestation of its national culture; an idea later heavily promoted by mudang themselves. In the mid-20th century, persecution of mudang continued under the Marxist government of North Korea and through the New Community Movement in South Korea. More positive appraisal of the mudang occurred in South Korea from
18683-449: The late 1970s onward, especially as practitioners were associated with the minjung pro-democracy movement and came to be regarded as a source of Korean cultural identity. Musok is primarily found in South Korea, where there are around 200,000 mudang , although practitioners are also found abroad. While Korean attitudes to religion have historically been fairly inclusive, allowing for syncretism between musok and Buddhism,
18840-521: The late 1980s there have been public lamentations of the dead involving simbang to mark those killed in the Jeju uprising of 1948. The mudang mediate between the human and supernatural worlds, doing so in an attempt to decrease human suffering and ensure a more harmonious life. Specifically, they interact with gods and ancestral spirits by divining their presence and will, performing small rituals to placate them and gain their favor, and overseeing
18997-471: The late 1980s there have been public lamentations of the dead involving simbang to mark those killed in the Jeju uprising of 1948. The mudang mediate between the human and supernatural worlds, doing so in an attempt to decrease human suffering and ensure a more harmonious life. Specifically, they interact with gods and ancestral spirits by divining their presence and will, performing small rituals to placate them and gain their favor, and overseeing
19154-737: The living and thus particularly dangerous. Meddlesome ghosts are thought to often enter the house on a piece of cloth, clothing, or bright object. A dead ancestor who has not been appropriately cared or has been given an unsuitable burial place is deemed likely to cause trouble for its living descendants. If a person suffers a tragic or untimely death, it is believed that their soul hovers between life and death and can cause misfortune for their family; they thus need to be dealt with through ritual. Terms for wandering spirits include jabkwi and kaeksa , and mudang are deemed best suited for dealing with them, because they can determine what they want and tell them to go away. On Jeju Island, since
19311-737: The living and thus particularly dangerous. Meddlesome ghosts are thought to often enter the house on a piece of cloth, clothing, or bright object. A dead ancestor who has not been appropriately cared or has been given an unsuitable burial place is deemed likely to cause trouble for its living descendants. If a person suffers a tragic or untimely death, it is believed that their soul hovers between life and death and can cause misfortune for their family; they thus need to be dealt with through ritual. Terms for wandering spirits include jabkwi and kaeksa , and mudang are deemed best suited for dealing with them, because they can determine what they want and tell them to go away. On Jeju Island, since
19468-541: The mind. The Samsin was given Jesas every festival or birthday, and also seven and thirty-seven days after delivery. When someone is pregnant or has given delivery, the room holding the Samsin Danji was sealed with ropes. The faith of Samsin is strongest in Jeju Island . Seongju is literally the 'Owner of the Castle'. As the deity of the actual house, he is one of the most common and most famous Gasin. In Jeollanamdo ,
19625-467: The most important spirits of the earth. Sansin is typically depicted as a man with a white beard, blue gown, and accompanying tiger. Water deities, or yong , are dragons deemed to live in rivers, springs, and the sea. The most senior dragon is the Yong-Wang (Dragon King) who rules the oceans. Spirits of military generals are sinjang , and include the obang changgun , the generals of
19782-410: The most important spirits of the earth. Sansin is typically depicted as a man with a white beard, blue gown, and accompanying tiger. Water deities, or yong , are dragons deemed to live in rivers, springs, and the sea. The most senior dragon is the Yong-Wang (Dragon King) who rules the oceans. Spirits of military generals are sinjang , and include the obang changgun , the generals of
19939-404: The muted earth tones traditionally predominant in Korean daily life. This home shrine may include paintings of deities, called musindo , taenghwa , musokhwa , or sinhwa . These paintings are particularly important in the musok traditions of Seoul and of the northwest provinces Hwanghae and P'yŏngan ; they were traditionally not found in parts of the south. Hanging above
20096-404: The muted earth tones traditionally predominant in Korean daily life. This home shrine may include paintings of deities, called musindo , taenghwa , musokhwa , or sinhwa . These paintings are particularly important in the musok traditions of Seoul and of the northwest provinces Hwanghae and P'yŏngan ; they were traditionally not found in parts of the south. Hanging above
20253-550: The need for a particular ritual to treat their problem. If a ritual fails to produce the desired result, the client may speculate that it was because of a bad performer, errors in the ritual, the presence of a ritually polluted attendee, or a lack of sincerity on their part. If the client feels the mudang has not successfully solved their problem, they may turn to another mudang . They may be disappointed or angry given their substantial financial investment; in some rare cases clients have sued mudang . The payment of money
20410-550: The need for a particular ritual to treat their problem. If a ritual fails to produce the desired result, the client may speculate that it was because of a bad performer, errors in the ritual, the presence of a ritually polluted attendee, or a lack of sincerity on their part. If the client feels the mudang has not successfully solved their problem, they may turn to another mudang . They may be disappointed or angry given their substantial financial investment; in some rare cases clients have sued mudang . The payment of money
20567-450: The pantheon of the mudang they trained under. This individual pantheon is the chusin , and a mudang may add new deities to it during their career. Some will be considered guardian deities, each referred to as a taesin . These deities bestow myŏnggi ("divine energy") upon the mudang , enabling the latter to have visions and intuition that allows them to perform their ritual tasks. In Korean traditional religion,
20724-450: The pantheon of the mudang they trained under. This individual pantheon is the chusin , and a mudang may add new deities to it during their career. Some will be considered guardian deities, each referred to as a taesin . These deities bestow myŏnggi ("divine energy") upon the mudang , enabling the latter to have visions and intuition that allows them to perform their ritual tasks. In Korean traditional religion,
20881-420: The presence of their home shrine, and then place offerings upon it. Some offerings, such as cooked rice, fruit, and water, may be changed daily; others, such as sweets, cigarettes, and liquor, may be replaced more infrequently. Mudang maintain that they provide offerings in thanks for the work their deities have brought them. For visiting clients, who may also place offerings at a mudang's home-shrine,
21038-420: The presence of their home shrine, and then place offerings upon it. Some offerings, such as cooked rice, fruit, and water, may be changed daily; others, such as sweets, cigarettes, and liquor, may be replaced more infrequently. Mudang maintain that they provide offerings in thanks for the work their deities have brought them. For visiting clients, who may also place offerings at a mudang's home-shrine,
21195-532: The purely patrilineal figures venerated in formal Korean ancestor veneration rites, the chesa . These broader ancestors may for instance include those from a woman's natal family, women who have married out of the family, or family members who have died without offspring. While both the musok rites and the Confucian-derived chesa entail communication with ancestors, only the former involves direct communication with these spirits, allowing
21352-464: The purely patrilineal figures venerated in formal Korean ancestor veneration rites, the chesa . These broader ancestors may for instance include those from a woman's natal family, women who have married out of the family, or family members who have died without offspring. While both the musok rites and the Confucian-derived chesa entail communication with ancestors, only the former involves direct communication with these spirits, allowing
21509-517: The relationship that mudang had with these spirit-inhabited sites was akin to animism . The highest deities are often deemed remote and little interested in human affairs. The governing god in Korean tradition, referred to as Hananim, Hanallim, or Hanŭnim, is deemed to rule the heavens but is rarely worshipped. Some of the more powerful deities can make demands from humans without any obligation to reciprocate. Other deities are involved in everyday human concerns and prayed to accordingly. Many of
21666-517: The relationship that mudang had with these spirit-inhabited sites was akin to animism . The highest deities are often deemed remote and little interested in human affairs. The governing god in Korean tradition, referred to as Hananim, Hanallim, or Hanŭnim, is deemed to rule the heavens but is rarely worshipped. Some of the more powerful deities can make demands from humans without any obligation to reciprocate. Other deities are involved in everyday human concerns and prayed to accordingly. Many of
21823-478: The rituals of other practitioners and observe different regional styles. Shrines dedicated to significant tutelary spirits are known as tang or pugundang . Historically, these were often the foci for local cults, such as those devoted to apotheosised heroes. In parts of South Korea, as on Jeju Island, new village shrines have continued to be created into the early 21st century, with various Jeju villages having more than one shrine. The central ritual of
21980-478: The rituals of other practitioners and observe different regional styles. Shrines dedicated to significant tutelary spirits are known as tang or pugundang . Historically, these were often the foci for local cults, such as those devoted to apotheosised heroes. In parts of South Korea, as on Jeju Island, new village shrines have continued to be created into the early 21st century, with various Jeju villages having more than one shrine. The central ritual of
22137-465: The shrine, deities may also be represented by sinsang , statues made of wood, plastic, clay, straw, or metal. Alternatively, deities may be represented by a white piece of paper, the kŭlbal or kŭlmun , onto which the entity's name is written in black or red ink. The deity may instead be seated in physical objects, including stones, clothing, coins, dolls, or knives; these may be concealed from view, for instance being wrapped in cloth or inside
22294-465: The shrine, deities may also be represented by sinsang , statues made of wood, plastic, clay, straw, or metal. Alternatively, deities may be represented by a white piece of paper, the kŭlbal or kŭlmun , onto which the entity's name is written in black or red ink. The deity may instead be seated in physical objects, including stones, clothing, coins, dolls, or knives; these may be concealed from view, for instance being wrapped in cloth or inside
22451-443: The southernly Jeju Island as Munjeon ( 문전 ; 門前 ) is the god of the door in Korean shamanism . The worship of Munshin is strongest in Jeju Island , where Munshin (known as Munjeon) is one of the most-worshipped deities; however, the worship of Munshin also exists in the mainland. Cheuksin ( 측신 ; 廁神 ) is the toilet goddess of Korean mythology . Unlike better-known household deities such as Jowangshin , god of
22608-470: The supernatural beings to communicate, expressing what it is that they want and why they are angry. There is regional diversity in the styles of kut , although some mudang mix these different styles, with each kut displaying features unique to its particular circumstances. Central to musok rituals is a reciprocal transaction between humans and supernatural entities. These rituals are typically performance-focused, rather than being rooted in
22765-470: The supernatural beings to communicate, expressing what it is that they want and why they are angry. There is regional diversity in the styles of kut , although some mudang mix these different styles, with each kut displaying features unique to its particular circumstances. Central to musok rituals is a reciprocal transaction between humans and supernatural entities. These rituals are typically performance-focused, rather than being rooted in
22922-502: The tradition are ritual specialists, the majority of them female, called mudang ( 무당 ; 巫堂 ) or mu ( 무 ; 巫 ). In English they have sometimes been called " shamans ", although the accuracy of this term is debated among anthropologists . The mudang serve as mediators between paying clients and the supernatural world, employing divination to determine the cause of their clients' misfortune. They also perform kut rituals, during which they offer food and drink to
23079-467: The tradition has displayed both continuity and change. One term commonly used for this tradition is musok (" mu folklore"), coined by the folklorist Yi Nŭnghwa. Although developed during the Japanese colonial period, when it was employed with derogatory connotations, the term has since become popular with the Korean population and with scholars; the Korean studies scholar Antonetta L. Bruno for instance capitalised it as Musok to serve as
23236-467: The tradition has displayed both continuity and change. One term commonly used for this tradition is musok (" mu folklore"), coined by the folklorist Yi Nŭnghwa. Although developed during the Japanese colonial period, when it was employed with derogatory connotations, the term has since become popular with the Korean population and with scholars; the Korean studies scholar Antonetta L. Bruno for instance capitalised it as Musok to serve as
23393-525: The tradition with New Age elements. Central to musok are those whom the anthropologist Kyoim Yun called "ritual specialists who mediate between their clients and the invisible" forces of the supernatural. The most common Korean term for these specialists is mudang , a label that encompasses various "folk religion practitioners" across the peninsula. Although commonly used, the term mudang carries derogatory connotations in Korean culture and thus some practitioners avoid it. An alternative term
23550-525: The tradition with New Age elements. Central to musok are those whom the anthropologist Kyoim Yun called "ritual specialists who mediate between their clients and the invisible" forces of the supernatural. The most common Korean term for these specialists is mudang , a label that encompasses various "folk religion practitioners" across the peninsula. Although commonly used, the term mudang carries derogatory connotations in Korean culture and thus some practitioners avoid it. An alternative term
23707-440: The ways of mu , Hanja : 巫信徒 ). Mudang are often divided into two broad types: the kangsin-mu , or "god-descended" mu , and the sesŭp-mu or "hereditary" mu . The former engage in rituals in which they describe being possessed by supernatural entities; the latter's rituals involve interaction with these entities but not possession. The former was historically more common in northern and central parts of
23864-440: The ways of mu , Hanja : 巫信徒 ). Mudang are often divided into two broad types: the kangsin-mu , or "god-descended" mu , and the sesŭp-mu or "hereditary" mu . The former engage in rituals in which they describe being possessed by supernatural entities; the latter's rituals involve interaction with these entities but not possession. The former was historically more common in northern and central parts of
24021-605: The words of the spirits. This rite is called the naerim kut . It involves the neophyte performing the appropriate chants, dances, and oracles to invoke and convey inspiration from the deities. If the initiate fails to perform this correctly, with the deities failing to open their malmun , they will have to perform it again. Many mudang perform multiple naerim kut before being recognised as properly initiated ritual specialists. Those mudang who fail to learn how to deal with supernatural entities correctly are sometimes called ōngt'ōri by other practitioners. In
24178-605: The words of the spirits. This rite is called the naerim kut . It involves the neophyte performing the appropriate chants, dances, and oracles to invoke and convey inspiration from the deities. If the initiate fails to perform this correctly, with the deities failing to open their malmun , they will have to perform it again. Many mudang perform multiple naerim kut before being recognised as properly initiated ritual specialists. Those mudang who fail to learn how to deal with supernatural entities correctly are sometimes called ōngt'ōri by other practitioners. In
24335-497: Was first recorded in the 15th century, used for mudang on the Korean mainland, but by the early 19th century was exclusively used for practitioners on Jeju. An alternative term for the kangsin-mu is mansin , a term meaning "ten thousand spirits/gods", and which has less derogatory connotations than the label mudang . Other terms sometimes used for mudang may elsewhere be restricted to different types of Korean ritual specialist. The term yeongmae , describing
24492-497: Was first recorded in the 15th century, used for mudang on the Korean mainland, but by the early 19th century was exclusively used for practitioners on Jeju. An alternative term for the kangsin-mu is mansin , a term meaning "ten thousand spirits/gods", and which has less derogatory connotations than the label mudang . Other terms sometimes used for mudang may elsewhere be restricted to different types of Korean ritual specialist. The term yeongmae , describing
24649-412: Was worshipped with other Gasin; however, when a new family was formed, or when a family moved to another residence, Seongju was for a time the only Gasin worshipped. Seongju is generally considered to be the greatest of the Gasin. The gut dedicated to him is one of the most famous, and he is believed to guard the eldest male member of the family. Jowangshin ( 조왕신 ; 竈王神 ) is the goddess of fire and
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