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165-805: According to Aristotle (384–322 BCE), isopsephy , based on the Milesian numbering of the Greek alphabet developed in the Greek city of Miletus , was part of the Pythagorean tradition , which originated in the 6th century BCE. The first evidence of use of Hebrew letters as numbers dates to 78 BCE; gematria is still used in Jewish culture . Similar systems have been used in other languages and cultures, derived from or inspired by either Greek isopsephy or Hebrew gematria, and include Arabic abjad numerals and English gematria . The most common form of Hebrew gematria

330-576: A magnitude 7.0 earthquake struck offshore near the island, triggering a tsunami. The earthquake and tsunami resulted in two deaths and several injured in Samos, and 117 deaths and 1632 injured in Turkey. The earthquake also caused damage to a number of buildings in Vathy, Karlovasi, and their vicinities; these included residential buildings, public buildings (schools, halls, etc.), religious buildings (churches),

495-527: A will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife. Aristotle left his works to Theophrastus, his successor as the head of the Lyceum, who in turn passed them down to Neleus of Scepsis in Asia Minor. There, the papers remained hidden for protection until they were purchased by the collector Apellicon . In the meantime, many copies of Aristotle's major works had already begun to circulate and be used in

660-541: A "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor , or that one kind can change into another , or that kinds can become extinct . Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In Generation of Animals , he finds

825-606: A 1651 work by Georg Philipp Harsdörffer , and by Athanasius Kircher in 1665, and in a 1683 volume of Cabbalologia by Johann Henning, where it was simply referred to as the 1683 alphabet . It was mentioned in the work of Johann Christoph Männling  [ de ] The European Helicon or Muse Mountain , in 1704, and it was also called the Alphabetum Cabbalisticum Vulgare in Die verliebte und galante Welt by Christian Friedrich Hunold in 1707. It

990-810: A base for the Egyptian fleet of the Ptolemies ; at other periods, it recognized the overlordship of Seleucid Syria. In 189 BC, it was transferred by the Romans to their vassal, the Attalid dynasty's Hellenistic kingdom of Pergamon , in Asia Minor . Enrolled from 133 in the Roman province of Asia Minor, Samos sided with Aristonicus (132) and Mithridates (88) against its overlord, and consequently forfeited its autonomy, which it only temporarily recovered between

1155-573: A broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences , philosophy , linguistics , economics , politics , psychology , and the arts . As the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy in the Lyceum in Athens , he began the wider Aristotelian tradition that followed, which set the groundwork for the development of modern science . Little is known about Aristotle's life. He was born in

1320-495: A building known as the Lyceum (named after the sacred grove of Apollo Lykeios ), in which he established his own school. The building included a gymnasium and a colonnade ( peripatos ), from which the school acquired the name Peripatetic . Aristotle conducted courses and research at the school for the next twelve years. He often lectured small groups of distinguished students and, along with some of them, such as Theophrastus , Eudemus , and Aristoxenus , Aristotle built

1485-455: A cubit of ocean every day, but is unable to ever finish consuming it, because the oceans are also refilled by 360 rivers. The number 360 is given because the numerical value of the Greek word for snake, δράκων , when transliterated to Hebrew ( דרקון ) is 360. In a second example, the number of giants stated to have died during the Deluge is 409,000. The Greek word for 'deluge', κατακλυσμός , has

1650-522: A different secret cipher. A mathematical formula for finding a letter's corresponding number in mispar gadol is: where x is the position of the letter in the language letters index (regular order of letters), and the floor and modulo functions are used. The value of the Hebrew vowels is not usually counted, but some lesser-known methods include the vowels as well. The most common vowel values are as follows (a less common alternative value, based on

1815-608: A distinct province. Locally, the Ottoman authorities were represented by a voevoda , who was in charge of the fiscal administration, the kadi (judge), the island's Orthodox bishop and four notables representing the four districts of the island ( Vathy , Chora , Karlovasi and Marathokampos ). Ottoman rule was interrupted during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 , when the island came under Russian control in 1771–1774. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca that concluded

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1980-438: A fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside. Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics . It does not result in

2145-574: A few salient points. Aristotle was born in 384 BC in Stagira , Chalcidice , about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki . He was the son of Nicomachus , the personal physician of King Amyntas of Macedon , and Phaestis, a woman with origins from Chalcis , Euboea . Nicomachus was said to have belonged to the medical guild of Asclepiadae and was likely responsible for Aristotle's early interest in biology and medicine. Ancient tradition held that Aristotle's family descended from

2310-497: A fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not ), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium. Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push

2475-406: A form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, one can place an apple next to a book, so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good"

2640-473: A hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification : Csa ), with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. The highest temperature ever recorded is 43.0 °C (109.4 °F) while the lowest is −3.4 °C (25.9 °F). July is the hottest and driest month followed by August while February is the coldest month and December records the highest amount of precipitation. Samos receives about 705 millimetres (27.8 in) of rainfall annually while

2805-554: A large library which included manuscripts, maps, and museum objects. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira. They had a son whom Aristotle named after his father, Nicomachus . This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his philosophical works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for

2970-649: A length of over 1 km (0.6 mi), Eupalinos's subterranean aqueduct is today regarded as one of the masterpieces of ancient engineering. The aqueduct is now part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site , the Pythagoreion . After Polycrates's death, Samos suffered a severe blow when the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered and partly depopulated the island. It had regained much of its power when in 499 BC it joined

3135-597: A linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is convergent evolution . Philosophers of science have generally concluded that Aristotle was not interested in taxonomy, but zoologists who studied this question in the early 21st century think otherwise. He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design. Aristotle's psychology , given in his treatise On

3300-789: A numerical value of 409 when transliterated in Hebrew characters, thus leading the author of 3 Baruch to use it for the number of perished giants. Gematria is often used in Rabbinic literature . One example is that the numerical value of " The Satan" ( השטן ) in Hebrew is 364, and so it was said that the Satan had authority to prosecute Israel for 364 days before his reign ended on the Day of Atonement , an idea which appears in Yoma 20a and Peskita 7a. Yoma 20a states: "Rami bar Ḥama said: The numerological value of

3465-427: A plant in the soil is potentially ( dynamei ) a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially, beings can either 'act' ( poiein ) or 'be acted upon' ( paschein ), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality

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3630-576: A population of some 10,000 in the 17th century, which was still concentrated mostly in the interior. It was not until the mid-18th century that the coast began to be densely settled as well. Under Ottoman rule, Samos ( Ottoman Turkish : سيسام Sisam ) came under the administration of the Kapudan Pasha ' s Eyalet of the Archipelago , usually as part of the Sanjak of Rhodes rather than as

3795-561: A portion of the Byzantine Empire , Samos became part of the namesake theme . After the 13th century, it passed through much the same changes of government as Chios , and, like the latter island, became the property of the Genoese family Giustiniani (1346–1566; 1475 interrupted by an Ottoman period). It was also ruled by Tzachas between 1081–1091. Samos came under Ottoman rule in 1475 or c.  1479 /80, at which time

3960-498: A priori principles. Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in

4125-576: A researcher and lecturer, earning for himself the nickname "mind of the school" by his tutor Plato . In Athens, he probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" ( παθεĩν μαθεĩν ). Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC after Plato's death. The traditional story about his departure records that he

4290-646: A significant impact across the world, and remain a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion. Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship . The influence of his physical science extended from late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance , and was not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies during

4455-609: A symbol for the cross also equaled 318. Another example is a Christian interpolation in the Sibylline Oracles , where the symbolic significance of the value of 888 (equal to the numerical value of Iesous , the Latinized rendering of the Greek version of Jesus' name) is asserted. Irenaeus also heavily criticized the interpretation of letters by the Gnostic Marcus . Because of their association with Gnosticism and

4620-562: A thrown stone, in the Physics (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in On the Heavens (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest, since Aristotle does not address friction . With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on

4785-402: A true form of gematria. Gematria sums can involve single words, or a string of lengthy calculations. A short example of Hebrew numerology that uses gematria is the word חי , chai , 'alive', which is composed of two letters that (using the assignments in the mispar gadol table shown below) add up to 18. This has made 18 a " lucky number " among Jews. In early Jewish sources,

4950-412: A tunnel through Mount Kastro to build an aqueduct to supply the ancient capital of Samos with fresh water, as this was of the utmost defensive importance (since being underground, it was not easily detected by an enemy who could otherwise cut off the supply). Eupalinos's tunnel is particularly notable because it is the second earliest tunnel in history to be dug from both ends in a methodical manner. With

5115-472: A while. There was a school of sculptors and architects that included Rhoecus , the architect of the Temple of Hera (Olympia) , and the great sculptor and inventor Theodorus , who is said to have invented with Rhoecus the art of casting statues in bronze . The vases of Samos were among the most characteristic products of Ionian pottery in the 6th century. For some time (about 275–270 BC), Samos served as

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5280-399: Is 43 km (27 mi) long and 13 km (8 mi) wide. It is separated from Anatolia by the approximately 1-mile-wide (1.6 km) Mycale Strait . While largely mountainous, Samos has several relatively large and fertile plains. A great portion of the island is covered with vineyards , from which Muscat wine is made. The most important plains other than the capital, Vathy , in

5445-646: Is 70 ( י =10; י =10; ן =50) and this is also the gematric value of סוד ('secret', ס =60; ו =6; ד =4)‎. Although a type of gematria system ('Aru') was employed by the ancient Babylonian culture, their writing script was logographic , and the numerical assignments they made were to whole words. Aru was very different from the Milesian systems used by Greek and Hebrew cultures, which used alphabetic writing scripts. The value of words with Aru were assigned in an entirely arbitrary manner and correspondences were made through tables, and so cannot be considered

5610-571: Is a Greek island in the eastern Aegean Sea , south of Chios , north of Patmos and the Dodecanese archipelago, and off the coast of western Turkey , from which it is separated by the 1.6-kilometre-wide (1.0 mi) Mycale Strait . It is also a separate regional unit of the North Aegean region. In ancient times , Samos was an especially rich and powerful city-state , particularly known for its vineyards and wine production. It

5775-454: Is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived. Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish , electric ray , and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus . His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction,

5940-419: Is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then

6105-454: Is given a numerical value between 1 and 400, as shown in the following table. In mispar gadol , the five final letters are given their own values, ranging from 500 to 900. It is possible that this well-known cipher was used to conceal other more hidden ciphers in Jewish texts. For instance, a scribe may discuss a sum using the 'standard gematria' cipher, but may intend the sum to be checked with

6270-590: Is home to Pythagoreion and the Heraion of Samos , a UNESCO World Heritage Site that includes the Eupalinian aqueduct , a marvel of ancient engineering. Samos is the birthplace of the Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras , after whom the Pythagorean theorem is named, the philosophers Melissus of Samos and Epicurus , and the astronomer Aristarchus of Samos , the first known individual to propose that

6435-541: Is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same. Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction , whereas Plato relies on deduction from

6600-406: Is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms. Concerning the nature of change ( kinesis ) and its causes, as he outlines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption ( 319b–320a), he distinguishes coming-to-be ( genesis , also translated as 'generation') from: Coming-to-be is a change where the substrate of

6765-502: Is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books are: The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from

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6930-480: Is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the forms as existing separately from the things that participate in them, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal

7095-413: Is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end ( telos ) is the principle of every change, and potentiality exists for the sake of the end, actuality, accordingly, is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do. For that for the sake of which ( to hou heneka ) a thing is, is its principle, and

7260-570: Is the larger of the two and occupies the centre of the island, rising to 1,095 metres (3,593 ft). Mt. Kerkis, though smaller in area, is the taller of the two, and its summit is the island's highest point, at 1,434 metres (4,705 ft). The mountains are a continuation of the Mycale range on the Anatolian mainland. Samos is home to many species including the golden jackal , stone marten , wild boar , flamingos and monk seal . Samos has

7425-531: Is thus known as the Milesian system. Early examples include vase graffiti dating to the 6th century BCE. Aristotle wrote that the Pythgoraean tradition , founded in the 6th century BCE by Pythagoras of Samos , practiced isopsephy , the Greek predecessor of gematria. Pythagoras was a contemporary of the philosophers Anaximander , Anaximenes , and the historian Hecataeus , all of whom lived in Miletus, across

7590-602: Is used in the Talmud and Midrash , and elaborately by many post-Talmudic commentators . It involves reading words and sentences as numbers, assigning numerical instead of phonetic value to each letter of the Hebrew alphabet. When read as numbers, they can be compared and contrasted with other words or phrases – cf. the Hebrew proverb נכנס יין יצא סוד ( nichnas yayin yatza sod , lit.   ' wine entered, secret went out ' , i.e. "in vino veritas" ). The gematric value of יין ('wine')

7755-401: Is valid, but 3 + 1 + 1 {\displaystyle 3+1+1} is not). The original letter itself can also be viewed as a valid combination. Variant spellings of some letters can be used to produce sets of different numbers, which can be added up or analyzed separately. Many various complex formal systems and recursive algorithms, based on graph-like structural analysis of

7920-548: The Iliad , which reportedly became one of Alexander's most prized possessions. Scholars speculate that two of Aristotle's now lost works, On kingship and On behalf of the Colonies , were composed by the philosopher for the young prince. After Philip II's assassination in 336 BC, Aristotle returned to Athens for the second and final time a year later. As a metic , Aristotle could not own property in Athens and thus rented

8085-566: The A∴A∴ and Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O). Many other occult authors belonging to various esoteric groups have either mentioned the cipher or published it in their books, including Paul Foster Case of the Builders of the Adytum (B.O.T.A). According to Aristotle (384–322 BCE), isopsephy , an early Milesian system using the Greek alphabet, was part of the Pythagorean tradition , which originated in

8250-530: The Delian League , Samos held a position of special privilege and remained actively loyal to Athens until 440 BC, when a dispute with Miletus , which the Athenians had decided against them, induced them to secede. With a fleet of sixty ships, they held their own for some time against a large Athenian fleet led by Pericles himself, but after a protracted siege, they were forced to capitulate. Samos

8415-652: The Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in Late antiquity ) and Galileo (in Early modern period ) are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli , who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth 's gravitational field immersed in

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8580-598: The Earth revolves around the Sun . Samian wine was well known in antiquity and is still produced on the island. The island was governed by the semi-autonomous Principality of Samos under Ottoman suzerainty from 1835 until it joined Greece in March 1913. Strabo derived the name from the Phoenician word 𐤔𐤌𐤌 ( smm ) ' high ' . The area of the island is 477.395 km (184.3 sq mi), and it

8745-664: The French Republic ), introduced to Samos the progressive ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and of the French Revolution , and led to the formation of two rival political parties, the progressive-radical Karmanioloi ("Carmagnoles", named after the French Revolutionary song Carmagnole ) and the reactionary Kallikantzaroi (" goblins ") who represented mostly the traditional land-holding elites. Under

8910-525: The Great Comet of 371 BC . Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime. The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since

9075-476: The Hebrew Bible itself. The first documented use of gematria is from an Assyrian inscription dating to the 8th century BCE, commissioned by Sargon II . In this inscription, Sargon II states: "the king built the wall of Khorsabad 16,283 cubits long to correspond with the numerical value of his name." The practice of using alphabetic letters to represent numbers developed in the Greek city of Miletus , and

9240-476: The History of Animals in a graded scale of perfection, a nonreligious version of the scala naturae , with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants , and these in turn were above minerals. He grouped what

9405-456: The Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out partly correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them." He also wrote descriptions of comets, including

9570-528: The Peloponnese and the Ionian Islands , as well as the descendants of the original inhabitants who had fled to Chios , were attracted through the concession of certain privileges such as a seven-year tax exemption, a permanent exemption from the tithe in exchange for a lump annual payment of 45,000 piastres , and a considerable autonomy in local affairs. The island recovered gradually, reaching

9735-508: The Physics (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density, ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:; Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held

9900-526: The digit sum , is given in parentheses): Sometimes, the names of the vowels are spelled out and their gematria is calculated using standard methods. There are many different methods used to calculate the numerical value for the individual Hebrew/Aramaic words, phrases or whole sentences. Gematria is the 29th of 32 hermeneutical rules countenanced by the Rabbis of the Talmud for valid aggadic interpretation of

10065-519: The "extreme view" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this. Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water ; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not, as Aristotle thought, its elementary composition. Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until

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10230-745: The 153rd day after the beginning of the flood. Some historians see gematria behind the reference to the number of the name of the Beast in Revelation as 666, which corresponds to the numerical value of the Hebrew transliteration of the Greek name "Neron Kaisar", referring to the 1st century Roman emperor who persecuted the early Christians. Another possible influence on the use of 666 in Revelation goes back to reference to Solomon's intake of 666 talents of gold in 1 Kings 10:14. Gematria makes several appearances in various Christian and Jewish texts written in

10395-524: The 2006 song '786 All is War' by the band Fun-Da-Mental . A recommendation of reciting the basmala 786 times in sequence is recorded in Al-Buni . Sündermann (2006) reports that a contemporary " spiritual healer " from Syria recommends the recitation of the basmala 786 times over a cup of water, which is then to be ingested as medicine. The use of gematria is still pervasive in many parts of Asia and Africa. In standard gematria ( mispar hechrechi ), each letter

10560-483: The 20th and 25th years of his reign using the letters K and KE ( למלכא אלכסנדרוס שנת כ and למלכא אלכסנדרוס שנת כה ). Some old Mishnaic texts may preserve very early usage of this number system, but no surviving written documents exist, and some scholars believe these texts were passed down orally and during the early stages before the Bar Kochba rebellion were never written. Gematria is not known to be found in

10725-578: The 231 mystical Gates of the Sefer Yetzirah . Dozens of other far more advanced methods are used in Kabbalistic literature, without any particular names. In Ms. Oxford 1,822, one article lists 75 different forms of gematria. Some known methods are recursive in nature and are reminiscent of graph theory or make a lot of use of combinatorics . Rabbi Elazar Rokeach (born c. 1176 – died 1238) often used multiplication, instead of addition, for

10890-522: The 6th century BCE. Plato (c. 427–347 BCE) offers a discussion in the Cratylus , involving a view of words and names as referring (more or less accurately) to the "essential nature" of a person or object and that this view may have influenced—and is central to—isopsephy. A sample of graffiti at Pompeii (destroyed under volcanic ash in 79 CE) reads "I love the girl whose name is phi mu epsilon (545)". Other examples of use in Greek come primarily from

11055-454: The Allied defeat in the Battle of Leros and a fierce aerial bombardment of Vathy and Tigani, the island was abandoned by most of the ELAS members, the anti-fascist Italians and the Allied troops and taken over by Germans without a fight. The Germans then destroyed the harbours of Karlovasos and Ormos Marathokampos with explosives. On 15 September 1944, an Allied aerial bombardment destroyed the German ship "Aslan" along with three support ships in

11220-416: The Athenian fleet . At the end of the Peloponnesian War, Samos appears as one of the most loyal dependencies of Athens, serving as a base for the naval war against the Peloponnesians and as a temporary home of the Athenian democracy during the revolution of the Four Hundred at Athens (411 BC), and in the last stage of the war was rewarded with the Athenian franchise. This friendly attitude towards Athens

11385-515: The British military who provided them with material support. In spring 1943, the Cuneo Division launched an unsuccessful, two-month-long counter-insurgency operation in Karvouni. In June 1943, ELAS came into contact with the anti-fascist organisation within the Cuneo Division resulting in an unofficial two-month truce between the two sides. After the Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy on 25 July, Pietro Badoglio replaced division commander Mario Soldarelli with Lieutenant General Pierola and reinforced

11550-423: The Christian literature. Davies and Allison state that, unlike rabbinic sources, isopsephy is always explicitly stated as being used. During the Renaissance , systems of gematria were devised for the Classical Latin alphabet . There were a number of variations of these which were popular in Europe. In 1525, Christoph Rudolff included a Classical Latin gematria in his work Nimble and beautiful calculation via

11715-407: The Dead Sea scrolls, a vast body of texts from 100 BCE – 100 CE, or in any of the documents found from the Bar-Kochba revolt circa 150 CE. According to Proclus in his commentary on the Timaeus of Plato written in the 5th century, the author Theodorus Asaeus from a century earlier interpreted the word "soul" (ψυχή) based on gematria and an inspection of the graphical aspects of

11880-508: The Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum, which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls . Though Aristotle wrote many treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived , none of it intended for publication. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. His teachings and methods of inquiry have had

12045-518: The Hebrew word. Some hold it to derive from the order of the Greek alphabet , gamma being the third letter of the Greek alphabet ("gamma tria"). The word has been extant in English since at least the 17th century from translations of works by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola . It is largely used in Jewish texts, notably in those associated with the Kabbalah . Neither the concept nor the term appears in

12210-575: The Italians during World War II. During the course of the Greek Civil War , Samos became one of the biggest centres of DSE resistance outside of the Greek mainland. The last DSE unit surrendered in Kerkis on 26 August 1949, the defeat of the communist resistance was followed by a celebratory visit of the Greek royal family on 15 October 1949. A total of 197 Samiot DSE fighters were killed during

12375-733: The Latin alphabet. In particular, the transliterated cipher was taught to members of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn . In 1887, S.L. MacGregor Mathers , who was one of the order's founders, published the transliterated cipher in The Kabbalah Unveiled in the Mathers table . As a former member of the Golden Dawn, Aleister Crowley used the transliterated cipher extensively in his writings for his two magical orders

12540-566: The Lyceum of Athens, Alexandria , and later in Rome . With the Prior Analytics , Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic . Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle, logic reached its completion. Most of Aristotle's work

12705-646: The Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology , especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church . Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher", and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher", while the poet Dante called him "the master of those who know". His works contain

12870-670: The New Testament. According to one theory, the reference to the miraculous "catch of 153 fish" in John 21:11 is an application of gematria derived from the name of the spring called 'EGLaIM in Ezekiel 47:10. The appearance of this gematria in John 21:11 has been connected to one of the Dead Sea Scrolls , namely 4Q252, which also applies the same gematria of 153 derived from Ezekiel 47 to state that Noah arrived at Mount Ararat on

13035-659: The Samos garrison with 1,500 Blackshirts . Pierola then launched another counter-insurgency operation in Kerkis, which resulted in the death of 40 resistance members. Following the Italian surrender in September 1943, the Cuneo Division joined forces with ELAS in arresting local collaborationists and freeing jailed resistance fighters. Samos was briefly taken over by the Sacred Band and British forces, but following

13200-719: The Soul ( peri psychēs ), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have all three. The vegetative soul is concerned with growth and nourishment. The sensitive soul experiences sensations and movement. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the nous (intellect) and logos (reason). Samos Samos ( / ˈ s eɪ m ɒ s / , also US : / ˈ s æ m oʊ s , ˈ s ɑː m ɔː s / ; Greek : Σάμος , romanized :  Sámos , Greek pronunciation: [ˈsa.mos] )

13365-530: The Torah. More advanced methods are usually used for the most significant Biblical verses, prayers , names of God, etc. These methods include: Within the wider topic of gematria are included the various alphabet transformations, where one letter is substituted by another based on a logical scheme: Most of the above-mentioned methods and ciphers are listed by Rabbi Moshe Cordevero . Some authors provide lists of as many as 231 various replacement ciphers, related to

13530-448: The Vathy camp held 6,800 migrants, ten times the number it was originally designed for. The presence of large numbers of migrants on the Greek islands has caused tensions and some civil unrest on the part of island residents and migrants being kept in camps. In 2020, the Greek government announced a new closed reception centre will be built near the village of Zervou to replace the current temporary open camps by 2021. On 30 October 2020,

13695-874: The Vathy harbour. Upon the departure of the Germans, ELAS and a 120-man unit of the Sacred Band forced the remaining 1,000 Blackshirts to surrender; ending the island's occupation on 5 October 1944. Many of the Samiot ELAS members that abandoned the island following its occupation by the Germans, enlisted in the Greek Armed Forces in the Middle East , participated in the communist-led 1944 Greek naval mutiny and were subsequently imprisoned in British prison camps. Approximately 4,500 of them returned to

13860-422: The above-mentioned methods. For example, spelling out the letters of a word and then multiplying the squares of each letter value in the resulting string produces very large numbers, in orders of trillions . The spelling process can be applied recursively, until a certain pattern (e.g., all the letters of the word " Talmud ") is found; the gematria of the resulting string is then calculated. The same author also used

14025-761: The artful rules of algebra [which] are so commonly called "coss" : At the beginning of the Apocalypisis in Apocalypsin (1532), the German monk Michael Stifel (also known as Steifel) describes the natural order and trigonal number alphabets, claiming to have invented the latter. He used the trigonal alphabet to interpret the prophecy in the Biblical Book of Revelation, and predicted the world would end at 8am on October 19, 1533. The official Lutheran reaction to Steifel's prophecy shows that this type of activity

14190-506: The astrological influences on a particular person. According to one method, the gematria of the person's name is added to the gematria of his or her mother's name; the result is then divided by 7 and 12. The remainders signify a particular planet and Zodiac sign. Historically, hermetic and esoteric groups of the 19th and 20th centuries in the UK and in France used a transliterated Hebrew cipher with

14355-516: The average annual temperature is 18.4 °C (65.1 °F). Humidity is lowest during the summer and highest at the end of autumn. In classical antiquity, the island was a centre of Ionian culture and luxury, renowned for its Samian wines and its red pottery (called Samian ware by the Romans). Its most famous building was the Ionic order archaic Temple of goddess Hera —the Heraion . Concerning

14520-494: The ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus . Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term aitia is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but

14685-640: The basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation , to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics ) and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations ). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu : the grammar of the language of logic and

14850-399: The becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see. In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which

15015-574: The broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". However, his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science ( dianoia ) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" ( Metaphysics 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics. In his On Generation and Corruption , Aristotle related each of

15180-637: The capital was moved to Vathy, at the head of a deep bay on the North coast. This became the residence of the prince and the seat of government. Since then a new town has grown, with a harbour. The island was united with the Kingdom of Greece in March 1913, five months after the outbreak of the First Balkan War . Although other Aegean islands had been quickly captured by the Greek Navy , Samos

15345-433: The cause of earthquakes was a gas or vapor ( anathymiaseis ) that was trapped inside the earth and trying to escape, following other Greek authors Anaxagoras , Empedocles and Democritus . Aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle. For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early – and correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that

15510-491: The city of Stagira in northern Greece during the Classical period . His father, Nicomachus , died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At around eighteen years old, he joined Plato 's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty seven ( c.  347 BC ). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon , tutored his son Alexander

15675-487: The correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics . What is today called Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics . The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to create

15840-601: The course of the civil war. On August 3, 1989, a Short 330 aircraft of the Olympic Airways (now Olympic Airlines ) crashed near Samos Airport ; 31 passengers and the crew died. A substantial migrant camp has been developed on the island at the site of a Greek military camp at Vathy to cope with the influx of migrants crossing the strait between the island and the Turkish mainland. It is estimated that in April 2020

16005-470: The criticisms of Irenaeus as well as Hippolytus of Rome and Epiphanius of Salamis , this form of interpretation never became popular in Christianity—though it does appear in at least some texts. Another two examples can be found in 3 Baruch , a text that may have either been composed by a Jew or a Christian sometime between the 1st and 3rd centuries. In the first example, a snake is stated to consume

16170-399: The data to come to the theory of evolution . Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of

16335-751: The death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, Euboea , at which occasion he was said to have stated "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates . He died in Chalcis, Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving

16500-575: The earliest history of Samos, literary tradition is singularly defective. At the time of the great migrations, it received an Ionian population which traced its origin to Epidaurus in Argolis : Samos became one of the twelve members of the Ionian League . By the 7th century BC, it had become one of the leading commercial centres of Greece. This early prosperity of the Samians seems largely due to

16665-479: The earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and Jean Buridan . Aristotle's influence on logic continued well into the 19th century. In addition, his ethics , although always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics . In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on

16830-553: The end of his life, the two men became estranged having diverging opinions over issues, like the optimal administration of city-states, the treatment of conquered populations, such as the Persians, and philosophical questions, like the definition of braveness. A widespread speculation in antiquity suggested that Aristotle played a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after

16995-522: The first centuries of the common era. One appearance of gematria in the early Christian period is in the Epistle of Barnabas 9:6–7, which dates to sometime between 70 and 132 CE. There, the 318 servants of Abraham in Genesis 14:14 is used to indicate that Abraham looked forward to the coming of Jesus as the numerical value of some of the letters in the Greek name for Jesus as well as the 't' representing

17160-533: The following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period , and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice. Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals , arranging these in

17325-403: The form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form. Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal . Aristotle's ontology places

17490-524: The four districts of the island: Vathy, Chora, Marathokampos, and Karlovasi. The legislative power belonged to a chamber of 36 deputies, presided over by the Greek Orthodox Metropolitan. The seat of the government was the port of Vathý. The modern capital of the island was, until the early 20th century, at Chora, about 2 miles (3.2 km) from the sea and from the site of the ancient city. After reconsidering political conditions,

17655-515: The four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles , earth , water , air , and fire , to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly aether , the divine substance of the heavenly spheres , stars and planets. Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of

17820-594: The general revolt of the Ionian city-states against Persia; but owing to its long-standing jealousy of Miletus, it rendered indifferent service, and at the decisive battle of Lade (494 BC), part of its contingent of sixty ships was guilty of outright treachery. In 479BC, the Samians led the revolt against Persia, during the Battle of Mycale, which was part of the offensive by the Delian League (led by Cimon). In

17985-428: The ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster. This would imply the equation incorrect in modern physics. Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens, while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places. In

18150-459: The height of its prosperity. Its navy not only protected it from invasion but also ruled supreme in Aegean waters. The city was beautified with public works, and its school of sculptors, metal-workers and engineers achieved high repute. In the 6th century BC, Samos was ruled by the famous tyrant Polycrates . During his reign, two working groups under the leadership of the engineer Eupalinos dug

18315-440: The image. According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things , "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices. In astronomy , Aristotle refuted Democritus 's claim that

18480-592: The island after the end of the war. The anti-communist persecutions that came in the aftermath of the Treaty of Varkiza led many former ELAS members to create self-defence militias which gradually evolved into the Samos branch of the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE). The Samiot DSE drew manpower from nearby Icaria which was a notable place of internal exile for Greek communists, it was also able to capture large quantities of weapons and ammunition abandoned by

18645-653: The island became formally incorporated into the Hellenic State under Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias , as part of the province of the Eastern Sporades , but the London Protocol of 1830 excluded Samos from the borders of the independent Greek state. The Samians refused to accept their re-subordination to the Sultan, and Logothetis declared Samos to be an independent state, governed as before under

18810-525: The island of Samos became the territory of the Principality of Samos , a semi-independent state tributary to Ottoman Turkey, paying the annual sum of £2,700. It was governed by a Christian of Greek descent though nominated by the Porte, who bore the title of "Prince." The prince was assisted in his function as chief executive by a 4-member senate. These were chosen by him out of eight candidates nominated by

18975-543: The island was occupied by the Italians in May 1941, with the 6th Infantry Division "Cuneo" being stationed on the island. During the winter of 1941–42 Samos was affected by the Great Famine which killed 2,000 Samiots and forced thousands more to flee the island for the Middle East. In December 1942, local communists founded a branch of ELAS resistance organisation, the following month the resistance came into contact with

19140-579: The island was practically abandoned due to the effects of piracy and the plague. The island remained desolate for almost a full century before the Ottoman authorities, by now in secure control of the Aegean, undertook a serious effort to repopulate the island. In 1572/3, the island was granted as a personal domain ( hass ) to Kilic Ali Pasha , the Kapudan Pasha (the Ottoman Navy 's chief admiral). Settlers, including Greeks and Arvanites from

19305-705: The island's position near trade routes, which facilitated the import of textiles from inner Asia Minor, but the Samians also developed an extensive oversea commerce. They helped to open up trade with the population that lived around the Black Sea as well as with Egypt, Cyrene (Libya), Corinth, and Chalcis. Among the colonies the Samians founded, most of them in the sixth century BC, were Bisanthe , Perinthus , and Samothrace (northern Aegean Sea ), Cydonia (Crete), Nagidos and Kelenderis (southern Anatolia ), Dicaearchia (Italy), and Oasis Polis (Egypt). The trade caused them to become bitter rivals with Miletus . Samos

19470-478: The island. At the same reform, the regional unit Samos was created out of part of the former Samos Prefecture . The municipality of East Samos consists of the following municipal units (former municipalities): The municipality of West Samos consists of the following municipal units: Samos has a sister town called Samo , which is located in Calabria , Italy . The province of Samos ( Greek : Επαρχία Σάμου )

19635-513: The late Hellenistic period, in 78 BCE. Scholars have identified gematria in the Hebrew Bible , the canon of which was fixed during the Hasmonean dynasty (c. 140 BCE to 37 BCE), though some scholars argue it was not fixed until the second century CE or even later. The Hasmonean king of Judea, Alexander Jannaeus (died 76 BCE) had coins inscribed in Aramaic with the Phoenician alphabet , marking

19800-554: The leadership of Lykourgos Logothetis , in 1807 the Karmanioloi gained power in the island, introducing liberal and democratic principles and empowering the local popular assembly at the expense of the land-holding notables. Their rule lasted until 1812, when they were overthrown by the Ottoman authorities and their leaders expelled from the island. In March 1821, the Greek War of Independence broke out, and on 18 April, under

19965-506: The leadership of Logothetis and the Karmanioloi , Samos too joined the uprising. In May, a revolutionary government with its own constitution was set up to administer the island, mostly inspired by Logothetis. The Samians successfully repulsed three Ottoman attempts to recapture the island: in summer 1821, in July 1824; when Greek naval victories off Samos and at Gerontas averted the threat of an invasion, and again in summer 1826. In 1828,

20130-564: The legendary physician Asclepius and his son Machaon . Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was still at a young age and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time in the Macedonian capital, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy . At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy . He became distinguished as

20295-490: The letter names and their relations to each other, modular arithmetic , pattern search and other highly advanced techniques, are found in the "Sefer ha-Malchut" by Rabbi David ha-Levi of the Draa Valley , a Spanish-Moroccan Kabbalist of the 15th–16th century. Rabbi David ha-Levi's methods also consider the numerical values and other properties of the vowels . Kabbalistic astrology uses some specific methods to determine

20460-431: The letters that constitute the word HaSatan is three hundred and sixty four: Heh has a value of five, sin has a value of three hundred, tet has a value of nine, and nun has a value of fifty. Three hundred and sixty-four days of the solar year, which is three hundred and sixty-five days long, Satan has license to prosecute." Genesis 14:14 states that Abraham took 318 of his servants to help him rescue some of his kinsmen, which

20625-488: The letters that make up the word. According to Proclus, Theodorus learned these methods from the writings of Numenius of Apamea and Amelius . Proclus rejects these methods by appealing to the arguments against them put forth by the Neoplatonic philosopher Iamblichus . The first argument was that some letters have the same numerical value but opposite meaning. His second argument was that the form of letters changes over

20790-628: The mentor of Welsh magician John Dee , who makes reference to the Agrippa code in Theorem XVI of his 1564 book, Monas Hieroglyphica . Since the death of Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), a number of people have proposed numerical correspondences for English gematria in order to achieve a deeper understanding of Crowley's The Book of the Law (1904). One such system, the English Qaballa ,

20955-468: The modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing ( mammals ), and the egg-laying ( birds , reptiles , fish ). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled ) and the hard-shelled molluscs ( bivalves and gastropods ). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into

21120-481: The most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics , Metaphysics , Nicomachean Ethics , Politics , On the Soul and Poetics . Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre." While Alexander deeply admired Aristotle, near

21285-504: The near-by island of Lesbos . During this time, Aristotle married Pythias , Hermias's adoptive daughter and niece, and had a daughter whom they also named Pythias. In 343/42 BC, Aristotle was invited to Pella by Philip II of Macedon in order to become the tutor to his thirteen-year-old son Alexander ; a choice perhaps influenced by the relationship of Aristotle's family with the Macedonian dynasty. Aristotle taught Alexander at

21450-476: The northeast, are those of Karlovasi , in the northwest, Pythagoreio , in the southeast, and Marathokampos in the southwest. The island's population is 33,814, which makes it the 9th most populous of the Greek islands. The Samian climate is typically Mediterranean, with mild rainy winters, and warm rainless summers. Samos's relief is dominated by two large mountains, Ampelos and Kerkis (anc. Kerketeus). The Ampelos massif (colloquially referred to as "Karvounis")

21615-404: The oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff ("I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again.") Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and

21780-539: The philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras and the fabulist Aesop . In 1955, the town of Tigani was renamed Pythagoreio in honour of the philosopher. Other notable personalities include the philosophers Melissus of Samos and Epicurus , who were of Samian birth, and the astronomer Aristarchus of Samos , whom history credits with the first recorded heliocentric model of the Solar System . The historian Herodotus , known by his Histories , resided in Samos for

21945-437: The primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal in just this way , because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being. Aristotle examines the concepts of substance ( ousia ) and essence ( to ti ên einai , "the what it

22110-519: The private school of Mieza , in the gardens of the Nymphs , the royal estate near Pella. Alexander's education probably included a number of subjects, such as ethics and politics , as well as standard literary texts, like Euripides and Homer . It is likely that during Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, other prominent nobles, like Ptolemy and Cassander , would have occasionally attended his lectures. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and his own attitude towards Persia

22275-419: The provisions of the 1821 constitution. Finally, due to the pressure of the Great Powers , Samos was declared an autonomous, tributary principality under Ottoman suzerainty . The Samians still refused to accept this decision until an Ottoman fleet enforced it in May 1834, forcing the revolutionary leadership and a part of the population to flee to independent Greece, where they settled near Chalkis . In 1834,

22440-432: The reigns of Augustus and Vespasian . Nevertheless, Samos remained comparatively flourishing and was able to contest with Smyrna and Ephesus the title "first city of lonia"; it was chiefly noted as a health resort and for the manufacture of pottery. Since Emperor Diocletian's Tetrarchy , it became part of the Provincia Insularum, in the diocese of Asiana in the eastern empire's pretorian prefecture of Oriens . As

22605-433: The same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific. From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are

22770-449: The sea from Samos . The Milesian system was in common use by the reign of Alexander the Great (336–323 BCE) and was adopted by other cultures during the subsequent Hellenistic period . It was officially adopted in Egypt during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (284–246 BCE). In early biblical texts, numbers were written out in full using Hebrew number words . The first evidence of the use of Hebrew letters as numerals appears during

22935-816: The sums of all possible unique letter combinations, which add up to the value of a given letter. For example, the letter Hei , which has the standard value of 5, can be produced by combining 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 {\displaystyle 1+1+1+1+1} , 2 + 1 + 1 + 1 {\displaystyle 2+1+1+1} , 3 + 1 + 1 {\displaystyle 3+1+1} , 4 + 1 {\displaystyle 4+1} , 2 + 2 + 1 {\displaystyle 2+2+1} , or 2 + 3 {\displaystyle 2+3} , which adds up to 30 {\displaystyle 30} . Sometimes combinations of repeating letters are not allowed (e.g., 2 + 3 {\displaystyle 2+3}

23100-452: The surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in History of Animals , Generation of Animals , Movement of Animals , and Parts of Animals are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialized knowledge, such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants

23265-404: The term can also refer to other forms of calculation or letter manipulation, for example atbash . Classical scholars agree that the Hebrew word gematria was derived from the Greek word γεωμετρία geōmetriā , " geometry ", though some scholars believe it to derive from Greek γραμματεια grammateia "knowledge of writing ". It is likely that both Greek words had an influence on the formation of

23430-402: The thing that has undergone the change has itself changed. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality ( dynamis ) and actuality ( entelecheia ) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of

23595-421: The time of Homer , and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands , previous to a volcanic eruption ."' Meteorologica lends its name to the modern study of meteorology, but its modern usage diverges from the content of Aristotle's ancient treatise on meteors . The ancient Greeks did use the term for a range of atmospheric phenomena, but also for earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Aristotle proposed that

23760-411: The tower of Lykourgos Logothetis, as well as pottery collections and sculptures at some museums. Samos is a separate regional unit of the North Aegean region, and since 2019 it consists of two municipalities : East Samos and West Samos . Between the 2011 Kallikratis government reform and 2019, there was one single municipality on the island: Samos, created out of the 4 former municipalities on

23925-424: The traditional rendering will be employed here. Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems , book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified

24090-401: The treatise we know by the name Metaphysics . Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative ( theoretikē ) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16): If there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be

24255-492: The universal ( katholou ) in particulars ( kath' hekaston ), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance. Plato argued that all things have a universal form , which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When one looks at an apple, for example, one sees an apple, and one can also analyse

24420-404: The use of the trireme . The result of this conflict was to confirm the supremacy of the Milesians in eastern waters for the time being; but in the 6th century, the insular position of Samos preserved it from those aggressions at the hands of Asiatic kings to which Miletus was henceforth exposed. About 535 BC, when the existing oligarchy was overturned by the tyrant Polycrates , Samos reached

24585-416: The war contained clauses that enabled a great expansion of the commercial activities of the Ottoman Empire's Greek Orthodox population. Samian merchants also took advantage of this, and an urban mercantile class based on commerce and shipping began to grow. The Samian merchants' voyages across the Mediterranean, as well as the settlement of Greeks from the Ionian Islands (which in 1797 had passed from Venice to

24750-408: The years, and so their graphical qualities cannot hold any deeper meaning. Finally, he puts forth the third argument that when one uses all sorts of methods as addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, and even ratios, the infinite ways in which these can be combined allow virtually any number to be produced to suit any purpose. Some scholars propose that at least two cases of gematria appear in

24915-440: Was able to become so prominent despite the growing power of the Persian empire because of the alliance they had with the Egyptians and their powerful fleet. The Samians are also credited with having been the first Greeks to reach the Straits of Gibraltar. The feud between Miletus and Samos broke out into open strife during the Lelantine War (7th century BC), with which a Samian innovation in Greek naval warfare may be connected,

25080-568: Was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus , although it is possible that the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens could have also influenced his decision. Aristotle left with Xenocrates to Assos in Asia Minor , where he was invited by his former fellow student Hermias of Atarneus ; he stayed there for a few years and left around the time of Hermias' death. While at Assos, Aristotle and his colleague Theophrastus did extensive research in botany and marine biology , which they later continued at

25245-401: Was discovered by English magician James Lees on November 26, 1976. The founding of Lees' magical order ( O∴A∴A∴ ) in 1974 and his discovery of EQ are chronicled in All This and a Book by Cath Thompson. Aristotle Aristotle ( Attic Greek : Ἀριστοτέλης , romanized:  Aristotélēs ; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath . His writings cover

25410-448: Was initially left to its existing status quo out of a desire not to upset the Italians in the nearby Dodecanese . The Greek fleet landed troops on the island in March 1913. The clashes with the Ottoman garrison were short-lived as the Ottomans withdrew to the Anatolian mainland, so that the island was securely in Greek hands by 16 March. King George II visited Samos in 1937 during the 4th of August Regime . During World War II ,

25575-413: Was not welcome. Belief in the power of numbers was unacceptable in reformed circles, and gematria was not part of the reformation agenda. An analogue of the Greek system of isopsephy using the Latin alphabet appeared in 1583, in the works of the French poet Étienne Tabourot . This cipher and variations of it were published or referred to in the major work of Italian Pietro Bongo Numerorum Mysteria, and

25740-457: Was one of the provinces of the Samos Prefecture. It had the same territory as the present regional unit. It was abolished in 2006. The Samian economy depends mainly on agriculture and the tourist industry which was growing steadily since the early 1980s and reached a peak at the end of the 1990s. The main agricultural products include grapes , honey , olives , olive oil , citrus fruit, dried figs , almonds and flowers. The Muscat grape

25905-437: Was punished, but Thucydides tells readers not as harshly as other states which rebelled against Athens. Most in the past had been forced to pay tribute, but Samos was only told to repay the damages that the rebellion had cost the Athenians: 1,300 talents, to pay back in instalments of 50 talents per annum. During the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), Samos took the side of Athens against Sparta , providing their port to

26070-399: Was recovered by the Athenians in 366 after a siege of eleven months, and received a strong body of military settlers, the cleruchs , which proved vital in the Social War (357-355 BC) . After the Lamian War (322 BC), when Athens was deprived of Samos, the vicissitudes of the island can no longer be followed. Perhaps the most famous persons ever connected with classical Samos were

26235-425: Was strongly ethnocentric . In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians". Alexander's education under the guardianship of Aristotle likely lasted for only a few years, as at around the age of sixteen he returned to Pella and was appointed regent of Macedon by his father Philip. During this time, Aristotle is said to have gifted Alexander an annotated copy of

26400-512: Was taken in Peskita 70b to be a reference to Eleazar, whose name has a numerical value of 318. The total value of the letters of the Islamic Basmala , i.e. the phrase Bismillah al-Rahman al-Rahim ("In the name of God , the Most Gracious , the Most Merciful "), according to the standard Abjadi system of numerology , is 786 . This number has therefore acquired a significance in folk Islam and Near Eastern folk magic and also appears in many instances of pop-culture, such as its appearance in

26565-419: Was the result of a series of political revolutions, which ended in the establishment of a democracy. After the downfall of Athens, Samos was besieged by Lysander and again placed under an oligarchy. In 394 BC, the withdrawal of the Spartan navy induced the island to declare its independence and re-establish a democracy, but by the peace of Antalcidas (387 BC), it fell again under Persian dominion. It

26730-421: Was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism . In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum , or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers, etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while

26895-457: Was used by Leo Tolstoy in his 1865 work War and Peace to identify Napoleon with the number of the Beast . English Qabalah refers to several different systems of mysticism related to Hermetic Qabalah that interpret the letters of the English alphabet via an assigned set of numerological significances. The first system of English gematria was used by the poet John Skelton in 1523 in his poem "The Garland of Laurel". The Agrippa code

27060-402: Was used with English as well as Latin. It was defined by Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa in 1532, in his work De Occulta Philosopha . Agrippa based his system on the order of the Classical Latin alphabet using a ranked valuation as in isopsephy , appending the four additional letters in use at the time after Z, including J (600) and U (700), which were still considered letter variants. Agrippa was

27225-588: Was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants , and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark . He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function so birds like the heron (which live in marshes with soft mud and live by catching fish) have a long neck, long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet. Darwin , too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used

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