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64-444: An advantage of gasification is that syngas can be more efficient than direct combustion of the original feedstock material because it can be combusted at higher temperatures so that the thermodynamic upper limit to the efficiency defined by Carnot's rule is higher. Syngas may also be used as the hydrogen source in fuel cells, however the syngas produced by most gasification systems requires additional processing and reforming to remove

128-425: A solid particulate substance (usually present in a holding vessel) is under the right conditions so that it behaves like a fluid . The usual way to achieve a fluidized bed is to pump pressurized fluid into the particles. The resulting medium then has many properties and characteristics of normal fluids, such as the ability to free-flow under gravity, or to be pumped using fluid technologies. The resulting phenomenon

192-451: A decreased bulk density. Most powder-catalyzed beds utilize this group. Group B The particle size lies between 40 and 500 μm and the particle density between 1.4-4g/cm . Bubbling typically forms directly at incipient fluidisation. Group C This group contains extremely fine and consequently the most cohesive particles. With a size of 20 to 30 μm, these particles fluidise under very difficult to achieve conditions, and may require

256-434: A diagram of solid-fluid density difference and particle size. Design methods for fluidised beds can be tailored based upon the particle's Geldart grouping: Group A For this group the particle size is between 20 and 100 μm, and the particle density is typically less than 1.4g/cm . Prior to the initiation of a bubbling bed phase, beds from these particles will expand by a factor of 2 to 3 at incipient fluidisation, due to

320-571: A few industrial scale biomass gasification plants. Since 2008 in Svenljunga, Sweden, a biomass gasification plant generates up to 14 MW th , supplying industries and citizens of Svenljunga with process steam and district heating , respectively. The gasifier uses biomass fuels such as CCA or creosote impregnated waste wood and other kinds of recycled wood to produces syngas that is combusted on site. Examples of demonstration projects include: Syngas Syngas , or synthesis gas ,

384-425: A flexible option for thermal applications, as they can be retrofitted into existing gas fueled devices such as ovens , furnaces , boilers , etc., where syngas may replace fossil fuels. Heating values of syngas are generally around 4–10 MJ/m. Currently Industrial-scale gasification is primarily used to produce electricity from fossil fuels such as coal, where the syngas is burned in a gas turbine. Gasification

448-450: A fluid of catalytic type; that's why it is also used to catalyse the chemical reaction and also to improve the rate of reaction. Fluidized beds are also used for efficient bulk drying of materials. Fluidized bed technology in dryers increases efficiency by allowing for the entire surface of the drying material to be suspended and therefore exposed to the air. This process can also be combined with heating or cooling, if necessary, according to

512-442: A fuel slurry is gasified with oxygen (much less frequent: air) in co-current flow. The gasification reactions take place in a dense cloud of very fine particles. Most coals are suitable for this type of gasifier because of the high operating temperatures and because the coal particles are well separated from one another. The high temperatures and pressures also mean that a higher throughput can be achieved, however thermal efficiency

576-638: A handful have been implemented as plants processing real waste, and most of the time in combination with fossil fuels. One plant (in Chiba , Japan, using the Thermoselect process) has been processing industrial waste with natural gas and purified oxygen since year 2000, but has not yet documented positive net energy production from the process. In 2007 Ze-gen erected a waste gasification demonstration facility in New Bedford, Massachusetts . The facility

640-527: A limited amount of oxygen or air is introduced into the reactor to allow some of the organic material to be "burned" to produce carbon dioxide and energy, which drives a second reaction that converts further organic material to hydrogen and additional carbon dioxide. Further reactions occur when the formed carbon monoxide and residual water from the organic material react to form methane and excess carbon dioxide (4CO + 2H 2 O → CH 4 + 3CO 2 ). This third reaction occurs more abundantly in reactors that increase

704-446: A liquid) is greatly enhanced when compared to packed beds . This behavior in fluidised combustion beds enables good thermal transport inside the system and good heat transfer between the bed and its container. Similarly to the good heat transfer, which enables thermal uniformity analogous to that of a well mixed gas, the bed can have a significant heat-capacity whilst maintaining a homogeneous temperature field. Fluidized beds are used as

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768-620: A million cars were built or rebuilt to run on wood gas). Syngas is produced by steam reforming or partial oxidation of natural gas or liquid hydrocarbons, or coal gasification . C + H 2 O → CO + H 2 CO + H 2 O → CO 2 + H 2 C + CO 2 → 2CO Steam reforming of methane is an endothermic reaction requiring 206 kJ/mol of methane: In principle, but rarely in practice, biomass and related hydrocarbon feedstocks could be used to generate biogas and biochar in waste-to-energy gasification facilities. The gas generated (mostly methane and carbon dioxide)

832-420: A packed bed to a fluidised condition, the gas velocity is continually raised. For a free-standing bed there will exist a point, known as the minimum or incipient fluidisation point, whereby the bed's mass is suspended directly by the flow of the fluid stream. The corresponding fluid velocity, known as the "minimum fluidisation velocity", u m f {\displaystyle u_{mf}} . Beyond

896-422: A permeable bed, although recent developments have reduced these restrictions to some extent. The throughput for this type of gasifier is relatively low. Thermal efficiency is high as the temperatures in the gas exit are relatively low. However, this means that tar and methane production is significant at typical operation temperatures, so product gas must be extensively cleaned before use. The tar can be recycled to

960-422: A significant role in a renewable energy economy, because biomass production removes the same amount of CO 2 from the atmosphere as is emitted from gasification and combustion. While other biofuel technologies such as biogas and biodiesel are carbon neutral , gasification in principle may run on a wider variety of input materials and can be used to produce a wider variety of output fuels. There are at present

1024-702: A technical process which has the ability to promote high levels of contact between gases and solids. In a fluidised bed a characteristic set of basic properties can be utilised, indispensable to modern process and chemical engineering, these properties include: Taking an example from the food processing industry: Fluidized beds are used to accelerate freezing in some individually quick frozen (IQF) tunnel freezers . These Fluidized bed tunnels are typically used on small food products like peas, shrimp or sliced vegetables, and may use cryogenic or vapor-compression refrigeration . The fluid used in Fluidized beds may also contain

1088-520: A variety of biomass and waste-derived feedstocks can be gasified, with wood pellets and chips, waste wood, plastics and aluminium, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), Refuse-derived fuel (RDF), agricultural and industrial wastes, sewage sludge, switch grass, discarded seed corn, corn stover and other crop residues all being used. Chemrec has developed a process for gasification of black liquor . Waste gasification has several advantages over incineration: A major challenge for waste gasification technologies

1152-551: Is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide , in various ratios. The gas often contains some carbon dioxide and methane . It is principally used for producing ammonia or methanol . Syngas is combustible and can be used as a fuel. Historically, it has been used as a replacement for gasoline , when gasoline supply has been limited; for example, wood gas was used to power cars in Europe during WWII (in Germany alone half

1216-461: Is a plant with seven different processes: biomass processing, fuel delivery, gasification, gas cleaning, waste disposal, electricity generation and heat recovery. Diesel engines can be operated on dual fuel mode using producer gas. Diesel substitution of over 80% at high loads and 70–80% under normal load variations can easily be achieved. Spark ignition engines and solid oxide fuel cells can operate on 100% gasification gas. Mechanical energy from

1280-593: Is a precursor to acetic acid and many acetates; liquid fuels and lubricants via the Fischer–Tropsch process and previously the Mobil methanol to gasoline process; ammonia via the Haber process , which converts atmospheric nitrogen (N 2 ) into ammonia which is used as a fertilizer ; and oxo alcohols via an intermediate aldehyde. Fluidized bed A fluidized bed is a physical phenomenon that occurs when

1344-421: Is also used industrially in the production of electricity, ammonia and liquid fuels (oil) using Integrated Gasification Combined Cycles ( IGCC ), with the possibility of producing methane and hydrogen for fuel cells. IGCC is also a more efficient method of CO 2 capture as compared to conventional technologies. IGCC demonstration plants have been operating since the early 1970s and some of the plants constructed in

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1408-547: Is called fluidization . Fluidized beds are used for several purposes, such as fluidized bed reactors (types of chemical reactors ), solids separation, fluid catalytic cracking , fluidized bed combustion , heat or mass transfer or interface modification, such as applying a coating onto solid items. This technique is also becoming more common in aquaculture for the production of shellfish in integrated multi-trophic aquaculture systems. A fluidized bed consists of fluid-solid mixture that exhibits fluid-like properties. As such,

1472-593: Is currently widely used on industrial scales to generate electricity. Gasification can generate lower amounts of some pollutants as SO x and NO x than combustion. Energy has been produced at industrial scale via gasification since the early 19th century. Initially coal and peat were gasified to produce town gas for lighting and cooking, with the first public street lighting installed in Pall Mall, London on January 28, 1807, spreading shortly to supply commercial gas lighting to most industrialized cities until

1536-403: Is mixed with the fuel prior to gasification. Addition of a little limestone will usually suffice for the lowering the fusion temperatures. The fuel particles must be much smaller than for other types of gasifiers. This means the fuel must be pulverized, which requires somewhat more energy than for the other types of gasifiers. By far the most energy consumption related to entrained flow gasification

1600-414: Is not methanized typically has a lower heating value of 120 BTU/ scf . Untreated syngas can be run in hybrid turbines that allow for greater efficiency because of their lower operating temperatures, and extended part lifetime. Syngas is used as a source of hydrogen as well as a fuel. It is also used to directly reduce iron ore to sponge iron . Chemical uses include the production of methanol which

1664-641: Is not the milling of the fuel but the production of oxygen used for the gasification. In a plasma gasifier a high-voltage current is fed to a torch, creating a high-temperature arc. The inorganic residue is retrieved as a glass like substance. There are a large number of different feedstock types for use in a gasifier, each with different characteristics, including size, shape, bulk density, moisture content, energy content, chemical composition, ash fusion characteristics, and homogeneity of all these properties. Coal and petroleum coke are used as primary feedstocks for many large gasification plants worldwide. Additionally,

1728-827: Is relatively constant. At the base of the vessel the apparent pressure drop multiplied by the cross-section area of the bed can be equated to the force of the weight of the solid particles (less the buoyancy of the solid in the fluid). Δ p w = H w ( 1 − ϵ w ) ( ρ s − ρ f ) g = [ M s g / A ] [ ( ρ s − ρ f ) / ρ s ] {\displaystyle \Delta p_{w}=H_{w}(1-\epsilon _{w})(\rho _{s}-\rho _{f})g=[M_{s}g/A][(\rho _{s}-\rho _{f})/\rho _{s}]} where: Δ p w {\displaystyle \Delta p_{w}}

1792-492: Is sometimes described as syngas but its composition differs from syngas. Generation of conventional syngas (mostly H 2 and CO) from waste biomass has been explored. The chemical composition of syngas varies based on the raw materials and the processes. Syngas produced by coal gasification generally is a mixture of 30 to 60% carbon monoxide, 25 to 30% hydrogen, 5 to 15% carbon dioxide, and 0 to 5% methane. It also contains lesser amount of other gases. Syngas has less than half

1856-430: Is somewhat lower as the gas must be cooled before it can be cleaned with existing technology. The high temperatures also mean that tar and methane are not present in the product gas; however the oxygen requirement is higher than for the other types of gasifiers. All entrained flow gasifiers remove the major part of the ash as a slag as the operating temperature is well above the ash fusion temperature. A smaller fraction of

1920-502: Is the bed pressure drop H w {\displaystyle H_{w}} is the bed height ϵ w {\displaystyle \epsilon _{w}} is the bed voidage, i.e. the fraction of the bed volume that is occupied by the voids (the fluid spaces between the particles) ρ s {\displaystyle \rho _{s}} is the apparent density of bed particles ρ f {\displaystyle \rho _{f}}

1984-462: Is the density of the fluidising fluid g {\displaystyle g} is the acceleration due to gravity M s {\displaystyle M_{s}} is the total mass of solids in the bed A {\displaystyle A} is the cross-sectional area of the bed In 1973, Professor D. Geldart proposed the grouping of powders in to four so-called "Geldart Groups". The groups are defined by their locations on

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2048-430: Is to reach an acceptable (positive) gross electric efficiency. The high efficiency of converting syngas to electric power is counteracted by significant power consumption in the waste preprocessing, the consumption of large amounts of pure oxygen (which is often used as gasification agent), and gas cleaning. Another challenge becoming apparent when implementing the processes in real life is to obtain long service intervals in

2112-615: The Xe than (literally, "coal car" in Vietnamese ) was a minibus that has been converted to run on coal instead of gasoline . This modification regained popularity in Vietnam during the subsidy period , when gasoline was in short supply. Xe than became much less common during the Đổi Mới period, when gasoline became widely accessible again. In a gasifier, the carbonaceous material undergoes several different processes: In essence,

2176-496: The energy density of natural gas . The first reaction, between incandescent coke and steam, is strongly endothermic, producing carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrogen H 2 ( water gas in older terminology). When the coke bed has cooled to a temperature at which the endothermic reaction can no longer proceed, the steam is then replaced by a blast of air. The second and third reactions then take place, producing an exothermic reaction —forming initially carbon dioxide and raising

2240-514: The residence time of the reactive gases and organic materials, as well as heat and pressure. Catalysts are used in more sophisticated reactors to improve reaction rates, thus moving the system closer to the reaction equilibrium for a fixed residence time. Several types of gasifiers are currently available for commercial use: counter-current fixed bed, co-current fixed bed, fluidized bed , entrained flow, plasma, and free radical. A fixed bed of carbonaceous fuel (e.g. coal or biomass) through which

2304-413: The "gasification agent" (steam, oxygen and/or air) flows in counter-current configuration. The ash is either removed in the dry condition or as a slag . The slagging gasifiers have a lower ratio of steam to carbon, achieving temperatures higher than the ash fusion temperature. The nature of the gasifier means that the fuel must have high mechanical strength and must ideally be non-caking so that it will form

2368-414: The 1990s are now entering commercial service. In small business and building applications, where the wood source is sustainable, 250–1000 kWe and new zero carbon biomass gasification plants have been installed in Europe that produce tar free syngas from wood and burn it in reciprocating engines connected to a generator with heat recovery. This type of plant is often referred to as a wood biomass CHP unit but

2432-1011: The Hurlburt Field Florida Special Operations Command Air Force base. The plant, which cost $ 7.4 million to construct, was closed and sold at a government liquidation auction in May 2013. The opening bid was $ 25. The winning bid was sealed. In December 2022, the Sierra BioFuels Plant opened in Reno, Nevada, converting landfill waste to synthetic crude oil. Syngas can be used for heat production and for generation of mechanical and electrical power. Like other gaseous fuels, producer gas gives greater control over power levels when compared to solid fuels, leading to more efficient and cleaner operation. Syngas can also be used for further processing to liquid fuels or chemicals. Gasifiers offer

2496-456: The application of an external force, such as mechanical agitation. Group D The particles in this region are above 600 μm and typically have high particle densities. Fluidisation of this group requires very high fluid energies and is typically associated with high levels of abrasion. Drying grains and peas, roasting coffee beans, gasifying coals, and some roasting metal ores are such solids, and they are usually processed in shallow beds or in

2560-572: The ash is produced either as a very fine dry fly ash or as a black colored fly ash slurry. Some fuels, in particular certain types of biomasses, can form slag that is corrosive for ceramic inner walls that serve to protect the gasifier outer wall. However some entrained flow type of gasifiers do not possess a ceramic inner wall but have an inner water or steam cooled wall covered with partially solidified slag. These types of gasifiers do not suffer from corrosive slags. Some fuels have ashes with very high ash fusion temperatures. In this case mostly limestone

2624-419: The ash. In some gasification processes (slagging gasification) this ash has the form of a glassy solid with low leaching properties, but the net power production in slagging gasification is low (sometimes negative) and costs are higher. Regardless of the final fuel form, gasification itself and subsequent processing neither directly emits nor traps greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Power consumption in

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2688-569: The claims of project proponents did not withstand public and governmental scrutiny of key claims," according to the Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives. One facility which operated from 2009–2011 in Ottawa had 29 "emissions incidents" and 13 "spills" over those three years. It was also only able to operate roughly 25% of the time. Several waste gasification processes have been proposed, but few have yet been built and tested, and only

2752-809: The contaminants and other gases such as CO and CO 2 to be suitable for low-temperature fuel cell use, but high-temperature solid oxide fuel cells are capable of directly accepting mixtures of H 2 , CO, CO 2 , steam, and methane. Syngas is most commonly burned directly in gas engines , used to produce methanol and hydrogen, or converted via the Fischer–Tropsch process into synthetic fuel . For some materials gasification can be an alternative to landfilling and incineration , resulting in lowered emissions of atmospheric pollutants such as methane and particulates . Some gasification processes aim at refining out corrosive ash elements such as chloride and potassium , allowing clean gas production from otherwise problematic feedstock material. Gasification of fossil fuels

2816-424: The counter-current type, but the gasification agent gas flows in co-current configuration with the fuel (downwards, hence the name "down draft gasifier"). Heat needs to be added to the upper part of the bed, either by combusting small amounts of the fuel or from external heat sources. The produced gas leaves the gasifier at a high temperature, and most of this heat is often transferred to the gasification agent added in

2880-500: The design of the fluidised bed. In the 1960s VAW-Lippewerk in Lünen, Germany implemented the first industrial bed for the combustion of coal and later for the calcination of aluminium hydroxide. Bed types can be coarsely classified by their flow behavior, including: When the packed bed has a fluid passed over it, the pressure drop of the fluid is approximately proportional to the fluid's superficial velocity . In order to transition from

2944-657: The dilution effect, producing gas of much higher calorific value . In order to produce more hydrogen from this mixture, more steam is added and the water gas shift reaction is carried out: The hydrogen can be separated from the CO 2 by pressure swing adsorption (PSA), amine scrubbing , and membrane reactors . A variety of alternative technologies have been investigated, but none are of commercial value. Some variations focus on new stoichiometries such as carbon dioxide plus methane or partial hydrogenation of carbon dioxide. Other research focuses on novel energy sources to drive

3008-476: The end of the 19th century when it was replaced with electrical lighting. Gasification and syngas continued to be used in blast furnaces and more significantly in the production of synthetic chemicals where it has been in use since the 1920s. The thousands of sites left toxic residue. Some sites have been remediated, while others are still polluted. During both world wars , especially the World War II ,

3072-656: The engines may be used for e.g. driving water pumps for irrigation or for coupling with an alternator for electrical power generation. While small scale gasifiers have existed for well over 100 years, there have been few sources to obtain a ready-to-use machine. Small scale devices are typically DIY projects. However, currently in the United States, several companies offer gasifiers to operate small engines. In principle, gasification can proceed from just about any organic material, including biomass and plastic waste . The resulting syngas can be combusted. Alternatively, if

3136-419: The fluid behavior expected of Archimedes' principle . As the "density", (actually the solid volume fraction of the suspension), of the bed can be altered by changing the fluid fraction, objects with different densities comparative to the bed can, by altering either the fluid or solid fraction, be caused to sink or float. In fluidised beds, the contact of the solid particles with the fluidisation medium (a gas or

3200-551: The fuel must be highly reactive; low-grade coals are particularly suitable. The agglomerating gasifiers have slightly higher temperatures, and are suitable for higher rank coals. Fuel throughput is higher than for the fixed bed, but not as high as for the entrained flow gasifier. The conversion efficiency can be rather low due to elutriation of carbonaceous material. Recycle or subsequent combustion of solids can be used to increase conversion. Fluidized bed gasifiers are most useful for fuels that form highly corrosive ash that would damage

3264-444: The gasification and syngas conversion processes may be significant though, and may indirectly cause CO 2 emissions; in slagging and plasma gasification, the electricity consumption may even exceed any power production from the syngas. Combustion of syngas or derived fuels emits exactly the same amount of carbon dioxide as would have been emitted from direct combustion of the initial fuel. Biomass gasification and combustion could play

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3328-421: The minimum fluidisation velocity ( u ≥ u m f {\displaystyle u\geq u_{mf}} ), the bed material will be suspended by the gas-stream and further increases in the velocity will have a reduced effect on the pressure, owing to sufficient percolation of the gas flow. Thus the pressure drop for u > u m f {\displaystyle u>u_{mf}}

3392-454: The need for fuel produced by gasification reemerged due to the shortage of petroleum. Wood gas generators , called Gasogene or Gazogène, were used to power motor vehicles in Europe . By 1945 there were trucks, buses and agricultural machines that were powered by gasification. It is estimated that there were close to 9,000,000 vehicles running on producer gas all over the world. Another example,

3456-422: The plants, so that it is not necessary to close down the plant every few months for cleaning the reactor. Environmental advocates have called gasification "incineration in disguise" and argue that the technology is still dangerous to air quality and public health. "Since 2003 numerous proposals for waste treatment facilities hoping to use... gasification technologies failed to receive final approval to operate when

3520-520: The processes including electrolysis, solar energy, microwaves, and electric arcs. Electricity generated from renewable sources is also used to process carbon dioxide and water into syngas through high-temperature electrolysis . This is an attempt to maintain carbon neutrality in the generation process. Audi , in partnership with company named Sunfire, opened a pilot plant in November 2014 to generate e-diesel using this process. Syngas that

3584-443: The reactor. In the gasification of fine, undensified biomass such as rice hulls , it is necessary to blow air into the reactor by means of a fan. This creates very high gasification temperature, as high as 1000 C. Above the gasification zone, a bed of fine and hot char is formed, and as the gas is blow forced through this bed, most complex hydrocarbons are broken down into simple components of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Similar to

3648-439: The specifications of the application. In 1922, Fritz Winkler made the first industrial application of fluidization in a reactor for a coal gasification process. In 1942, the first circulating fluid bed was built for catalytic cracking of mineral oils , with fluidisation technology applied to metallurgical processing (roasting arsenopyrite ) in the late 1940s. During this time theoretical and experimental research improved

3712-415: The spouting mode. Typically, pressurized gas or liquid enters the fluidised bed vessel through numerous holes via a plate known as a distributor plate, located at the bottom of the fluidised bed. The fluid flows upward through the bed, causing the solid particles to be suspended. If the inlet fluid is disabled, the bed may settle, pack onto the plate or trickle down through the plate. Many industrial beds use

3776-477: The syngas is clean enough, it may be used for power production in gas engines, gas turbines or even fuel cells, or converted efficiently to dimethyl ether (DME) by methanol dehydration, methane via the Sabatier reaction , or diesel-like synthetic fuel via the Fischer–Tropsch process . In many gasification processes most of the inorganic components of the input material, such as metals and minerals, are retained in

3840-497: The temperature of the coke bed—followed by the second endothermic reaction, in which the latter is converted to carbon monoxide. The overall reaction is exothermic, forming "producer gas" (older terminology). Steam can then be re-injected, then air etc., to give an endless series of cycles until the coke is finally consumed. Producer gas has a much lower energy value, relative to water gas, due primarily to dilution with atmospheric nitrogen. Pure oxygen can be substituted for air to avoid

3904-406: The top of the bed, resulting in an energy efficiency on level with the counter-current type. Since all tars must pass through a hot bed of char in this configuration, tar levels are much lower than the counter-current type. The fuel is fluidized in oxygen and steam or air. The ash is removed dry or as heavy agglomerates that defluidize. The temperatures are relatively low in dry ash gasifiers, so

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3968-400: The upper surface of the bed is relatively horizontal, which is analogous to hydrostatic behavior. The bed can be considered to be a heterogeneous mixture of fluid and solid that can be represented by a single bulk density. Furthermore, an object with a higher density than the bed will sink, whereas an object with a lower density than the bed will float, thus the bed can be considered to exhibit

4032-597: The walls of slagging gasifiers. Biomass fuels generally contain high levels of corrosive ash. Fluidized bed gasifiers uses inert bed material at a fluidized state which enhance the heat and biomass distribution inside a gasifier. At a fluidized state, the superficial fluid velocity is greater than the minimum fluidization velocity required to lift the bed material against the weight of the bed. Fluidized bed gasifiers are divided into Bubbling Fluidized Bed (BFB), Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) and Dual Fluidized Bed (DFB) gasifiers. A dry pulverized solid, an atomized liquid fuel or

4096-581: Was designed to demonstrate gasification of specific non-MSW waste streams using liquid metal gasification . This facility came after widespread public opposition shelved plans for a similar plant in Attleboro, Massachusetts . Today Ze-gen appears to be defunct, and the company website was taken down in 2014. Also in the US, in 2011 a plasma system delivered by PyroGenesis Canada Inc. was tested to gasify municipal solid waste, hazardous waste and biomedical waste at

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