93-586: Gene Sharp (January 21, 1928 – January 28, 2018) was an American political scientist. He was the founder of the Albert Einstein Institution , a non-profit organization dedicated to advancing the study of nonviolent action, and professor of political science at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth . He was known for his extensive writings on nonviolent struggle, which have influenced numerous anti-government resistance movements around
186-473: A Lawrence of Arabia figure. Coverage of Gene Sharp's influence in the Egyptian revolution produced a backlash from some Egyptian bloggers. One, journalist Hossam el-Hamalawy , stated that "Not only was Mubarak's foreign policy hated and despised by the Egyptian people, but parallels were always drawn between the situation of the Egyptian people and their Palestinian brothers and sisters. The latter have been
279-633: A centaur , consisting of two halves. The back end, the beast, represented the more classic material image of power: power through coercion, through brute force, be it physical or economic. But the capitalist hegemony, he argued, depended even more strongly on the front end, the human face, which projected power through 'consent'. In Russia, this power was lacking, allowing for a revolution. However, in Western Europe, specifically in Italy , capitalism had succeeded in exercising consensual power, convincing
372-614: A Bachelor of Arts in Social Sciences in 1949 from Ohio State University , where he also received his Master of Arts in Sociology in 1951. In 1953–54, Sharp was jailed for nine months after protesting the conscription of soldiers for the Korean War . He discussed his decision to go to prison for his beliefs in letters to Albert Einstein , who wrote a foreword to his first book on Gandhi. He worked as factory laborer, guide to
465-478: A blind social worker, and secretary to A. J. Muste , America's leading pacifist. Between 1955 and 1958, he was Assistant Editor of Peace News (London), the weekly pacifist newspaper from where he helped organize the 1958 Aldermaston March . The next two years he studied and researched in Oslo with Professor Arne Næss , who together with Johan Galtung drew extensively from Mohandas Gandhi 's writings in developing
558-414: A company exhibits upward power , subordinates influence the decisions of their leader or leaders. Referent power is the power or ability of individuals to attract others and build loyalty . It is based on the charisma and interpersonal skills of the powerholder. A person may be admired because of a specific personal trait, and this admiration creates the opportunity for interpersonal influence. Here,
651-761: A friendly offer. In the Marxist tradition, the Italian writer Antonio Gramsci elaborated on the role of ideology in creating a cultural hegemony , which becomes a means of bolstering the power of capitalism and of the nation-state . Drawing on Niccolò Machiavelli in The Prince and trying to understand why there had been no Communist revolution in Western Europe while it was claimed there had been one in Russia , Gramsci conceptualised this hegemony as
744-449: A greater variety of power tactics than do introverts. People will also choose different tactics based on the group situation, and based on whom they wish to influence. People also tend to shift from soft to hard tactics when they face resistance. Because power operates both relationally and reciprocally, sociologists speak of the "balance of power" between parties to a relationship : all parties to all relationships have some power:
837-462: A householder and their relatives, an employer and their employees, a parent and a child, a political representative and their voters, etc.), and discursive forms, as categories and language may lend legitimacy to some behaviors and groups over others. The term authority is often used for power that is perceived as legitimate or socially approved by the social structure . Scholars have distinguished between soft power and hard power . In
930-633: A leader of the April 6 democracy group, also stated in the How to Start a Revolution documentary, "Gene Sharp's books had a huge impact" among other influences. The Associated Press reported as early as September 2010 more than four months before the revolution that Gene Sharp's work was being used by activists in Egypt close to political leader Mohamed ElBaradei . Finally The New York Times reported that Sharp's book From Dictatorship to Democracy had been posted by
1023-595: A modest stipend, or not at all in the first few years. Between 1983 and 1988 Einstein Institution Fellows included Nathan Stoltzfus and Alex P. Schmid , who published the revised edition of Political Terrorism based on his work undertaken as a Fellow. In late 1988, the Fellowship program was expanded into a continuing, international, competitive program, appointing fellows annually. This continued through until 2000, but owing to diminishing funding,
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#17327809779161116-479: A more sophisticated way, helping to sufficiently reflect on matters of responsibility. This perspective permits people to get over an "either-or-position" (either there is power or there is not), which is common, especially in epistemological discourses about power theories, and to introduce the possibility of an "as well as-position". The idea of unmarked categories originated in feminism . As opposed to looking at social difference by focusing on what or whom
1209-502: A now-classic study (1959), social psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram Raven developed a schema of sources of power by which to analyse how power plays work (or fail to work) in a specific relationship. According to French and Raven, power must be distinguished from influence in the following way: power is that state of affairs that holds in a given relationship, A-B, such that a given influence attempt by A over B makes A's desired change in B more likely. Conceived this way, power
1302-527: A number of the accused confessed that the post-election unrest was preplanned and the plan was following the timetable of the velvet revolution to the extent that over 100 stages of the 198 steps of Gene Sharp were implemented in the foiled velvet revolution." Former members of the IRA are reported to be studying his work. Sharp and his work have been profiled in numerous media; however, some have claimed Sharp's influence has been exaggerated by Westerners looking for
1395-399: A person achieve great success. Expert power is an individual's power deriving from the skills or expertise of the person and the organization's needs for those skills and expertise. Unlike the others, this type of power is usually highly specific and limited to the particular area in which the expert is trained and qualified. When they have knowledge and skills that enable them to understand
1488-427: A plural adjective and sees into the milieu as an expression as nothing more than water, air, and light confirming the genus within the milieu, in this case the human species, relates to a function of the population and its social and political interaction in which both form an artificial and natural milieu. This milieu (both artificial and natural) appears as a target of intervention for power, according to Foucault, which
1581-418: A political regime maintains power because people accept and obey its dictates, laws, and policies. Sharp cites the insight of Étienne de La Boétie . Sharp's key theme is that power is not monolithic; that is, it does not derive from some intrinsic quality of those who are in power. For Sharp, political power, the power of any state – regardless of its particular structural organization – ultimately derives from
1674-518: A population to cause significant change in a state. Sharp cites the insight of Étienne de La Boétie (1530–1563) that if the subjects of a particular state recognize that they are the source of the state's power, they can refuse their obedience and their leader(s) will be left without power. Sharp published Waging Nonviolent Struggle: 20th Century Practice and 21st Century Potential in 2005. It builds on his earlier written works and documents case studies where nonviolent action has been applied, presents
1767-407: A reduction in A's own power. French and Raven argue that there are five significant categories of such qualities, while not excluding other minor categories. Further bases have since been adduced, in particular by Gareth Morgan in his 1986 book, Images of Organization . Also called "positional power", legitimate power is the power of an individual because of the relative position and duties of
1860-551: A reduction in power promotes inhibition tendencies. A number of studies demonstrate that harsh power tactics (e.g. punishment (both personal and impersonal), rule-based sanctions, and non-personal rewards) are less effective than soft tactics (expert power, referent power, and personal rewards). It is probably because harsh tactics generate hostility, depression, fear, and anger, while soft tactics are often reciprocated with cooperation. Coercive and reward power can also lead group members to lose interest in their work, while instilling
1953-617: A research division under the framework and policies of the center, with its focus the use of nonviolent sanctions as a substitute for violent interventions. The Program provided grants or fellowships for scholars in residence, as well as conducting seminars and conferences. For the first few years, the Program at the CFIA lobbied for funding itself, as well as obtaining some funding from the AEI; after 1987 policy changes were made to reduce confusion and
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#17327809779162046-443: A situation, suggest solutions, use solid judgment, and generally outperform others, then people tend to listen to them. When individuals demonstrate expertise, people tend to trust them and respect what they say. As subject-matter experts, their ideas will have more value, and others will look to them for leadership in that area. Reward power depends on the ability of the power wielder to confer valued material rewards; it refers to
2139-408: A social responsibility. There have also been studies aimed at comparing behavior done in different situations were individuals were given power. In an ultimatum game , the person in given power offers an ultimatum and the recipient would have to accept that offer or else both the proposer and the recipient will receive no reward. In a dictator game , the person in given power offers a proposal and
2232-562: A very minimal budget out of Dr. Sharp's home with a staff consisting of two people – Dr. Sharp and a young administrator – and is quite incapable of carrying out the foreign intrigues of which it has been falsely accused. More recently Sharp has been criticised by George Ciccariello-Maher and Michael A. Lebowitz , the latter describing his activities in Venezuela as "marketing regime change" to willing consumers. Anarchist Peter Gelderloos accuses Sharp of overstating his theory's relevance to
2325-415: Is monolithic (the god cult of the Egyptian pharaohs , the dignity of the office of the president, moral or ethical norms and taboos, etc.). Through these systems, subjects are presented with a system of sanctions (imprisonment, fines, ostracism ) and rewards (titles, wealth, fame) which influence the extent of their obedience. Sharp identifies this hidden structure as providing a window of opportunity for
2418-419: Is a high probability that they will do it. The problem with this basis of power is that the rewarder may not have as much control over rewards as may be required. Supervisors rarely have complete control over salary increases, and managers often cannot control all actions in isolation; even a company CEO needs permission from the board of directors for some actions. When an individual uses up available rewards or
2511-431: Is accepted that women perform masculine tasks, while after the war, the roles are easily reversed. Therefore, according to Barrett, the destruction of capitalist economic relations is necessary but not sufficient for the liberation of women. Eugen Tarnow considers what power hijackers have over air plane passengers and draws similarities with power in the military. He shows that power over an individual can be amplified by
2604-433: Is an "upward power." Policies for policing the internet against these processes as a pathway for creating due process for handling conflicts, abuses, and harm that is done through established processes are known as "downward power." Coercive power is the application of negative influences. It includes the ability to defer or withhold other rewards. The desire for valued rewards or the fear of having them withheld can ensure
2697-596: Is an independent non-profit organization, to be publicly funded and to act as "a grant-making and grant seeking organization". As of April 2021 , Jamila Raqib is executive director, and Cornelia Sargent is chair. The institution "is committed to the defense of freedom, democracy, and the reduction of political violence through the use of nonviolent action", and looks at ways by which nonviolent means can be employed to deal with problems such as "aggression, dictatorship , genocide and oppression . In order to achieve its aims, it encourages research and policy studies on
2790-464: Is based on the notion that most organisms react to environmental events in two common ways. The reaction of approach is associated with action, self-promotion, seeking rewards, increased energy and movement. Inhibition , on the contrary, is associated with self-protection, avoiding threats or danger, vigilance, loss of motivation and an overall reduction in activity. Overall, approach/inhibition theory holds that power promotes approach tendencies, while
2883-405: Is fundamentally relative; it depends on the specific understandings A and B each apply to their relationship and requires B's recognition of a quality in A that would motivate B to change in the way A intends. A must draw on the 'base' or combination of bases of power appropriate to the relationship to effect the desired outcome. Drawing on the wrong power base can have unintended effects, including
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2976-403: Is not innate and can be granted to others, to acquire power one must possess or control a form of power currency. In authoritarian regimes, political power is concentrated in the hands of a single leader or a small group of leaders who exercise almost complete control over the government and its institutions. Because some authoritarian leaders are not elected by a majority, their main threat
3069-519: Is perceived to be different, theorists who use the idea of unmarked categories insist that one must also look at how whatever is "normal" comes to be perceived as unremarkable and what effects this has on social relations. Attending the un marked category is thought to be a way to analyze linguistic and cultural practices to provide insight into how social differences, including power, are produced and articulated in everyday occurrences. Feminist linguist Deborah Cameron describes an "unmarked" identity as
3162-499: Is radically different from the previous notions on sovereignty, territory, and disciplinary space interwoven into social and political relations that function as a species (biological species). Foucault originated and developed the concept of "docile bodies" in his book Discipline and Punish . He writes, "A body is docile that may be subjected, used, transformed and improved. Stewart Clegg proposes another three-dimensional model with his "circuits of power" theory. This model likens
3255-670: Is rarely appropriate in an organizational setting, and relying on these forms of power alone will result in a very cold, impoverished style of leadership. This is a type of power commonly seen in the fashion industry by coupling with legitimate power; it is referred to in the industry-specific literature as "glamorization of structural domination and exploitation". According to Laura K. Guerrero and Peter A. Andersen in Close Encounters: Communication in Relationships : Game theory , with its foundations in
3348-510: Is that posed by the masses. They often maintain their power through political control tactics like: Although several regimes follow these general forms of control, different authoritarian sub-regime types rely on different political control tactics. Power changes those in the position of power and those who are targets of that power. Developed by D. Keltner and colleagues, approach/inhibition theory assumes that having power and using power alters psychological states of individuals. The theory
3441-418: Is the ability to influence or direct the actions, beliefs, or conduct of actors. Power does not exclusively refer to the threat or use of force ( coercion ) by one actor against another, but may also be exerted through diffuse means (such as institutions ). Power may also take structural forms, as it orders actors in relation to one another (such as distinguishing between a master and an enslaved person ,
3534-782: The Satyagraha Norms . In 1968, he received a Doctor of Philosophy in political theory from Oxford University . Funding for Sharp's research at this time came from the DARPA project of the US Department of Defense . Sharp was appointed a professor of political science at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth in 1972. He held research appointments at Harvard University 's Center for International Affairs from 1965. In 1983 he founded Harvard's Program on Nonviolent Sanctions in Conflict and Defense (PNS), which "continued in
3627-452: The 2011 Egyptian revolution for personal aggrandizement. In an interview in Jacobin , law graduate and adjunct lecturer Marcie Smith has stated that Sharp's theories are "ideologically incoherent" and put "protest movements in a position where they can be easily co-opted " by neoliberal capitalism. Sharp's major works, including both authored and edited books, have been published since
3720-564: The Arab Spring , and a leaked US embassy cable mentioned Syrian dissidents using his work to train non-violent protestors, but As'ad AbuKhalil rejected such claims. Sharp consistently denied these claims and, after a period of sustained attacks in June 2008, notable left wing writers Noam Chomsky and Howard Zinn , among others, defended Sharp in a letter which was circulated by US and internationally based scholars and activists, including
3813-762: The Baltic states , Burma , Equatorial Guinea , Iran , Iraq Serbia , Thailand , Venezuela , and Zimbabwe . and the Occupied Palestinian Territories . The Albert Einstein Institution provided a number of Einstein Institution Fellowships to scholars working on various aspects of nonviolent struggle. This was an honorary position, and the Einstein Institution Fellows were either paid only
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3906-514: The Walrasian theory of rational choice , is increasingly used in various disciplines to help analyze power relationships. One rational-choice definition of power is given by Keith Dowding in his book Power . In rational choice theory, human individuals or groups can be modelled as 'actors' who choose from a 'choice set' of possible actions in order to try to achieve desired outcomes. An actor's 'incentive structure' comprises (its beliefs about)
3999-631: The bystander effect : they found that powerful people are three times as likely to first offer help to a "stranger in distress". A study involving over 50 college students suggested that those primed to feel powerful through stating 'power words' were less susceptible to external pressure, more willing to give honest feedback, and more creative. In one paper, power was defined "as a possibility to influence others." Research experiments were done as early as 1968 to explore power conflict. One study concluded that facing one with more power leads to strategic consideration whereas facing one with less power leads to
4092-592: The 1950s. Albert Einstein Institution The Albert Einstein Institution ( AEI ) is a non-profit organization specializing in the study of the methods of nonviolent resistance in conflict. It was founded by scholar Gene Sharp in 1983, and named after Albert Einstein . Until 2000, the institute provided funding for Einstein Institution Fellowships for scholars, sometimes referred to as Einstein Fellows , and
4185-753: The 1999–2000 Einstein Fellows appear to be the last. A feature documentary by Scottish director, Ruaridh Arrow , How to Start a Revolution , about the global influence of the Albert Einstein Institution and Sharp's work was released in September 2011. The film won "Best Documentary" and "The Mass Impact Award" at the Boston Film Festival in September 2011. The European premiere was held at London's Raindance Film Festival on October 2, 2011, where it also won Best Documentary. It went on to be screened at Occupy camps across
4278-540: The AEI became solely responsible for raising the funds to support the CFIA Program as well as its own activities. Around 2004, one of its major donors, former student of Sharp and co-founder of International Center on Nonviolent Conflict in 2002, businessman Peter Ackerman , withdrew his funding, and Sharp started running the institute out of his home in Boston . Jamila Raqib joined AEI in 2002, at first managing
4371-500: The CIA, the NED, or any U.S. government or government-funded agencies; nor has Dr. Sharp or the Albert Einstein Institution ever provided financial or logistical support to any opposition groups in any country; nor has Dr. Sharp or the Albert Einstein Institution ever taken sides in political conflicts or engaged in strategic planning with any group. The Albert Einstein Institution operates with
4464-532: The Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian governments during their separation from the Soviet Union in 1991. Lithuanian Defence Minister Audrius Butkevicius declared at the time, "I would rather have this book than the nuclear bomb". The Iranian government charged protesters against alleged fraud in the 2009 elections with following Gene Sharp's tactics. The Tehran Times reported: "According to the indictment,
4557-813: The Muslim Brotherhood on its website during the 2011 Egyptian revolution . According to Stuart Bramhall in Daily Censored , in 2005 Gene Sharp was accused by Thierry Meyssan in VoltaireNet of having strong links with a variety of US institutions including the Central Intelligence Agency , The Pentagon , International Republican Institute , RAND Corporation , and the National Endowment for Democracy . There has been debate around Sharp's works influencing
4650-702: The US and Europe, including at the Bank of Ideas in London. The film has been described as the unofficial film of the Occupy Wall St movement, being shown in Occupy camps in cities all over the world. In 2007 former Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez accused the Albert Einstein Institution of being behind a "soft coup" attempt in Venezuela. The Albert Einstein Institution have dismissed such accusations. In response to
4743-725: The accusations against the institution, professor Stephen Zunes initiated a petition titled "Open Letter in Support of Gene Sharp and Strategic Nonviolent Action" which expresses support for Dr Sharp and the Albert Einstein Institution. The petition was signed by many prominent left-wing scholars and activists, including Howard Zinn and Noam Chomsky . Power (politics) 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias In political science , power
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#17327809779164836-499: The anthropologist David Graeber as 'a collection of social institutions set in opposition to the state and capital: from self-governing communities to radical labor unions to popular militias'. Graeber also notes that counter-power can also be referred to as 'anti-power' and 'when institutions [of counter-power] maintain themselves in the face of the state, this is usually referred to as a 'dual power' situation'. Tim Gee , in his 2011 book Counterpower: Making Change Happen , put forward
4929-578: The apparatus as efficiently and silently as possible, ensuring its agents do whatever is necessary. It is because of this action that power is unlikely to be detected and remains elusive to 'rational' investigation. Foucault quotes a text reputedly written by political economist Jean Baptiste Antoine Auget de Montyon , entitled Recherches et considérations sur la population de la France (1778), but turns out to be written by his secretary Jean-Baptise Moheau (1745–1794), and by emphasizing biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck , who constantly refers to milieus as
5022-425: The chance to determine the actions and thoughts of another person, whereas destructive power means the chance to diminish the opportunities of another person. How significant this distinction really is, becomes evident by looking at the possibilities of rejecting power attempts: Rejecting instructive power is possible; rejecting destructive power is not. By using this distinction, proportions of power can be analyzed in
5115-408: The costs associated with different actions in the choice set and the likelihoods that different actions will lead to desired outcomes. In this setting, we can differentiate between: This framework can be used to model a wide range of social interactions where actors have the ability to exert power over others. For example, a 'powerful' actor can take options away from another's choice set; can change
5208-401: The default, which requires no explicit acknowledgment. Heterosexuality, for instance, is unmarked, assumed as the norm, unlike homosexuality, which is "marked" and requires clearer signaling as it differs from the majority. Similarly, masculinity is often unmarked, while femininity is marked, leading to studies that examine distinctive features in women’s speech, whereas men’s speech is treated as
5301-419: The degree to which the individual can give others a reward of some kind, such as benefits, time off, desired gifts, promotions, or increases in pay or responsibility. This power is obvious, but it is also ineffective if abused. People who abuse reward power can become pushy or be reprimanded for being too forthcoming or 'moving things too quickly'. If others expect to be rewarded for doing what someone wants, there
5394-405: The episodic circuit are both positive and negative. The dispositional circuit is constituted of macro level rules of practice and socially constructed meanings that inform member relations and legitimate authority. The facilitative circuit is constituted of macro level technology, environmental contingencies, job design, and networks, which empower or disempower and thus punish or reward agency in
5487-769: The episodic circuit. All three independent circuits interact at "obligatory passage points", which are channels for empowerment or disempowerment. John Kenneth Galbraith (1908–2006) in The Anatomy of Power (1983) summarizes the types of power as " condign " (based on force ), "compensatory" (through the use of various resources) or "conditioned" (the result of persuasion ), and the sources of power as " personality " (individuals), " property " (power-wielders' material resources), and/or " organizational " (from sitting higher in an organisational power structure). Gene Sharp , an American professor of political science, believes that power ultimately depends on its bases. Thus,
5580-431: The holder of the position within an organization. Legitimate power is formal authority delegated to the holder of the position. It is usually accompanied by various attributes of power, such as a uniform , a title, or an imposing physical office. In simple terms, power can be expressed as being upward or downward . With downward power , a company 's superiors influence subordinates to attain organizational goals. When
5673-584: The ideological underpinning of the work for the Serbian-based nonviolent conflict training group the Centre for Applied Nonviolent Action and Strategies which helped to train the key activists in the protest movement that toppled President Mubarak of Egypt, and many other earlier youth movements in the Eastern European color revolutions . Sharp's 1993 handbook From Dictatorship to Democracy
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#17327809779165766-492: The lessons learned from those applications, and contains information on planning nonviolent struggle to make it more effective. " How to Start a Revolution ", a feature documentary by the Scottish director Ruaridh Arrow about the global influence of Gene Sharp's work, was released in September 2011. The film won "Best Documentary" and the "Mass Impact Award" at the Boston Film Festival in September 2011. The European premiere
5859-555: The major source of inspiration, not Gene Sharp, whose name I first heard in my life only in February after we toppled Mubarak already and whom the clueless NYT moronically gives credit for our uprising." Another Egyptian writer and activist, Karim Alrawi , argued that Gene Sharp's writings are more about regime change than revolution. He defines the latter as having an ethical as well as a material dimension that Sharp deliberately avoids engaging with, and credits local circumstances and
5952-408: The methods of nonviolent action; shares the results of this research with the public; and engages with groups that are in conflict, about the possible use of nonviolent action as a strategy. It prepares, translates, presents and publishes educational resources, and publishes books, pamphlets, conference proceedings and other materials. It has consulted with pro-democracy groups from countries such as
6045-418: The neutral standard. Although the unmarked category is typically not explicitly noticed and often goes overlooked, it is still necessarily visible . The term 'counter-power' (sometimes written 'counterpower') is used in a range of situations to describe the countervailing force that can be utilised by the oppressed to counterbalance or erode the power of elites. A general definition has been provided by
6138-441: The obedience of those under power. Coercive power tends to be the most obvious but least effective form of power, as it builds resentment and resistance from the people who experience it. Threats and punishment are common tools of coercion. Implying or threatening that someone will be fired, demoted, denied privileges, or given undesirable assignments – these are characteristics of using coercive power. Extensive use of coercive power
6231-475: The person under power desires to identify with these personal qualities and gains satisfaction from being an accepted follower. Nationalism and patriotism count towards an intangible sort of referent power. For example, soldiers fight in wars to defend the honor of the country. This is the second-least obvious power but the most effective. Advertisers have long used the referent power of sports figures for product endorsements, for example. The charismatic appeal of
6324-411: The presence of a group. If the group conforms to the leader's commands, the leader's power over an individual is greatly enhanced, while if the group does not conform, the leader's power over an individual is nil. For Michel Foucault , the real power will always rely on the ignorance of its agents. No single human, group, or actor runs the dispositif (machine or apparatus), but power is dispersed through
6417-444: The production and organization of power to an electric circuit board consisting of three distinct interacting circuits: episodic, dispositional, and facilitative. These circuits operate at three levels: two are macro and one is micro. The episodic circuit is at the micro level and is constituted of irregular exercise of power as agents address feelings, communication, conflict, and resistance in day-to-day interrelations. The outcomes of
6510-422: The promotion of its publications and translations. In 2005 she became its executive director , and in 2009 collaborated with Sharp to publish Self-Liberation: A Guide to Strategic Planning for Action to End a Dictatorship or Other Oppression , which has been translated into several languages. Sharp remained as senior scholar at AEI until his death in 2018. The articles of incorporation stated that institution
6603-464: The question of the possibilities of interpersonal influence by developing a special form of constructivism (named relational constructivism ). Instead of focusing on the valuation and distribution of power, he asks first and foremost what the term can describe at all. Coming from Max Weber 's definition of power, he realizes that the term power has to be split into "instructive power" and "destructive power". More precisely, instructive power means
6696-416: The recipient would have to accept that offer. The recipient has no choice of rejecting the offer. The dictator game gives no power to the recipient whereas the ultimatum game gives some power to the recipient. The behavior observed was that the person offering the proposal would act less strategically than would the one offering in the ultimatum game. Self-serving also occurred and a lot of pro-social behavior
6789-438: The relative costs of actions; can change the likelihood that a given action will lead to a given outcome; or might simply change the other's beliefs about its incentive structure. As with other models of power, this framework is neutral as to the use of 'coercion'. For example, a threat of violence can change the likely costs and benefits of different actions; so can a financial penalty in a 'voluntarily agreed' contract, or indeed
6882-446: The rewards do not have enough perceived value for others, their power weakens. One of the frustrations of using rewards is that they often need to be bigger each time if they are to have the same motivational impact. Even then, if rewards are given frequently, people can become so satiated by the reward it loses its effectiveness. In terms of cancel culture , the mass ostracization used to reconcile unchecked injustice and abuse of power
6975-514: The sociological examination of power concerns itself with discovering and describing the relative strengths: equal or unequal, stable or subject to periodic change. Sociologists usually analyse relationships in which the parties have relatively equal or nearly equal power in terms of constraint rather than of power. In this context, "power" has a connotation of unilateralism. If this were not so, then all relationships could be described in terms of "power", and its meaning would be lost. Given that power
7068-479: The spark provided by the Tunisian revolution for the Egyptian success. However, evidence and testimony from four different activist groups working in Egypt at the time of the revolution contradict these claims. Dalia Ziada , an Egyptian blogger and activist, said that activists translated excerpts of Sharp's work into Arabic, and that his message of "attacking weaknesses of dictators" stuck with them. Ahmed Maher ,
7161-421: The spirit of its founder" and in 1995 was merged with another Harvard organization. In 1983 Sharp also founded the Albert Einstein Institution , a non-profit organization devoted to studies and promotion of the use of nonviolent action in conflicts worldwide. In 2004, the Albert Einstein Institution lost much of its funding (with income dropping from more than $ 1m a year to as little as $ 160,000), and from then on
7254-501: The sports star supposedly leads to an acceptance of the endorsement, although the individual may have little real credibility outside the sports arena. Abuse is possible when someone who is likable yet lacks integrity and honesty rises to power, placing them in a situation to gain personal advantage at the cost of the group's position. Referent power is unstable alone and is not enough for a leader who wants longevity and respect. When combined with other sources of power, however, it can help
7347-504: The statement, Rather than being a tool of imperialism, Dr. Sharp’s research and writings have inspired generations of progressive peace, labor, feminist, human rights, environmental, and social justice activists in the United States and around the world. The Albert Einstein Institution has never received any money from any government or government-funded entity. Nor does Dr. Sharp or the Albert Einstein Institution collaborate with
7440-570: The subjects of the state. His fundamental belief is that any power structure relies upon the subjects' obedience to the orders of the ruler(s). If subjects do not obey, rulers have no power. In Sharp's view, all effective power structures have systems by which they encourage or extract obedience from their subjects. States have particularly complex systems for keeping subjects obedient. These systems include specific institutions (police, courts, regulatory bodies, etc.), but may also involve cultural dimensions that inspire obedience by implying that power
7533-426: The subjects of the state. His fundamental belief is that any power structure relies upon the subjects' obedience to the orders of the ruler(s). If subjects do not obey, leaders have no power. His work is thought to have been influential in the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević , in the 2011 Arab Spring , and other nonviolent revolutions. Björn Kraus deals with the epistemological perspective on power regarding
7626-403: The theory that those disempowered by governments' and elite groups' power can use counterpower to counter this. In Gee's model, counterpower is split into three categories: idea counterpower , economic counterpower , and physical counterpower . Although the term has come to prominence through its use by participants in the global justice/ anti-globalization movement of the 1990s onwards,
7719-924: The word has been used for at least 60 years; for instance, Martin Buber 's 1949 book 'Paths in Utopia' includes the line 'Power abdicates only under the stress of counter-power'. Recent experimental psychology suggests that the more power one has, the less one takes on the perspective of others, implying that the powerful have less empathy . Adam Galinsky , along with several coauthors, found that when those who are reminded of their powerlessness are instructed to draw Es on their forehead, they are 3 times more likely to draw them such that they are legible to others than those who are reminded of their power. Powerful people are also more likely to take action. In one example, powerful people turned off an irritatingly close fan twice as much as less powerful people. Researchers have documented
7812-440: The working classes that their interests were the same as those of capitalists. In this way, a revolution had been avoided. While Gramsci stresses the significance of ideology in power structures, Marxist-feminist writers such as Michele Barrett stress the role of ideologies in extolling the virtues of family life. The classic argument to illustrate this point of view is the use of women as a ' reserve army of labour '. In wartime, it
7905-488: The world. Sharp received the 2008 Int’l Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Award for his lifelong commitment to the defense of freedom, democracy, and the reduction of political violence through scholarly analysis of the power of nonviolent action. Unofficial sources have claimed that Sharp was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 2015, and had previously been nominated three times, in 2009, 2012 and 2013. Sharp
7998-467: Was also the funding body for the Program on Nonviolent Sanctions in Conflict and Defense at Harvard's Center for International Affairs . Jamila Raqib has been executive director since 2005. The research institute is named after the physicist Albert Einstein, who was a committed pacifist, although not an "absolute pacifist"; he recognized that pacifism would not work against Hitler in 1933. It
8091-427: Was based on his 1968 PhD thesis. In the book, he provides a pragmatic political analysis of nonviolent action as a method for applying power in a conflict. Sharp's key theme is that power is not monolithic; that is, it does not derive from some intrinsic quality of those who are in power . For Sharp, political power, the power of any state – regardless of its particular structural organization – ultimately derives from
8184-588: Was first published in Burma, fourth edition in 2010. It has since been translated into at least 31 other languages. It has served as a basis for the campaigns of Serbia 's Otpor! (who were also directly trained by the Albert Einstein Institution), Georgia 's Kmara , Kyrgyzstan 's KelKel and Belarus ' Zubr . PORA 's Oleh Kyriyenko said in a 2004 interview with Radio Netherlands, Sharp's writings on " Civilian-based defense " were used by
8277-648: Was founded by political scientist Gene Sharp, whose first book, about the methods of Indian pacifist Gandhi , included an article on nonviolence signed by Einstein as a preface. The AEI was incorporated in July 1983, two months after the Program on Nonviolent Sanctions in Conflict and Defense was created at the Center for International Affairs (CFIA) (now the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, or WCFIA) at Harvard University . This program operated as
8370-424: Was held at London's Raindance Film Festival on October 2, 2011, where it also won Best Documentary. A biography of Gene Sharp by Ruaridh Arrow based on the documentary was released in 2020. Sharp has been called both the " Machiavelli of nonviolence" and the " Clausewitz of nonviolent warfare." It is claimed by some that Sharp's scholarship has influenced resistance organizations around the world. His works remain
8463-652: Was observed. When the counterpart recipient is completely powerless, lack of strategy, social responsibility and moral consideration is often observed from the behavior of the proposal given (the one with the power). Tactics that political actors use to obtain their goals include using overt aggression , collaboration , or even manipulation . One can classify such power tactics along three different dimensions: People tend to vary in their use of power tactics, with different types of people opting for different tactics. For instance, interpersonally oriented people tend to use soft and rational tactics. Moreover, extroverts use
8556-706: Was run out of Sharp's home in East Boston , near Logan Airport . In 2012, he received the Zambrano Foundation Distinguished Lifetime Democracy Award. Sharp died on January 28, 2018, at home in Boston, having just turned 90. Gene Sharp described the sources of his ideas as in-depth studies of Mohandas K. Gandhi , A. J. Muste , Henry David Thoreau to a minor degree, and other sources footnoted in his 1973 book The Politics of Nonviolent Action , which
8649-678: Was widely considered the favorite for the 2012 award. In 2011, he was awarded the El-Hibri Peace Education Prize . In 2012, he was a recipient of the Right Livelihood Award for "developing and articulating the core principles and strategies of nonviolent resistance and supporting their practical implementation in conflict areas around the world". Sharp was born in North Baltimore , Ohio, the son of an itinerant Protestant minister. He received
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