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172-527: Gas holders now tend to be used for balancing purposes to ensure that gas pipes can be operated within a safe range of pressures, rather than for actually storing gas for later use. Antoine Lavoisier devised the first gas holder, which he called a gazomètre , to assist his work in pneumatic chemistry . It enabled him to weigh the gas in a pneumatic trough with the precision he required. He published his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie in 1789. James Watt Junior collaborated with Thomas Beddoes in constructing

344-537: A county borough in 1889, giving it independence from the newly formed West Riding County Council and it gained city status in 1893. In 1904 the Leeds parish absorbed Beeston , Chapel Allerton , Farnley , Headingley cum Burley and Potternewton from within the borough. In the twentieth century the county borough initiated a series of significant territorial expansions, growing from 21,593 acres (87.38 km ) in 1911 to 40,612 acres (164.35 km ) in 1961. In 1912

516-462: A 50% increase in the population of Headingley and Burley from 1851 to 1861. The middle-class flight from the industrial areas led to development beyond the borough at Roundhay and Adel. The introduction of the electric tramway led to intensification of development in Headingley and Potternewton and expansion outside the borough into Roundhay. Two private gas supply companies were taken over by

688-517: A capacity of 594,000 cubic metres (21,000,000 cu ft). There was a MAN type, built in 1934 in Chicago with a capacity of 566,000 cubic metres (20,000,000 cu ft). In the past, holder stations would have an operator living on site controlling their movement. However, with the process control systems now used on these sites, such an operator is obsolete. The tallest gasometer in Europe

860-451: A chemical reaction, the total mass of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical change. Thus, for instance, if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass remains unchanged if gaseous reactants and products are included. Lavoisier's experiments supported the law of conservation of mass . In France it is taught as Lavoisier's Law and is paraphrased from a statement in his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie : "Nothing

1032-457: A climate that is oceanic ( Köppen : Cfb ), and influenced by the Pennines. Summers are usually mild, with moderate rainfall, while winters are chilly, cloudy with occasional snow and frost. The nearest official weather recording station is at Bingley, some twelve miles (20 km) away at a higher altitude. July is the warmest month, with a mean temperature of 16 °C (61 °F), while

1204-675: A commissioner, he enjoyed both a house and a laboratory in the Royal Arsenal. Here he lived and worked between 1775 and 1792. Lavoisier was a formative influence in the formation of the Du Pont gunpowder business because he trained Éleuthère Irénée du Pont , its founder, on gunpowder-making in France; the latter said that the Du Pont gunpowder mills "would never have been started but for his kindness to me." In June 1791, Lavoisier made

1376-488: A continuously built-up area extending to Pudsey, Bramley, Horsforth, Alwoodley, Seacroft, Middleton and Morley. Leeds has the second highest population of any local authority district in the UK (after Birmingham ), and the second greatest area of any English metropolitan district (after Doncaster ), extending 15 miles (24 km) from east to west, and 13 miles (21 km) from north to south. The northern boundary follows

1548-622: A county council, so Leeds City Council is the primary provider of local government services for the city. The district is in the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England. Most of the district is an unparished area . In the unparished area, there is no lower tier of government. Outside the unparished area, there are 31 civil parishes, represented by parish councils . These are the lowest tier of local government and absorb some limited functions from Leeds City Council in their areas. The district

1720-462: A discussion of an altar surviving from a church erected by Edwin of Northumbria , that it is located in ...regione quae vocatur Loidis (Latin, "the region which is called Loidis"). An inhabitant of Leeds is locally known as a Loiner , a word of uncertain origin. The term Leodensian is also used, from the city's Latin name. Leeds developed as a market town in the Middle Ages as part of

1892-698: A dynamic lighting display illuminates the frame. The former industrial site on the inner-city fringe became an urban renewal zone for upmarket housing centred on the Gasworks zone. For many years, a huge gasholder towered over the Arden Street Oval , the home ground of the North Melbourne Football Club in the Victorian Football League . Television coverage of Australian Rules football matches played at

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2064-469: A far greater danger than the original leak did; putting houses around gas holders was discontinued in the UK. In the United States, however, where gas needed to be protected from much more extreme weather, gasometer houses continued to be built and were architecturally decorative. The telescopic gas holder was first invented in 1824. The cup and dip (grip) seal was patented by Hutchinson in 1833, and

2236-410: A fixed cylinder capped by a moving piston. The earliest Boulton and Watt gas holders had a single lift. The tank was above ground and was lined with wood; the lift was guided by tripods and cables. Pulleys and weights were supplied to regulate the gas pressure. Brick tanks were introduced in 1818, when a gas holder could have a capacity of 20,000 cubic feet (570 m). The engineer John Malam devised

2408-502: A glass vessel was not due to a conversion of the water into earth but rather to the gradual disintegration of the inside of the glass vessel produced by the boiling water. He also attempted to introduce reforms in the French monetary and taxation system to help the peasants. The Farmers General held a monopoly of the production, import and sale of tobacco in France, and the taxes they levied on tobacco brought revenues of 30 million livres

2580-512: A half after his execution, Lavoisier was completely exonerated by the French government. During the White Terror , his belongings were delivered to his widow. A brief note was included, reading "To the widow of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted". An apocryphal story exists regarding Lavoisier's execution in which the scientist blinked his eyes to demonstrate that the head retained some consciousness after being severed. Some variants of

2752-500: A leader in the campaign to preserve gasometers, has said that "Gasometers, by their very size and structure, cannot help but become landmarks. [They] are singularly dramatic structures for all their emptiness." Gasometers are now comparatively rare in the US (where they were usually called gas holders); although hundreds were built between the 1870s and 1940s, many of those have since been demolished. The largest US-based builder of gas holders,

2924-557: A less crucial capacity) for managing the pressure of the natural gas pipelines, until the holders reached the end of their useful lifespan. Several gas holders were erected in St. Louis by the Laclede Gas Light Company in the early 20th century. These gasometers remained in use until the early first decade of the 21st century, when the last one was decommissioned and abandoned in place. The most recently used gasometer in

3096-417: A lighter and more extensive framework. Vertical girders (standards) were intersected by horizontal girders and cross-braced. This could be bolted onto an underground or above-ground tank. The Cutler patented guide frame dispensed with the horizontal girders, using diagonal triangulated framing instead. Cable-guided gas holders, invented by Pease in 1880, had a limited use, but were useful on unstable ground where

3268-647: A loan of 71,000 livres to Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours to buy a printing works so that du Pont could publish a newspaper, La Correspondance Patriotique . The plan was for this to include both reports of debates in the National Constituent Assembly as well as papers from the Academy of Sciences. The revolution quickly disrupted the elder du Pont's first newspaper, but his son E.I. du Pont soon launched Le Republicain and published Lavoisier's latest chemistry texts. Lavoisier also chaired

3440-551: A lot of water to bulk the tobacco up would cause it to ferment and smell bad, the addition of a very small amount improved the product. Thereafter the factories of the Farmers General added, as he recommended, a consistent 6.3% of water by volume to the tobacco they processed. To allow for this addition, the Farmers General delivered to retailers seventeen ounces of tobacco while only charging for sixteen. To ensure that only these authorised amounts were added, and to exclude

3612-469: A means to reduce crime and until the 1840s they were regulated by police authorities. Because of safety concerns expressed by the Royal Society, the size of gas holders was limited to 6,000 cubic feet (170 m) and they were enclosed in gasometer houses. In fact any small leak from an enclosed gas holder created a potentially explosive build-up of air and gas within the enclosing house, presenting

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3784-643: A new program for the reforms of chemical nomenclature to the academy in 1787, for there was virtually no rational system of chemical nomenclature at this time. This work, titled Méthode de nomenclature chimique ( Method of Chemical Nomenclature , 1787), introduced a new system which was tied inextricably to Lavoisier's new oxygen theory of chemistry. The classical elements of earth, air, fire, and water were discarded, and instead some 33 substances which could not be decomposed into simpler substances by any known chemical means were provisionally listed as elements. The elements included light; caloric (matter of heat);

3956-569: A part of the Victoria Quarter , is enclosed under a glass roof. Millennium Square is a significant urban focal point. Inner and southern areas of Leeds lie on a layer of coal measure sandstones forming the Yorkshire Coalfield . To the north parts are built on older sandstone and gritstones and to the east it extends into the magnesian limestone belt. Outside Leeds centre, there are a number of suburbs and exurbs within

4128-403: A population of 474,632 and had an area of 112 square kilometres (43 sq mi) with a population density of 4,238 inhabitants per square kilometre (10,980/sq mi). It is bounded by, and physically attached to, the other towns of Garforth to the east, Morley to the southwest and Pudsey to the west, all being within the wider borough. 63% of the borough's population of 751,485 live in

4300-537: A private company, similar to the Ferme Générale, which had proved unsatisfactory in supplying France with its munitions requirements. As a result of his efforts, both the quantity and quality of French gunpowder greatly improved, and it became a source of revenue for the government. His appointment to the Gunpowder Commission brought one great benefit to Lavoisier's scientific career as well. As

4472-464: A report to the Commission detailing ten years of efforts on his experimental farm to introduce new crops and types of livestock. His conclusion was that despite the possibilities of agricultural reforms, the tax system left tenant farmers with so little that it was unrealistic to expect them to change their traditional practices. Lavoisier's researches on combustion were carried out in the midst of

4644-868: A similar trend to the rest of England. The population density was 1,967/km (5,090/sq mi) and for every 100 females, there were 93.5 males. Leeds is a diverse city with over 75 ethnic groups, and with ethnic minorities representing just under 11.6% of the total population. According to figures from the 2011 UK Census , 85.0% of the population was White (81.1% White British , 0.9% White Irish , 0.1% Gypsy or Irish Traveller , 2.9% Other White ), 2.7% of mixed race (1.2% White and Black Caribbean, 0.3% White and Black African, 0.7% White and Asian, 0.5% Other Mixed), 7.7% Asian (2.1% Indian , 3.0% Pakistani , 0.6% Bangladeshi , 0.8% Chinese , 1.2% Other Asian), 3.5% Black (2.0% African, 0.9% Caribbean , 0.6% Other Black ), 0.5% Arab and 0.6% of other ethnic heritage. Leeds has seen many new different countries of birth as of

4816-557: A small area just to the south east of the city centre, where the elevation declines to under 20 metres (66 feet). This is 2 °C (3.6 °F) milder than the typical summer temperature at Leeds Bradford airport weather station (shown in the chart below), at an elevation of 208 metres (682 feet). Situated on the eastern side of the Pennines, Leeds is among the driest cities in the United Kingdom, with an annual rainfall of 660 mm (25.98 in). Though extreme weather in Leeds

4988-400: A tank with a central rod-and-tube guide system. Telescoping holders fall into two subcategories. The earlier of the telescoping variety were column-guided variations and were built starting in 1824. To guide the telescoping walls, or "lifts", they have an external frame, visible at a fixed height at all times. A refinement was the guide frame gas holder, where the heavy columns were replaced by

5160-409: A varying volume of gas, the pressure determined by the weight of the structure, and the water providing the seal for the gas within the moving walls. Besides storing the gas, the tank's design serves to establish the pressure of the gas system. With telescoping (multiple-lift) tanks, the innermost tank has an approximately 1 ft × 2 ft (30 cm × 61 cm) lip around the outside of

5332-511: A very busy schedule of public and private duties, especially in connection with the Ferme Générale . There were also innumerable reports for and committees of the Academy of Sciences to investigate specific problems on order of the royal government. Lavoisier, whose organizing skills were outstanding, frequently landed the task of writing up such official reports. In 1775 he was made one of four commissioners of gunpowder appointed to replace

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5504-473: A very expensive and sophisticated laboratory in France so that aspiring scientists could study without the barriers of securing funding for their research. He also pushed for public education in the sciences. He founded two organizations, Lycée and Musée des Arts et Métiers , which were created to serve as educational tools for the public. Funded by the wealthy and noble, the Lycée regularly taught courses to

5676-450: A year. This revenue began to fall because of a growing black market in tobacco that was smuggled and adulterated, most commonly with ash and water. Lavoisier devised a method of checking whether ash had been mixed in with tobacco: "When a spirit of vitriol , aqua fortis or some other acid solution is poured on ash, there is an immediate very intense effervescent reaction, accompanied by an easily detected noise." Lavoisier also noticed that

5848-552: Is 117 metres (384 ft) tall and is located in Oberhausen . The pollution associated with gasworks and gas storage makes the land difficult to reclaim for other purposes, but some gas holders, such as the Vienna Gasometers , have been converted into other uses such as living space and a shopping mall and historical archives for the city. Many sites, however, were never used for the production of 'town gas', so

6020-487: Is 34.4 °C (94 °F) during the early August 1990 heatwave. It is likely this was exceeded during the heatwaves of July 2019 and July 2022 where many other areas broke their all time records. However, Leeds weather centre closed in the 2000s. As is typical for many sprawling cities in areas of varying topography, temperatures can change depending on location. Average July and August daytime highs exceed 22 °C (72 °F) (a value comparable to South East England) in

6192-688: Is a city in West Yorkshire , England. It is the largest settlement in Yorkshire and the administrative centre of the City of Leeds Metropolitan Borough , which is the second most populous district in the United Kingdom . It is built around the River Aire and is in the eastern foothills of the Pennines . The city was a small manorial borough in the 13th century and a market town in

6364-560: Is above regional averages. At the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , the Leeds urban subdivision occupied an area of 109 square kilometres (42 sq mi) and had a population of 443,247; making it the fourth-most populous urban subdivision within England and the fifth largest within the United Kingdom. The population density was 4,066 inhabitants per square kilometre (10,530/sq mi), slightly higher than

6536-421: Is achieved by restricting inappropriate development within the designated areas, and imposing stricter conditions on permitted building. Over 60% of the Leeds district is green belt land and it surrounds the settlement, preventing further sprawl towards nearby communities. Larger outlying towns and villages are exempt from the green belt area. However, smaller villages, hamlets and rural areas are 'washed over' by

6708-543: Is almost entirely made up of the Leeds post town . Otley, Wetherby, Tadcaster, Pudsey and Ilkley are separate post towns within the postcode area. Leeds is within a green belt region that extends into the wider surrounding counties and is in place to reduce urban sprawl , prevent the settlements in the West Yorkshire conurbation from further convergence, protect the identity of outlying communities, encourage brownfield reuse, and preserve nearby countryside. This

6880-550: Is also ranked as a high sufficiency city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network . Leeds is considered the cultural, financial and commercial heart of the West Yorkshire Urban Area . Leeds is also served by four universities, and has the fourth largest student population in the country and the country's fourth largest urban economy . The student population has stimulated growth of

7052-463: Is commonly known for his contributions to the sciences, he also dedicated a significant portion of his fortune and work toward benefitting the public. Lavoisier was a humanitarian—he cared deeply about the people in his country and often concerned himself with improving the livelihood of the population by agriculture, industry, and the sciences. The first instance of this occurred in 1765, when he submitted an essay on improving urban street lighting to

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7224-453: Is in the banking, finance and insurance sectors that Leeds differs most from the financial structure of the region and the nation. There are 130,100 jobs in the city centre, accounting for 31% of all jobs in the wider district. In 2007, 47,500 jobs were in finance and business, 42,300 in public services, and 19,500 in retail and distribution. 43% of finance sector jobs in the district are contained in Leeds city centre and 44% of those employed in

7396-465: Is located on the River Aire in a narrow section of the Aire Valley in the eastern foothills of the Pennines . The city centre lies at about 206 feet (63 m) above sea level while the district ranges from 1,115 feet (340 m) in the far west on the slopes of Ilkley Moor to about 33 feet (10 m) where the rivers Aire and Wharfe cross the eastern boundary. The centre of Leeds is part of

7568-448: Is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed." Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) had previously expressed similar ideas in 1748 and proved them in experiments; others whose ideas pre-date the work of Lavoisier include Jean Rey (1583–1645), Joseph Black (1728–1799), and Henry Cavendish (1731–1810). Lavoisier, together with Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau , Claude-Louis Berthollet , and Antoine François de Fourcroy , submitted

7740-412: Is observed in the combustion of sulfur and phosphorus may well take place in the case of all substances that gain in weight by combustion and calcination: and I am persuaded that the increase in weight of metallic calces is due to the same cause." During 1773 Lavoisier determined to review thoroughly the literature on air, particularly "fixed air," and to repeat many of the experiments of other workers in

7912-630: Is one of the largest remaining examples. As of early 2021, efforts were under way to save the Concord Gas Light Company Gasholder House in Concord, New Hampshire . It is unusual because the inner workings of the structure, including the cap, are still in place. PG&E operated gas holders at its gasification plants in California before natural gas pipelines were built. The San Francisco Beach Street Plant

8084-472: Is relatively rare, thunderstorms, blizzards, gale-force winds and even tornadoes have struck the city. The last reported tornado occurred on 14 September 2006, causing trees to uproot and signal failures at Leeds City railway station . Leeds forms the main area of the City of Leeds metropolitan borough of West Yorkshire. This district includes Leeds itself as well as surrounding towns of Horsforth , Morley , Otley , Pudsey , Rothwell and Wetherby , Leeds

8256-696: Is represented by ten MPs , for the constituencies of Leeds Central and Headingley ( Alex Sobel , Labour) ; Leeds East ( Richard Burgon , Labour); Leeds North East ( Fabian Hamilton , Labour); Leeds North West ( Katie White , Labour); Leeds South ( Hilary Benn , Labour); Leeds South West and Morley ( Mark Sewards , Labour); Leeds West and Pudsey ( Rachel Reeves , Labour); Selby (constituency shared with North Yorkshire ) ( Keir Mather , Labour); Wakefield and Rothwell (constituency shared with City of Wakefield ) ( Simon Lightwood , Labour); and Wetherby and Easingwold (constituency shared with North Yorkshire ) ( Alec Shelbrooke , Conservative). Leeds has

8428-420: Is the local government district covering Leeds, and the local authority is Leeds City Council . The council is composed of 99 councillors, three for each of the district's wards . Elections are held three years out of four, on the first Thursday of May. One third of the councillors are elected, for a four-year term, in each election. The council is currently controlled by Labour . West Yorkshire does not have

8600-471: Is the central city of the Leeds City Region , a classification for the city region's metropolitan area . The city region has a population of over 3 million, making it the second most populated metropolitan city region in the United Kingdom, behind Greater London . In January 2011, Leeds was named as one of five "cities to watch" in a report published by Centre for Cities. The report shows that

8772-622: Is the largest component of the West Yorkshire Urban Area and is counted by Eurostat as part of the Leeds-Bradford larger urban zone . The Leeds travel to work area in 2001 included all of the City of Leeds, a northern strip of the City of Bradford, the eastern part of Kirklees, and a section of southern North Yorkshire; it occupies 751 square kilometres (290 sq mi). In 2011, the Leeds urban subdivision had

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8944-569: Is unknown as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed ideas and problems related to chemistry. A portrait of Antoine and Marie-Anne Lavoisier was painted by the famed artist Jacques-Louis David . Completed in 1788 on the eve of the Revolution, the painting was denied a customary public display at the Paris Salon for fear that it might inflame anti-aristocratic passions. For three years following his entry into

9116-458: Is well above the national average, like many other English major cities. In July 2006, the think tank Reform calculated rates of crime for different offences and has related this to populations of major urban areas (defined as towns over 100,000 population). Leeds was 11th in this rating (excluding London boroughs, 23rd including London boroughs). Total recorded crime in Leeds fell by 45% between March 2002 and December 2011 The City of Leeds

9288-703: The Baltimore -based Bartlett-Hayward Company (since 1927 a division of Koppers ), built 600 of them from the 1870s up through 1941, when a monograph on the history of the company was published. They were built in nearly every US state, as well as elsewhere in North America, South America, and South Africa. Those 600, of both water tank type (541 units) and waterless type (59 units), held a combined capacity of 1.1 billion cubic feet (10⁹). Latrobe's chapters that deal with B.H.'s gas holder business line provide additional details that are useful to readers interested in

9460-456: The Bank of England in the UK. In 2012 GVA for the city was recorded at £18.8 billion, with the entire Leeds City Region generating a £56 billion economy. Key sectors include finance, retail, leisure and the visitor economy, construction, manufacturing and the creative and digital industries. It has one of the most diverse economies of all the UK's main employment centres and has seen

9632-565: The Celtic root *lāt- "violent, boiling" and the borrowed Latin plural derivational suffix -ēnses meaning "people of the fast-flowing river", in reference to the River Aire that flows through the city. This name originally referred to the forested area covering most of the Brittonic kingdom of Elmet , which existed during the 5th century into the early 7th century. Bede states in the fourteenth chapter of his Ecclesiastical History , in

9804-490: The Corn Exchange opening in 1864. Marshall's Mill was one of the first of many factories constructed in Leeds from around 1790 when the most significant were woollen finishing and flax mills. Manufacturing diversified by 1914 to printing, engineering, chemicals and clothing manufacture. Decline in manufacturing during the 1930s was temporarily reversed by a switch to producing military uniforms and munitions during

9976-500: The Ferme générale , Lavoisier's scientific activity diminished somewhat, for much of his time was taken up with official Ferme générale business. He did, however, present one important memoir to the Academy of Sciences during this period, on the supposed conversion of water into earth by evaporation. By a very precise quantitative experiment, Lavoisier showed that the "earthy" sediment produced after long-continued reflux heating of water in

10148-537: The French Academy of Sciences , France's most elite scientific society, on the chemical and physical properties of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate ), and in 1766 he was awarded a gold medal by the King for an essay on the problems of urban street lighting . In 1768 Lavoisier received a provisional appointment to the Academy of Sciences. In 1769, he worked on the first geological map of France. While Lavoisier

10320-496: The French Revolution , was a French nobleman and chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and who had a large influence on both the history of chemistry and the history of biology . It is generally accepted that Lavoisier's great accomplishments in chemistry stem largely from his changing the science from a qualitative to a quantitative one. Lavoisier is most noted for his discovery of

10492-545: The General Farm , which allowed him to work on science full-time, live comfortably, and allowed him to contribute financially to better the community. (It would also contribute to his demise during the Reign of Terror many years later. ) It was very difficult to secure public funding for the sciences at the time, and additionally not very financially profitable for the average scientist, so Lavoisier used his wealth to open

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10664-466: The Globalization and World Cities Research Network . Today, Leeds has become the largest legal and financial centre outside London, with the financial and insurance services industry worth £13 billion to the city's economy. Office developments, also traditionally located in the inner area, have expanded south of the River Aire and total 11,000,000 square feet (1,000,000 m ) of space. In

10836-570: The River Wharfe for several miles but crosses the river to include the part of Otley which lies north of the river. Over 65% of the Leeds district is green belt land and the city centre is less than twenty miles (32 km) from the Yorkshire Dales National Park , which has some of the most spectacular scenery and countryside in the UK. Inner and southern areas of Leeds lie on a layer of coal measure sandstones. To

11008-521: The Skyrack wapentake of the West Riding of Yorkshire . The Borough of Leeds was created in 1207, when Maurice Paynel, lord of the manor, granted a charter to a small area of the manor, close to the river crossing, in what is now the city centre. King James I granted the borough to his wife, Anne of Denmark , and in 1612, she ordered a survey of the borough; in 1615 she was petitioned to remove

11180-463: The UK Census including Zimbabwe , Iran , India and Nigeria all included in the top ten countries of birth in the city. Large Pakistani communities can be seen in wards such as Gipton and Harehills. Chapel Allerton is known for having a large Caribbean community. The majority of people in Leeds identify themselves as Christian. The proportion of Muslims (3.0% of the population) is average for

11352-468: The functional region . Leeds is much more a generalised concept place name in inverted commas, it is the city, but it is also the commuter villages and the region as well. Leeds has a varying extent by context such as the city centre , the built-up sprawl around the centre, administrative boundaries and the travel to work area . The city centre lies in a narrow section of the Aire Valley at about 206 feet (63 m) above sea level . The land use in

11524-476: The pneumatic apparatus , a short-lived piece of medical equipment that incorporated a gazomètre . Watt then adapted the gazomètre for coal gas storage. The anglicisation "gasometer" was adopted by William Murdoch , the inventor of gas lighting , in 1782, as the name for his gas holders. Murdoch's associates objected that his "gasometer" was not a meter but a container, but the name was retained and came into general use. Gas holders were marked as gasometers on

11696-469: The "eminently respirable part of the air". The same year he coined the name oxygen for this constituent of the air, from the Greek words meaning "acid former". He was struck by the fact that the combustion products of such nonmetals as sulfur, phosphorus, charcoal, and nitrogen were acidic. He held that all acids contained oxygen and that oxygen was therefore the acidifying principle. Leeds Leeds

11868-412: The "ic" acids were given the terminal letters "ate," as in copper sulfate, whereas the salts of the "ous" acids terminated with the suffix "ite," as in copper sulfite. The total effect of the new nomenclature can be gauged by comparing the new name " copper sulfate " with the old term "vitriol of Venus." Lavoisier's new nomenclature spread throughout Europe and to the United States and became common use in

12040-553: The 16th century. It expanded by becoming a major production and trading centre (mainly with wool ) in the 17th and 18th centuries. Leeds developed as a mill town during the Industrial Revolution alongside other surrounding villages and towns in the West Riding of Yorkshire . It was also known for its flax industry, iron foundries , engineering and printing, as well as shopping, with several surviving Victorian era arcades, such as Kirkgate Market . City status

12212-512: The 18th century) and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in 1816. In the late Georgian era, William Lupton was one of a number of central Leeds landowners, some of whom, like him, were also textile manufacturers. At the time of his death in 1828, Lupton occupied the enclosed fields of the manor of Leeds , his estate including a mill, reservoir , substantial house and outbuildings. Mechanical engineering, initially to supply tools and machinery for

12384-406: The Academy on 20 October, in which he reported that when phosphorus burned, it combined with a large quantity of air to produce acid spirit of phosphorus , and that the phosphorus increased in weight on burning. In a second sealed note deposited with the academy a few weeks later (1 November) Lavoisier extended his observations and conclusions to the burning of sulfur and went on to add that "what

12556-582: The French Academy of Sciences. Three years later in 1768, he focused on a new project to design an aqueduct. The goal was to bring water from the river Yvette into Paris so that the citizens could have clean drinking water. But, since the construction never commenced, he instead turned his focus to purifying the water from the Seine. This was the project that interested Lavoisier in the chemistry of water and public sanitation duties. Additionally, he

12728-553: The French Revolution. Lavoisier urged the establishment of a Royal Commission on Agriculture. He then served as its Secretary and spent considerable sums of his own money in order to improve the agricultural yields in the Sologne , an area where farmland was of poor quality. The humidity of the region often led to a blight of the rye harvest, causing outbreaks of ergotism among the population. In 1788 Lavoisier presented

12900-679: The French government. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier was born to a wealthy family of the nobility in Paris on 26 August 1743. The son of an attorney at the Parlement of Paris , he inherited a large fortune at the age of five upon the death of his mother. Lavoisier began his schooling at the Collège des Quatre-Nations , University of Paris (also known as the Collège Mazarin) in Paris in 1754 at

13072-511: The German inventor and entrepreneur Frederick Albert Winsor . Digging up streets to lay pipes required easements , and this delayed both further installation of street lighting and the installation of gas for domestic illumination, heating and cooking. Many people experimented with coal distillation to produce a flammable gas, including Jean Tardin (1618), Clayton (1684), Jean-Pierre Minckelers , Leuven (1785) and Pickel (D)(1786). William Murdoch

13244-555: The Port Royal convent for questioning. He claimed he had not operated on this commission for many years, having instead devoted himself to science. Lavoisier himself was removed from the commission on weights and measures on 23 December 1793, together with mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace and several other members, for political reasons. One of his last major works was a proposal to the National Convention for

13416-487: The Second World War. However, by the 1970s, the clothing industry was in irreversible decline, facing cheap foreign competition. The contemporary economy has been shaped by Leeds City Council 's vision of building a '24-hour European city' and 'capital of the north'. The city has developed from the decay of the post-industrial era to become a telephone banking centre, connected to the electronic infrastructure of

13588-399: The US gas industry's history. A general pattern of development in the US gas industry was that from the 1870s through the 1940s, gas manufacturing plants were common in many locales, producing both coal gas and water gas , and in the second half of the 20th century, the rise of natural gas distribution via gas pipelines supplanted that system and the existing gas holders were used (in

13760-627: The United States was on the southeast side of Indianapolis , but it has been demolished along with the adjoining Citizens Energy Group coke plant . Another pair of holders at the Newtown Holder Station, in Elmhurst, Queens, in New York City, was a popular landmark for traffic reporters until they were demolished in 1996 and became Elmhurst Park . The demolition of two larger " Maspeth Tanks " in nearby Greenpoint, Brooklyn ,

13932-542: The Washburn Valley north of Leeds. Residential growth occurred in Holbeck and Hunslet from 1801 to 1851, but, as these townships became industrialised new areas were favoured for middle class housing. Land south of the river was developed primarily for industry and secondarily for back-to-back workers' dwellings. The Leeds Improvement Act 1866 sought to improve the quality of working class housing by restricting

14104-500: The addition of a small amount of ash improved the flavour of tobacco. Of one vendor selling adulterated goods, he wrote "His tobacco enjoys a very good reputation in the province... the very small proportion of ash that is added gives it a particularly pungent flavour that consumers look for. Perhaps the Farm could gain some advantage by adding a bit of this liquid mixture when the tobacco is fabricated." Lavoisier also found that while adding

14276-451: The advent of 2-to-4-inch (50 to 100 mm) steel pipes to convey gas at up to 50 psi (340 kPa) as feeder mains to the traditional cast-iron pipes . Municipal gas works became superfluous in the later 20th century, but gas holders and production plants were still in use in steel works in 2016. A gas holder provided storage for purified, metered gas. It acted as a buffer, removing the need for continuous gas production. The weight of

14448-452: The age of 11. In his last two years (1760–1761) at the school, his scientific interests were aroused, and he studied chemistry , botany , astronomy , and mathematics . In the philosophy class he came under the tutelage of Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille , a distinguished mathematician and observational astronomer who imbued the young Lavoisier with an interest in meteorological observation, an enthusiasm which never left him. Lavoisier entered

14620-406: The air which combined with metals on calcination and increased the weight might be Black's fixed air, that is, CO 2 . In the spring of 1774, Lavoisier carried out experiments on the calcination of tin and lead in sealed vessels, the results of which conclusively confirmed that the increase in weight of metals in combustion was due to combination with air. But the question remained about whether it

14792-431: The average resident in Leeds earns £471 per week, 17th nationally and 30.9% of Leeds residents had NVQ4+ high-level qualifications, 15th nationally. Employment in Leeds was 68.8% in the period June 2012 to June 2013, which was lower than the national average, whilst unemployment was higher than the national average at 9.6% over the same time period. Leeds is overall less deprived than other large UK cities and average income

14964-430: The black market, Lavoisier saw to it that a watertight system of checks, accounts, supervision and testing made it very difficult for retailers to source contraband tobacco or to improve their profits by bulking it up. He was energetic and rigorous in implementing this, and the systems he introduced were deeply unpopular with the tobacco retailers across the country. This unpopularity was to have consequences for him during

15136-537: The bottom edge, called a cup, which picks up water as it rises above the reservoir water level. This immediately engages a downward lip on the inner rim of the next outer lift, called a dip or grip, and as this grip sinks into the cup, it preserves the water seal as the inner tank continues to rise until the grip grounds on the cup, whereupon further injection of gas will start to raise that lift as well. Holders were built with as many as four lifts. An extra flying lift could be retrofitted into column or frame gas holders. This

15308-414: The caustic form, for example, quicklime ( CaO ), lay in the fact that the former contained "fixed air," not common air fixed in the chalk, but a distinct chemical species, now understood to be carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), which was a constituent of the atmosphere. Lavoisier recognized that Black's fixed air was identical with the air evolved when metal calces were reduced with charcoal and even suggested that

15480-570: The central areas of Leeds is overwhelmingly urban. while being less than twenty miles (32 km) from the rural Yorkshire Dales National Park . It is contained within the Leeds Inner Ring Road , formed from parts of the A58 road , A61 road , A64 road , A643 road and the M621 motorway . Briggate , the principal north–south shopping street, is pedestrianised and Queen Victoria Street,

15652-470: The city and wider region are widespread. It is the county's largest settlement with a population of 536,280, while the larger City of Leeds district has a population of 812,000 ( 2021 census ). The city is part of the fourth-largest built-up area by population in the United Kingdom, West Yorkshire Built-up Area , with a 2011 census population of 1.7 million. The name derives from the old Brittonic *Lātēnses (via Late Brittonic Lādēses ), composed of

15824-405: The city centre live more than nine kilometres (5.6 miles) away. In 2011, the financial and services industry in Leeds was worth £2.1 billion, the fifth-largest in the UK, behind London, Edinburgh, Manchester and Birmingham. Tertiary industries such as retail, call centres , offices and media have contributed to a high rate of economic growth. The city also hosts the only subsidiary office of

15996-407: The city, attracting in investments and flagship projects, as found in Leeds city centre . Many developments boasting luxurious penthouse apartments have been built close to the city centre. At 53°47′59″N 1°32′57″W  /  53.79972°N 1.54917°W  / 53.79972; -1.54917 (53.799°, −1.549°), and 190 miles (310 km) north-northwest of central London , central Leeds

16168-424: The city. His participation in the collection of its taxes did not help his reputation when the Reign of Terror began in France, as taxes and poor government reform were the primary motivators during the French Revolution. Lavoisier consolidated his social and economic position when, in 1771 at age 28, he married Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze , the 13-year-old daughter of a senior member of the Ferme générale . She

16340-520: The coldest month is January, with a mean temperature of 3 °C (37 °F). Temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) and below −10 °C (14 °F) are not very common but can happen occasionally. Temperatures at Leeds Bradford Airport fell to −12.6 °C (9.3 °F) in December 2010 and reached 31.8 °C (89 °F) at Leeds city centre in August 2003. The record temperature for Leeds

16512-534: The commission set up to establish a uniform system of weights and measures which in March 1791 recommended the adoption of the metric system . The new system of weights and measures was adopted by the Convention on 1 August 1793. Lavoisier was one of the 27 Farmers General who, by order of the convention, were all to be detained. Although temporarily going into hiding, on 30 November 1793 he handed himself into

16684-691: The corporation in 1870, and the municipal supply provided street lighting and cheaper gas to homes. From the early 1880s, the Yorkshire House-to-House Electricity Company supplied electricity to Leeds until it was purchased by Leeds Corporation and became a municipal supply. Slum clearance and rebuilding began in Leeds during the interwar period when over 18,000 houses were built by the council on 24 estates in Cross Gates , Middleton, Gipton, Belle Isle and Halton Moor. The slums of Quarry Hill were replaced by

16856-549: The country were demolished or repurposed, and few gasometers remain because of this. A good example of a largely intact gasometer is located at the Launceston Gasworks site in Tasmania. Though the gas bell has been removed, all other components are intact. The remains of two older 1860s gasometers are also visible on site but only the foundations remain. In Sydney a beautiful ornate gasometer frame can be seen from

17028-411: The country. Leeds has the third-largest community of Jews in the United Kingdom, after those of London and Manchester. The areas of Alwoodley and Moortown contain sizeable Jewish communities. 16.8% of Leeds residents in the 2001 census declared themselves as having "No Religion", which is broadly in line with the figure for the whole of the UK (also 8.1% "religion not stated"). The crime rate in Leeds

17200-535: The county council was abolished in 1986, the city council absorbed its functions, and some powers passed to organisations such as the West Yorkshire Passenger Transport Authority . From 1988 two run-down and derelict areas close to the city centre were designated for regeneration and became the responsibility of Leeds Development Corporation , outside the planning remit of the city council. Planning powers were restored to

17372-598: The course of justice cannot be delayed.") The judge Coffinhal himself would be executed less than three months later, in the wake of the Thermidorian reaction . Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented the beheading by saying: "Il ne leur a fallu qu'un moment pour faire tomber cette tête, et cent années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour en reproduire une semblable." ("It took them only an instant to cut off this head, and one hundred years might not suffice to reproduce its like.") A year and

17544-463: The dephlogisticated air gave common atmospheric air. Common air was then a mixture of two distinct chemical species with quite different properties. Thus when the revised version of the Easter Memoir was published in 1778, Lavoisier no longer stated that the principle which combined with metals on calcination was just common air but "nothing else than the healthiest and purest part of the air" or

17716-580: The designation. The green belt was first adopted in 1960, and the size in the borough in 2017 amounted to some 33,970 hectares (339.7 km ; 131.2 sq mi). A subsidiary aim of the green belt is to encourage recreation and leisure interests, with rural landscape features, greenfield areas and facilities including Temple Newsam Park and House with golf course, Rothwell Country Park, Middleton Park, Kirkstall Abbey ruins and surrounding park, Bedquilts recreation grounds, Waterloo lake, Roundhay castle and park, and Morwick, Cobble and Elmete Halls. Leeds has

17888-401: The district. Some of Leeds suburbs include Headingley, Harehills and Hunslet. while exurbs of Leeds include Pudsey, Horsforth and Morley. Lying in the eastern foothills of the Pennines , there is a significant variation in elevation within the city's built-up area. The district ranges from 1,115 feet (340 m) in the far west on the slopes of Ilkley Moor to about 33 feet (10 m) where

18060-445: The dramatic changes in the field which are referred to generally as the chemical revolution. Lavoisier encountered much opposition in trying to change the field, especially from British phlogistic scientists. Joseph Priestley, Richard Kirwan , James Keir , and William Nicholson , among others, argued that quantification of substances did not imply conservation of mass. Rather than reporting factual evidence, opposition claimed Lavoisier

18232-575: The experiments be indeed such as to render the proofs de l'ordre demonstratif . The "official" version of Lavoisier's Easter Memoir appeared in 1778. In the intervening period, Lavoisier had ample time to repeat some of Priestley's latest experiments and perform some new ones of his own. In addition to studying Priestley's dephlogisticated air, he studied more thoroughly the residual air after metals had been calcined. He showed that this residual air supported neither combustion nor respiration and that approximately five volumes of this air added to one volume of

18404-486: The famous ground showed the gasholder dominating the landscape. It was demolished in late 1977/early 1978. This gasholder once operated by Gas del Estado is located in Villa Maipú, Partido de San Martín , Argentina . It was built in 1948 by MAN, and it was used to store coke gas produced by a near factory named Usina Corrales . With a total height of 85 metres (279 ft) and a diameter of 54 metres (177 ft), it

18576-403: The fastest rate of private-sector jobs growth of any UK city. It also has the highest ratio of private to public sector jobs of all the UK's Core Cities, with 77% of its workforce working in the private sector. Leeds has the third-largest jobs total by local authority area, with 480,000 in employment and self-employment at the beginning of 2015. Leeds is ranked as a "High Sufficiency" level city by

18748-457: The field of chemistry. This marked the beginning of the anti-phlogistic approach to the field. Lavoisier is commonly cited as a central contributor to the chemical revolution . His precise measurements and meticulous keeping of balance sheets throughout his experiment were vital to the widespread acceptance of the law of conservation of mass. His introduction of new terminology, a binomial system modeled after that of Linnaeus , also helps to mark

18920-508: The field. He published an account of this review in 1774 in a book entitled Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Physical and Chemical Essays). In the course of this review, he made his first full study of the work of Joseph Black , the Scottish chemist who had carried out a series of classic quantitative experiments on the mild and caustic alkalies. Black had shown that the difference between a mild alkali, for example, chalk ( CaCO 3 ), and

19092-485: The first working example was built in Leeds . Gas holders were then built all around the UK in great numbers starting in the 1850s. The first were the two-lift column-supported type; later ones had four lifts and were frame-guided, and they could be retrofitted with an additional flying lift. The large gas holders at Kings Cross, London , were built in the 1860s. William Gadd of Gadd & Mason in Manchester invented

19264-413: The gas holder lift (cap) controlled the pressure of the gas in the mains and provided back pressure for the gas-making plant. They are the only storage method that keeps gas at district pressure (the pressure required in local gas mains). There are two basic types of gas holder: the water-sealed and the rigid waterless. The water-sealed gas holder consists of a tank of water that rises and falls to take

19436-412: The gas. A watered gas holder consisted of two parts: a deep tank of water used to provide a seal, and a closed vessel (the lift) that rises above the water as the gas volume increased. Rigid waterless gas holders were a very early design that neither expanded or contracted. There are modern versions of the waterless gas holder, e.g. oil-sealed, grease-sealed and "dry seal" (membrane) types. They consist of

19608-456: The greatly enhanced combustion of substances and the greater ease of breathing in this air were explained. Lavoisier's researches included some of the first truly quantitative chemical experiments . He carefully weighed the reactants and products of a chemical reaction in a sealed glass vessel so that no gases could escape, which was a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. In 1774, he showed that, although matter can change its state in

19780-450: The hygiene in prisons and had made suggestions to improve living conditions, suggestions which were largely ignored. Once a part of the academy, Lavoisier also held his own competitions to push the direction of research towards bettering the public and his own work. Lavoisier had a vision of public education having roots in "scientific sociability" and philanthropy. Lavoisier gained a vast majority of his income through buying stock in

19952-555: The innovative Quarry Hill flats, which were demolished in 1975. Another 36,000 houses were built by private sector builders, creating suburbs in Gledhow, Moortown, Alwoodley, Roundhay, Colton, Whitkirk, Oakwood , Weetwood, and Adel. After 1949 a further 30,000 sub-standard houses were demolished by the council and replaced by 151 medium-rise and high-rise blocks of council flats in estates at Seacroft, Armley Heights, Tinshill, and Brackenwood. Leeds has seen great expenditure on regenerating

20124-627: The land contamination is relatively low. A gasworks in South Lotts , Dublin , Ireland, was converted into apartments. The gasholder in Amsterdam has hosted the Awakenings Techno parties . Gas holders have been a major part of the skylines of low-rise British cities for up to 200 years, due to their large distinctive shape and central location. They were originally used for balancing daily demand and generation of town gas . With

20296-549: The large-scale maps issued by the British Ordnance Survey and the term came to be used to label gas works, even though there may be several gas holders at any one gas works. However, the term "gasometer" is still discouraged for use in technical circles, where "gas holder" is preferred. The spelling "gas holder" is used by the BBC, among other institutions, but the variant "gasholder" is more commonly used. Before

20468-522: The largest in Europe. In the UK as well as other European countries, a movement to preserve classic gasometers has emerged in recent years, especially after Britain's National Grid announced in 2013 their plans to remove 76 gas holders, and soon afterwards, Southern and Scottish Gas networks announced that they would demolish 111 others. Christopher Costelloe, director of the Victorian Society ,

20640-409: The last figures, I must beg leave to observe, that these long rows of figures, which in some instances extend to a thousand times the nicety of experiment, serve only to exhibit a parade which true science has no need of: and, more than this, that when the real degree of accuracy in experiments is thus hidden from our contemplation, we are somewhat disposed to doubt whether the exactitude scrupuleuse of

20812-451: The local agricultural economy. Before the Industrial Revolution , it became a co-ordination centre for the manufacture of woollen cloth, and white broadcloth was traded at its White Cloth Hall . Leeds handled one sixth of England's export trade in 1770. Growth, initially in textiles, was accelerated by the creation of the Aire and Calder Navigation in 1699 (with major additional works in

20984-632: The local authority in 1995 when the development corporation was wound up. In 1801, 42% of the population of Leeds lived outside the township, in the wider borough. Cholera outbreaks in 1832 and 1849 caused the authorities to address the problems of drainage, sanitation, and water supply. Water was pumped from the River Wharfe, but by 1860 it was too heavily polluted to be usable. Following the Leeds Waterworks Act of 1867 three reservoirs were built at Lindley Wood, Swinsty, and Fewston in

21156-423: The main streets, including Briggate and further powers were added in 1790 to improve the water supply. The borough corporation was reformed under the provisions of Municipal Corporations Act 1835 . Leeds Borough Police force was formed in 1836, and Leeds Town Hall was completed by the corporation in 1858. In 1866, Leeds and each of the other townships in the borough became civil parishes . The borough became

21328-440: The mid-20th century coal gas was produced in retorts by heating coal in the absence of air, the process being known as coal gasification . Coal gas was first used for municipal lighting, the gas being passed through wooden or metal pipes from the retort to the lantern. The first public piped gas supply was to thirteen gas lamps installed along the length of Pall Mall, London , in 1807. The credit for this installation goes to

21500-547: The modern global economy. There has been growth in the corporate and legal sectors, and increased local affluence has led to an expanding retail sector, including the luxury goods market. Leeds City Region Enterprise Zone was launched in April 2012 to promote development in four sites along the A63 East Leeds Link Road. Leeds was a manor and township in the large ancient parish of Leeds St Peter , in

21672-532: The most diverse economy of all the UK's main employment centres and has seen the fastest rate of private sector jobs growth of any UK city and has the highest ratio of public to private sector jobs of all the UK's Core Cities . The city had the third-largest jobs total by local authority area with 480,000 in employment and self-employment at the beginning of 2015. 24.7% were in public administration, education and health, 23.9% were in banking, finance and insurance and 21.4% were in distribution, hotels and restaurants. It

21844-641: The move to natural gas and construction of the national grid pipework , their use steadily diminished as the pipe network could both store gas under pressure, and eventually satisfy peak demand directly. London , Manchester , Sheffield , Birmingham , Leeds , Newcastle , Salisbury , and Glasgow (which has the largest gasometers in the UK) are noted for having many gas holders. Some of these gas holders have become listed buildings . The gas holders behind King's Cross station in London were specially dismantled when

22016-475: The natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion and passion for chemistry were largely influenced by Étienne Condillac , a prominent French scholar of the 18th century. His first chemical publication appeared in 1764. From 1763 to 1767, he studied geology under Jean-Étienne Guettard . In collaboration with Guettard, Lavoisier worked on a geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767. In 1764 he read his first paper to

22188-482: The new Channel Tunnel Rail Link was being created, with Gas holder No 8 being re-erected on a nearby site behind St Pancras station as part of a housing development. It has been fashioned into a park. Most gas holders are no longer used, and a program of dismantling is underway to release the land for reuse. One of the largest remaining groups of gasholders is at Bromley-by-Bow in East London , believed to be

22360-402: The new system as compounds of various elements with oxygen, were given names which indicated the element involved together with the degree of oxygenation of that element, for example sulfuric and sulfurous acids, phosphoric and phosphorous acids, nitric and nitrous acids, the "ic" termination indicating acids with a higher proportion of oxygen than those with the "ous" ending. Similarly, salts of

22532-528: The nightlife in the city and there are ample facilities for sporting and cultural activities, including classical and popular music festivals, and a varied collection of museums. Leeds has multiple motorway links such as the M1 , M62 and A1(M) . The city's railway station is, alongside Manchester Piccadilly , the busiest of its kind in Northern England . Public transport, rail and road networks in

22704-410: The north parts are built on older sandstone and gritstones and to the east it extends into the magnesian limestone belt. The land use in the central areas of Leeds is overwhelmingly urban. Attempts to define the exact geographic meaning of Leeds lead to a variety of concepts of its extent, varying by context include the area of the city centre , the urban sprawl, the administrative boundaries, and

22876-495: The number of homes that could be built in a single terrace. Holbeck and Leeds formed a continuous built-up area by 1858, with Hunslet nearly meeting them. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, population growth in Hunslet, Armley, and Wortley outstripped that of Leeds. When pollution became a problem, the wealthier residents left the industrial conurbation to live in Headingley, Potternewton and Chapel Allerton which led to

23048-418: The parish and county borough of Leeds absorbed Leeds Rural District , consisting of the parishes of Roundhay and Seacroft ; and Shadwell , which had been part of Wetherby Rural District. On 1 April 1925, the parish of Leeds was expanded to cover the whole borough. The county borough was abolished on 1 April 1974, and its former area was combined with that of the municipal boroughs of Morley and Pudsey ;

23220-624: The platform of the Macdonaldtown railway station which was built above the access tunnels of the adjoining gasworks site. In Queensland, the Gasworks Newstead is a commercial, residential, and retail development adjoining the river at Newstead , Brisbane, opening in 2013, built around a now heritage-listed 1887 gas holder. Only the frame remains, inside of which is a plaza used as a public recreation zone and for occasional special events such as markets or concerts. At dusk each day

23392-406: The principles of oxygen, hydrogen, and azote ( nitrogen ); carbon; sulfur; phosphorus; the yet unknown "radicals" of muriatic acid ( hydrochloric acid ), boric acid , and "fluoric" acid; 17 metals; 5 earths (mainly oxides of yet unknown metals such as magnesia , baria , and strontia ); three alkalies ( potash , soda , and ammonia ); and the "radicals" of 19 organic acids. The acids, regarded in

23564-458: The process. When reduced without charcoal, it gave off an air which supported respiration and combustion in an enhanced way. He concluded that this was just a pure form of common air and that it was the air itself "undivided, without alteration, without decomposition" which combined with metals on calcination. After returning from Paris, Priestley took up once again his investigation of the air from mercury calx. His results now showed that this air

23736-589: The public beginning in 1793. At the age of 26, around the time he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, Lavoisier bought a share in the Ferme générale , a tax farming financial company which advanced the estimated tax revenue to the royal government in return for the right to collect the taxes. On behalf of the Ferme générale Lavoisier commissioned the building of a wall around Paris so that customs duties could be collected from those transporting goods into and out of

23908-412: The reform of French education. He also intervened on behalf of a number of foreign-born scientists including mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange , helping to exempt them from a mandate stripping all foreigners of possessions and freedom. As the French Revolution gained momentum, attacks mounted on the deeply unpopular Ferme générale , and it was eventually abolished in March 1791. In 1792 Lavoisier

24080-517: The rest of the West Yorkshire Urban Area . It accounts for 20% of the area and 62% of the population of the City of Leeds. The population of the urban subdivision had a 100 to 93.1 female–male ratio. Of those over 16 years old, 39.4% were single (never married) and 35.4% married for the first time. The urban subdivision's 188,890 households included 35% one-person, 27.9% married couples living together, 8.8% were co-habiting couples, and 5.7% single parents with their children. Leeds

24252-428: The rigid systems could buckle and jam the lift. Spiral-guided gas holders were built in the UK from 1890 until 1983. These have no frame, and each lift is guided by the one below, rotating as it goes up as dictated by helical runners. Both telescoping types use the manometric property of water to provide a seal. The whole tank floats in a circular or annular water reservoir, held up by the roughly constant pressure of

24424-460: The rivers Aire and Wharfe cross the eastern boundary. Land rises to 198 m (650 ft) in Cookridge, just 6 miles (9.7 km) from the city centre. The northern boundary follows the River Wharfe for several miles (several kilometres), but it crosses the river to include the part of Otley which lies north of the river. The Leeds postcode area covers most of the City of Leeds district and

24596-463: The role oxygen plays in combustion . He named oxygen (1778), recognizing it as an element, and also recognized hydrogen as an element (1783), opposing the phlogiston theory . Lavoisier helped construct the metric system , wrote the first extensive list of elements , and helped to reform chemical nomenclature . He predicted the existence of silicon (1787) and discovered that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remains

24768-461: The same . His wife and laboratory assistant, Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier , became a renowned chemist in her own right. Lavoisier was a powerful member of a number of aristocratic councils, and an administrator of the Ferme générale . The Ferme générale was one of the most hated components of the Ancien Régime because of the profits it took at the expense of the state, the secrecy of

24940-513: The school of law, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1763 and a licentiate in 1764. Lavoisier received a law degree and was admitted to the bar , but never practiced as a lawyer. However, he continued his scientific education in his spare time. Lavoisier's education was filled with the ideals of the French Enlightenment of the time, and he was fascinated by Pierre Macquer 's dictionary of chemistry. He attended lectures in

25112-545: The security of storing large amounts of high-pressure natural gas above ground made them unpopular with local people and councils . Bullets are gradually being decommissioned. It is also possible to store natural gas in liquid form , and this is widely practised throughout the world. Antoine Lavoisier Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier ( / l ə ˈ v w ɑː z i eɪ / lə- VWAH -zee-ay ; French: [ɑ̃twan lɔʁɑ̃ də lavwazje] ; 26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794), also Antoine Lavoisier after

25284-552: The spirally guided gas holder in 1890. Instead of external columns or guide frames, his design operated with spiral rails. The first commercial design was built in Northwich , Cheshire, in the same year. By the end of the 19th century most towns in Britain had their own gas works and gas holders. The years between the two world wars were marked by improvements in storage, especially the waterless gas holder, and in distribution, with

25456-403: The state of money owed to it, and of adding water to tobacco before selling it. Lavoisier drafted their defense, refuting the financial accusations, reminding the court of how they had maintained a consistently high quality of tobacco. The court, however, was inclined to believe that by condemning them and seizing the goods of the Farmers General, it would recover huge sums for the state. Lavoisier

25628-519: The story include Joseph-Louis Lagrange as being the scientist to observe and record Lavoisier's blinking. This story was not recorded in contemporary accounts of Lavoisier's death, and the execution site was too removed from the public for Lagrange to have viewed Lavoisier's alleged experiment. The story likely originated in a 1990s Discovery Channel documentary about guillotines and then subsequently spread online, becoming what one source describes as an urban legend . Contrary to prevailing thought at

25800-465: The strict Calvinist preacher Alexander Cooke as vicar of Leeds, but she refused. The inhabitants petitioned Charles I for a charter of incorporation, which was granted in 1626. The new charter incorporated the entire parish, including all eleven townships, as the Borough of Leeds and withdrew the earlier charter. Improvement commissioners were set up in 1755 for paving, lighting, and cleansing of

25972-414: The terms of its contracts, and the violence of its armed agents. All of these political and economic activities enabled him to fund his scientific research. At the height of the French Revolution, he was charged with tax fraud and selling adulterated tobacco , and was guillotined despite appeals to spare his life in recognition of his contributions to science. A year and a half later, he was exonerated by

26144-514: The textile sector, rapidly became a diverse industry. The railway network constructed around Leeds, starting with the Leeds and Selby Railway in 1834, provided improved communications with national markets and, significantly for its development, an east–west connection with Manchester and the ports of Liverpool and Hull giving improved access to international markets. Alongside technological advances and industrial expansion, Leeds retained an interest in trading in agricultural commodities, with

26316-403: The time, Lavoisier theorized that common air, or one of its components, combines with substances when they are burned. He demonstrated this through experiment. During late 1772 Lavoisier turned his attention to the phenomenon of combustion , the topic on which he was to make his most significant contribution to science. He reported the results of his first experiments on combustion in a note to

26488-435: The urban districts of Aireborough , Horsforth , Otley , Garforth and Rothwell ; and parts of the rural districts of Tadcaster , Wetherby , and Wharfedale . This area formed a metropolitan district in the county of West Yorkshire . It gained both borough and city status and is known as the City of Leeds . Initially, local government services were provided by Leeds City Council and West Yorkshire County Council . When

26660-468: The urban subdivision, while it takes up only 21% of its total area of 552 km . At the time of the 2011 UK Census , the district had a total population of 751,500, representing a 5% growth since the previous census ten years earlier. According to the 2001 UK Census, there were 301,614 households in Leeds; 33.3% were married couples living together, 31.6% were single-person households, 9.0% were co-habiting couples and 9.8% were single parents, following

26832-512: Was a landmark due to its unusual marking scheme, which had a red-and-white checkerboard pattern from 200 feet (61 m) up. The structure was demolished in July 1984. Approximately a dozen brick or concrete structures built in the latter half of the 19th-century to house gasholders, known as gasholder houses , still exist in the United States. The Troy Gas Light Company structure in Troy, New York ,

27004-472: Was an additional inner tank that extended above the standards, when the infrastructure would support the extra shear forces and weight. Though not exclusively, spiral guides were used. Dry-seal gas holders have a static cylindrical shell, within which a piston rises and falls. As it moves, a grease seal, tar/oil seal or a sealing membrane which is rolled out and in from the piston keeps the gas from escaping. The MAN type (by Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg AG )

27176-688: Was an especially pure form of common air. Lavoisier carried out his own research on this peculiar substance. The result was his memoir On the Nature of the Principle Which Combines with Metals during Their Calcination and Increases Their Weight , read to the Academy on 26 April 1775 (commonly referred to as the Easter Memoir). In the original memoir, Lavoisier showed that the mercury calx was a true metallic calx in that it could be reduced with charcoal , giving off Black's fixed air in

27348-499: Was awarded in 1893, and a populous urban centre formed in the following century which absorbed surrounding villages and overtook the population of nearby York . Leeds' economy is the most diverse of all the UK's main employment centres, and has seen the fastest rate of private-sector jobs growth of any UK city and has the highest ratio of private to public sector jobs. Leeds is home to over 109,000 companies, generating 5% of England's total economic output of £60.5 billion, and

27520-987: Was built in 1899. The gas plant operated until 1931, but its associated gas holder was used with natural gas into the 1950s, when the property was redeveloped. Gas holders also previously existed at Chico (demolished 1951), Daly City, Eureka, Fresno, Long Beach (1927-1997), Los Angeles, including two within sight of City Hall Merced, Monterey, Oakland, Redding (gas holder demolished early 1960s), Redwood City (gas holder built early 1900s, demolished 1959), Salinas, San Francisco Potrero Plant, Santa Rosa, St. Helena, Stockton, Vallejo, Willows; and likely existed at their other gasification plants in Colusa, Hollister, Lodi, Madera, Marysville, Modesto, Napa, Oakdale, Oroville, Red Bluff, Sacramento, San Luis Obispo, Santa Cruz, Selma, Tracy, Turlock, Watsonville and Woodland. Gasholders, though once common, have become rare in Australia. Most gasworks within

27692-415: Was convicted and guillotined on 8 May 1794 in Paris, at the age of 50, along with his 27 co-defendants. According to popular legend, the appeal to spare his life, in order that he could continue his experiments, was cut short by the judge, Coffinhal : "La République n'a pas besoin de savants ni de chimistes; le cours de la justice ne peut être suspendu." ("The Republic needs neither scholars nor chemists;

27864-634: Was described by The New York Times at length. Of the waterless type ( MAN type), the first extremely large one by B.H. was the one at the River Rouge Plant of the Ford Motor Company , built in 1935. Another large MAN-type gas holder was erected just east of Baltimore, Maryland , by B.H. in 1949 and operated by Baltimore Gas and Electric for 32 years. The 307-foot-tall (94 m), 170-foot-diameter (52 m) structure, which could hold 7 million cubic feet (200,000 m),

28036-412: Was forced to resign from his post on the Gunpowder Commission and to move from his house and laboratory at the Royal Arsenal. On 8 August 1793, all the learned societies, including the Academy of Sciences, were suppressed at the request of Abbé Grégoire . On 24 November 1793, the arrest of all the former tax farmers was ordered. Lavoisier and the other Farmers General faced nine accusations of defrauding

28208-634: Was in 1805, at Lee & Phillips, Salford Twist Mill , where eight gas holders were installed. This was shortly followed by one in Sowerby Bridge, constructed by Clegg for Henry Lodge. The first independent commercial gas works were built by the Gas Light and Coke Company in Great Peter Street, Westminster, in 1812, with wooden pipes laid to gas lights on Westminster Bridge on New Year's Eve in 1813. Public gas lights were seen as

28380-469: Was in combination with common atmospheric air or with only a part of atmospheric air. In October the English chemist Joseph Priestley visited Paris, where he met Lavoisier and told him of the air which he had produced by heating the red calx of mercury with a burning glass and which had supported combustion with extreme vigor. Priestley at this time was unsure of the nature of this gas, but he felt that it

28552-546: Was interested in air quality and spent some time studying the health risks associated with gunpowder's effect on the air. In 1772, he performed a study on how to reconstruct the Hôtel-Dieu hospital, after it had been damaged by fire, in a way that would allow proper ventilation and clean air throughout. At the time, the prisons in Paris were known to be largely unlivable and the prisoners' treatment inhumane. Lavoisier took part in investigations in 1780 (and again in 1791) on

28724-560: Was introduced in 1915: it was polygonal and used a tar/oil seal. The Klonne dry seal gas holder was circular and used a grease seal. The dry-seal Wiggins gasholder was patented in 1952: it used a flexible curtain that was suspended from the piston. The largest low-pressure gas holder built was the Klonne gas holder built in 1938 in Gelsenkirchen . It was 147 metres (482 ft) high and 80 metres (260 ft) in diameter, which gave it

28896-650: Was misinterpreting the implications of his research. One of Lavoisier's allies, Jean Baptiste Biot , wrote of Lavoisier's methodology, "one felt the necessity of linking accuracy in experiments to rigor of reasoning." His opposition argued that precision in experimentation did not imply precision in inferences and reasoning. Despite opposition, Lavoisier continued to use precise instrumentation to convince other chemists of his conclusions, often results to five to eight decimal places. Nicholson, who estimated that only three of these decimal places were meaningful, stated: If it be denied that these results are pretended to be true in

29068-422: Was not just an especially pure form of common air but was "five or six times better than common air, for the purpose of respiration, inflammation, and ... every other use of common air". He called the air dephlogisticated air, as he thought it was common air deprived of its phlogiston . Since it was therefore in a state to absorb a much greater quantity of phlogiston given off by burning bodies and respiring animals,

29240-582: Was operational for short period of time until in 1954 it was decommissioned. The structure remains in place and it is property of Gas Natural Fenosa. Most gas is stored in large underground reservoirs such as salt caverns. For short-term local storage, line-packing is the preferred method. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s it was thought that gas holders could be replaced with high-pressure bullets (a cylindrical pressure vessel with hemispherical ends). However, regulations brought in meant that all new bullets must be built several miles out of towns and cities, and

29412-711: Was successful. He joined Boulton and Watt at the Soho manufactory in Birmingham in 1777, and in 1792 he built a retort to heat coal to produce the gas that illuminated his home and office in Redruth . His system lacked a storage method until James Watt Junior adapted a Lavoisier gazomètre for this purpose. A gasometer was incorporated into the first small gasworks built for the Soho manufactory in 1798. William Murdoch and his pupil Samuel Clegg went on to install retorts in individual factories and other workplaces. The earliest

29584-568: Was to play an important part in Lavoisier's scientific career—notably, she translated English documents for him, including Richard Kirwan 's Essay on Phlogiston and Joseph Priestley 's research. In addition, she assisted him in the laboratory and created many sketches and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues for their scientific works. Madame Lavoisier edited and published Antoine's memoirs (whether any English translations of those memoirs have survived

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