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123-603: Genera Plantarum is a publication of Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778). The first edition was issued in Leiden , 1737. The fifth edition served as a complementary volume to Species Plantarum (1753). Article 13 of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants states that "Generic names that appear in Linnaeus' Species Plantarum ed. 1 (1753) and ed. 2 (1762–63) are associated with

246-424: A line shaft . Initially, the metal pot was heated by gas (whether natural or ' manufactured '), but an electric pot was later developed and which became a standard option. As with the motors, the control machinery for the metal pot heaters was produced in a variety of voltages and in direct or alternating current versions. For locations with access to neither gas or electricity, the gas-fired pot could be fitted with

369-548: A "disagreement" with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the University. During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland ; Rudbeck had made

492-508: A "quadder" attachment). The key feature of the Linotype is the use of molds which circulate through the machine in its various stages of operation. One type is a space band (a special two-part sliding wedge) and the other is a letter matrix made of brass. The matrices are stored in one or more magazines on top of the machine (providing the operator with a choice of fonts; these can also be exchanged with other extra magazines as desired) while

615-519: A beginner [Linnaeus] appropriated everything for himself which he heard of, to make himself famous". Nevertheless, Ehret probably met Linnaeus again when the latter visited London for a month. The time in the Netherlands was a productive one for Linnaeus because in these four years he also published Systema Naturae (1735), Bibliotheca Botanica (1736), Fundamenta Botanica (1736), Flora Lapponica (1737) and Critica Botanica (1737), this

738-427: A burner kit to allow the use of kerosene or other ' white gas ' fuels. Thus, regardless of the power sources available (within reason), it was possible to install a Linotype (or Intertype) machine in almost any newspaper office, whether in a remote mountain community or a downtown office in an urban metropolis. These machines were bought out by Linotype, to minimize competition. A manual linecasting solution known as

861-483: A catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738. It contains the first use of the name Nepenthes , which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants . Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and

984-475: A child's talents than develop them". Two years after his tutoring had begun, he was sent to the Lower Grammar School at Växjö in 1717. Linnaeus rarely studied, often going to the countryside to look for plants. At some point, his father went to visit him and, after hearing critical assessments by his preceptors, he decided to put the youth as an apprentice to some honest cobbler. He reached

1107-659: A collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet , as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller . He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in Systema Naturae . At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature , preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray . Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's Gardeners Dictionary . The conservative Miller actually retained in his dictionary

1230-430: A copy of Sir Hans Sloane's Natural History of Jamaica , a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted. On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738. It

1353-559: A curriculum designed for boys preparing for the priesthood. In the last year at the gymnasium, Linnaeus's father visited to ask the professors how his son's studies were progressing; to his dismay, most said that the boy would never become a scholar. Rothman believed otherwise, suggesting Linnaeus could have a future in medicine. The doctor offered to have Linnaeus live with his family in Växjö and to teach him physiology and botany. Nils accepted this offer. Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany

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1476-575: A director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede . Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him

1599-538: A dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa , in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils. Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the Anopheles mosquito ), he did correctly predict that Artemisia annua ( wormwood ) would become

1722-456: A family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl . Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina , was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia. In May 1741, Linnaeus

1845-508: A keyboard and then used to cast the type; the tape could be stored for future casting for subsequent editions. This was a popular system for book work. Text was produced completely aligned, with all spaces in each line exactly the same width. Corrections and complex work could be done on the text by hand after the bulk of the text had been set by machine. The Super Caster and Orphan Annie were used to cast fonts of loose type for hand setting as well as spacing material and patterned rules. This type

1968-422: A linecaster really has 91 total channels, with the first two channels allocated to the lower case 'e', and with these matrices being alternately selected from channel 0 or channel 1, for alternate lines of cast type. Additionally, Monotype must use a punched paper tape, and the "reading frame" is always backwards (right-to-left) in order to achieve justification , as justification is not an inherent capability of

2091-480: A naturalist." Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum (Prince of Botanists) and "The Pliny of the North". He is also considered one of the founders of modern ecology . In botany, the abbreviation L. is used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for a species' name. In zoology, the abbreviation Linnaeus is generally used; the abbreviations L., Linnæus and Linné are also used. In older publications,

2214-475: A new benefactor, Olof Celsius , who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist. He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden. In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum on plant sexual reproduction . This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at

2337-569: A number of pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of The Gardeners Dictionary of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system. Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius . He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though

2460-630: A physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin , who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science ; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots. Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support

2583-561: A practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora . The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with Flora Lapponica as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historian E. L. Greene described Flora Lapponica as "the most classic and delightful" of Linnaeus's works. It

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2706-602: A result, some species listed in Species Plantarum do not fit the descriptions in Genus Plantarum . All generic names in Genera Plantarum ed. 5 are treated as validly published on 1 May 1753. William Stearn states: "The clear typographical layout, the elimination of verbs such as est , occupant and abit , and the much greater detail given for all floral parts ... immediately catch

2829-501: A revised edition in 1742. The fifth edition appeared in Stockholm, in 1754, and the sixth, the last one edited by Linnaeus himself, in 1764, also in Stockholm. The last edition that was based on Linnaeus's work was the 9th edition, revised by Kurt Sprengel , and issued in Göttingen , 1830–31. In the work Linnaeus divided the plant kingdom into 24 classes, each of which he named according to the number of stamens and their arrangement in

2952-580: A small group of students to Dalarna . Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros . His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun , where Linnaeus

3075-462: A source of antimalarial medications. Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree. That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi , a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam , leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on

3198-452: A thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer ( prases ) expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire . Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb

3321-410: A time to be consumed in turn, the operator hanging a fresh one when one was consumed). These feeders are actuated by various methods (by cam, either elevator, or distributor shifter), but the result is the same – the ingots are fed little by little into the pot, keeping it filled to the correct level. From time to time, the slug galley is transferred to the composing table to be set in the form, and once

3444-421: A universal standardised biological nomenclature . From 1735 to 1738 Linnaeus worked in the Netherlands where he was personal physician to George Clifford (1685–1760), a wealthy Anglo-Dutch merchant–banker with an impressive garden containing four large glasshouses that were filled with warmth-loving plants from overseas. Linnaeus was enthralled by these collections and prepared a detailed systematic catalogue of

3567-611: Is completed with Cryptogamia (Z), which are plants without proper flowers. For this class Ehret chose the fig as an example. By far the most important edition for nomenclature today is the fifth, published in August 1754 (editions 3 and 4 were not edited by Linnaeus); this is the edition which is linked nomenclaturally with the Species Plantarum , the starting point for the naming of most groups of plants. The genus descriptions in this edition were original, methodically and tersely drafted according to his own plan, with an asterisk * following

3690-467: Is in addition to his Genera Plantarum (1737). One of Linnaeus's main points is that a botanist can and must know all genera, and must memorise their ‘definitions’ (diagnosis). The natural definitions given in the various editions of the Genera Plantarum are intended to facilitate this. Stability of generic taxonomy was one of his first aims, and the way he went about achieving it aroused the criticism of many of his contemporaries. Yet, this generic reform

3813-450: The Beast of Revelation . Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg. Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk , a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week. He submitted

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3936-466: The Critica . The result was a reform of generic definitions that appeared in the Genera Plantarum . The typesetting of Genera Plantarum started in 1736 leading to the publication of the first edition in early 1737; the book was dedicated to Herman Boerhaave , the great Leiden physician to whom Linnaeus owed his introduction into the medico-botanical Dutch establishment of the day. Linnaeus published

4059-560: The Ludlow Typograph also met with success because it was able to cast display type sizes that other mechanical composition systems were unable to produce. The Ludlow consisted of a very heavy metal table with a flat top about waist high and a depressed slot into which a "stick" was inserted. Underneath was a pot of molten type metal and a plunger. The stick was used to hand compose the lines of type, typically headlines in 18 point or larger with 72 point commonly being available, but

4182-509: The Order of the Polar Star , the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia. Hot metal typesetting It was the standard technology used for mass-market printing from the late nineteenth century until the arrival of phototypesetting and then electronic processes in the 1950s to 1980s. Hot metal typesetting

4305-700: The Ridder newspaper interests, the Intertype Corporation developed ( c. 1914) a compatible version of the Linotype machine when the patents ran out and it became quite popular as well. This led to a long-lasting legal fight by the Mergenthaler Linotype Company (who eventually lost). Various methods were used to power the Linotype / Intertype machines, the most common being a fractional horsepower motor, one wired for single-phase 60 Hz alternating current eventually becoming

4428-495: The curate of the small village of Stenbrohult in Småland. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. A year after Linnaeus's birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curate's house. Even in his early years, Linnaeus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he

4551-558: The eutectic point and which typically consisted of approximately 4% tin and 12% antimony and the balance being lead. These alloys were proportioned such that the type metal would solidify as rapidly as possible at the lowest possible freezing point. The Monotype System took a different direction in hot metal typesetting, with the ability of the Composition Caster to cast loose type using a paper tape-operated automatic casting machine. The paper tape would be first generated on

4674-453: The 16 years that passed between the publication of the first and fifth editions the number of genera listed had increased from 935 to 1105. Linnaeus established the system of binomial nomenclature through the widespread acceptance of his list of plants in the 1753 edition of Species Plantarum , which is now taken as the starting point for all botanical nomenclature . Genera Plantarum was an integral part of this first stepping stone towards

4797-518: The Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson , the manuscript was published as Systema Naturae (1735). Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave , who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit

4920-558: The Swedish province of Västergötland . He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book Wästgöta-Resa , published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to

5043-490: The University although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people. In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions. Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan

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5166-466: The abbreviation "Linn." is found. Linnaeus's remains constitute the type specimen for the species Homo sapiens following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself. Linnaeus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland , Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus (Nils) Ingemarsson (who later adopted

5289-450: The aesthetic qualities of hot lead spurred Donald Knuth to create one of the first general-purpose digital typesetting programs, TeX . Although not technically typesetting, stereotyping ( electrotype or nickeltype) could be used to cast a reproduction of an entire typeset page (or pages imposed in a forme ) using a mold made with an impression using flong (similar to papier-mâché ). The ensuing casting could be made curved for use on

5412-543: The age of 17, Linnaeus had become well acquainted with the existing botanical literature. He remarks in his journal that he "read day and night, knowing like the back of my hand, Arvidh Månsson's Rydaholm Book of Herbs, Tillandz's Flora Åboensis, Palmberg's Serta Florea Suecana, Bromelii's Chloros Gothica and Rudbeckii's Hortus Upsaliensis". Linnaeus entered the Växjö Katedralskola in 1724, where he studied mainly Greek , Hebrew , theology and mathematics ,

5535-450: The attention. Such improvements in technique made Linnaeus's Genera Plantarum the model for later works on the genera of plants." Frans Stafleu regards Genera Plantarum as Linnaeus's most important book with respect to the practical introduction of his ideas – even more than Systema Naturae . The notion that the genus is the basic unit of taxonomy remained in force until the advent of evolutionary biology and biosystematics. "His reform

5658-442: The botanist Johannes Burman . After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his Thesaurus Zeylanicus . Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: Fundamenta Botanica and Bibliotheca Botanica . In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III ,

5781-412: The box and almost directly into the assembling elevator. The assembling elevator (or more commonly just the ‘assembler’) is adjustable for different lengths of line (in picas ). Once the line approaches its correct length, the operator is made aware of this by a bell or other indicator. If the line is ‘loose’ or too short, there is too much ‘white space’ for the space band wedges to fill out the line, and

5904-424: The class of organisms. Linnaeus published Species Plantarum , the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature , in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of

6027-409: The classification of fish. One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius , to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by

6150-414: The default offering. To accommodate the customers' requirements, motors were also built to be powered from direct current, 25 Hz AC, or 50 Hz AC circuits. Also, motors wound for various polyphase circuits (two-phase, 3-phase, wye, delta, etc.) were made available for the customers as well. In a few cases, where electricity was not available, it was possible to drive the machine by a belt connected to

6273-440: The expedition were later published in Öländska och Gothländska Resa , written in Swedish. Like Flora Lapponica , it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland. During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: Flora Suecica and Fauna Suecica . Flora Suecica was a strictly botanical book, while Fauna Suecica

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6396-411: The family name Linnaeus) and Christina Brodersonia. His siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus (who would eventually succeed their father as rector of Stenbrohult and write a manual on beekeeping ), and Emerentia Linnæa. His father taught him Latin as a small child. One of a long line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist , a Lutheran minister , and

6519-422: The first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. By the time of his death in 1778, he

6642-470: The first elevator. The first elevator then descends to a position in front of the mold, and if the elevator has not descended fully by the time the machine starts the process of aligning the matrices (most often caused by a ‘tight’ line), the first of the two safeties, the vise automatic, brings the machine to a full stop before the supporting lugs on the matrices are crushed by the mold. Once the matrices are in proper position, two actions take place in sequence:

6765-438: The first subsequent description given under those names in Linnaeus' Genera Plantarum ed. 5 (1754) and ed. 6 (1764)." This defines the starting point for nomenclature of most groups of plants. The first edition of Genera Plantarum contains brief descriptions of the 935 plant genera that were known to Linnaeus at that time. It is dedicated to Herman Boerhaave , a Leiden physician who introduced Linnaeus to George Clifford and

6888-544: The flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala. Linnaeus published Philosophia Botanica in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden. During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published

7011-583: The flowers. In Ehret's engraved plate these classes are represented by the 24 letters of the Latin alphabet. In Ehret's original drawing for the plate, preserved in the Natural History Museum in London, he has written the name of the plant he had chosen as an example of each particular class, but only for the first ten and last four classes. Each of the first ten classes (A–K) is named according to

7134-412: The freshly cast type and ensure it was exactly type high. A Ludlow slug was just the letters overhanging a central spine about 12 points wide (T-shaped viewed from the end). It needed to be bolstered by Elrod slugs on either side for support. The number of slugs above and below the central spine could adjust the white space above and below the type making it a very flexible system for large type. The Elrod

7257-574: The generic name to indicate that he had studied living material, a dagger † to indicate that he had seen only herbarium material, and the absence of these signs to indicate he had seen no material himself and hence depended upon the literature or correspondence. In preparing a description of a genus he would describe the flower and fruit of the main species most familiar to him and then remove the characters that did not occur in other species. As new species were added Linnaeus should have updated his genus descriptions but in practice did not have time to do so. As

7380-889: The journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people , reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey. Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25. He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near Gävle he found great quantities of Campanula serpyllifolia , later known as Linnaea borealis ,

7503-586: The kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu . After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden. When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun , where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa . Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as

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7626-530: The last year of the Lower School when he was fifteen, which was taught by the headmaster, Daniel Lannerus, who was interested in botany. Lannerus noticed Linnaeus's interest in botany and gave him the run of his garden. He also introduced him to Johan Rothman, the state doctor of Småland and a teacher at Katedralskolan (a gymnasium ) in Växjö. Also a botanist, Rothman broadened Linnaeus's interest in botany and helped him develop an interest in medicine. By

7749-601: The late 19th century. One, known as the Monotype composition caster system, produced texts with the aid of perforated paper-ribbons. Each character was cast separately. These machines could produce texts also in "large-composition" up to 24 point . The Super-caster, another machine produced by Monotype, was similar in function to the Thompson, Barth, pivotal and others casters but designed to produce single type (including even larger sizes) for hand setting. The other approach

7872-461: The lead type used to print (letterpress) a page had been directly formed from the type matrix , a good fidelity to the original was achieved. Phototypesetting suffered (at least in its early days) from many problems relating to optical distortion and misalignment. These disappointing results were a thorn in the sides of many authors and readers (especially of complex or mathematical texts that had many small sub- and superscripts). A desire to re-create

7995-423: The line at the ejecting position, in the process passing by a knife that trims the base of the slug to type height (0.918″ on US machines). The slug is then forced through an adjustable pair of knives to trim the slug to the proper body height before sliding down into a ‘galley’ of finished lines next to the operator. Depending on the model of machine, the mold disk could have four (standard), six, or two molds, giving

8118-447: The machine (however, "flush left" is an inherent capability). Whereas Linotype may use a punched paper tape, although this option is seldom-used outside of daily newspapers, and whether a tape is used, or not, the "reading frame" is always forwards (left-to-right), with justification being an inherent capability of the machine (and, "flush right", "centered" and "flush left" may be very easily accommodated manually, or automatically using

8241-515: The machine could cast type from 4pt to 600pt without a mould change. This was from brass matrix stored in cases on either side of the Ludlow. The cases were not the traditional " California Job Cases " used to set body type, but simpler alphabetically arranged wooden or metal cases, each one containing a given font in a specific size and style such as bold face, italic or condensed. The metal type cabinets were built with inclined drawers for easy access to

8364-410: The machine's pot or during the remelting stage). The type metal is poured into ingot molds – small molds for manually feeding the metal pots or larger molds for the metal feeders. (In the latter case, special attention must be given the ‘eye’ end as it has to support the weight of the entire ingot. Failure often results in it dropping into the pot and splashing molten metal everywhere.) Funded largely by

8487-429: The magazine. At the top of the machine, a lever (the distributor shifter) moves left to get in position to push the incoming line of matrices off the second elevator and into the distributor box. This mechanism feeds the matrices at precise intervals such that they travel between three rotating screws. Each matrix is carried along a notched bar between the three screws until the notches on the bar and matrix match, whereupon

8610-507: The matrices are aligned vertically and face-wise while a bar rises from below to force the movable sleeves on the space bands upwards to cause them to fill out the line to the exact width of the mold. If the justification bar has made a full cycle and the line is still not fully justified, the second safety, the pump stop, prevents the plunger in the metal pot from going down. The space bands were an important feature of this machine, providing automatic justification of each line by equally adjusting

8733-399: The matrices by these V-shaped notches. The space bands, having no such notches, remain in the second transfer channel and are soon gathered by two levers and pushed back into the space band box. While the space bands are being pushed into their box, the second elevator continues rising towards the distributing mechanism at the top of the machine, which returns the molds to their proper places in

8856-432: The matrices could possibly turn sidewise or fail to seal against each other as the machine prepares for the casting operation. If the line is ‘tight’ or too long, the elevator carrying the matrices and space bands will not seat properly in front of the mold slot. Both the Linotype and Intertype machines have two important safeties that act during the casting operation – the ‘pump stop’, which comes into play on loose lines, and

8979-404: The matrices. After a line of type was assembled into the stick a special blocking slug was inserted to seal the end. Then the stick was placed mold side down into the slot on the table, a clamp locked down to securely hold the stick and the Ludlow activated. The plunger would snap down into the pot with considerable force, injecting molten type metal into the mold at a high speed to ensure the mold

9102-412: The matrices. Therefore, it is considered very poor form for an operator (or the machinist who cared for the machine) to permit this to happen. When the line is assembled to the correct length, the operator presses down on a lever which raises the assembling elevator up into the delivery channel and starts the automatic casting cycle. The delivery channel transfers the matrices out of the assembler and into

9225-505: The matrix drops down into its proper channel in the magazine. It was a source of pride for trained operators to boast of being able to ‘hang’ a line – to keep a line waiting in the delivery channel while the machine was casting the previous line and the operator was composing the next one. The metal pot was kept filled by the operator tossing in small ingots of type metal every few lines, or later, by mechanical feeders that carry large ingots of type metal (and which often carried two ‘pigs’ at

9348-422: The medico-botanical Dutch establishment of the day. Genera Plantarum employed his “sexual system” of classification , in which plants are grouped according to the number of stamens and pistils in the flower. Genera Plantarum was revised several times by Linnaeus, the fifth edition being published in August 1754 (eds. 3 and 4 were not edited by Linnaeus) and linked to the first edition of Species Plantarum . Over

9471-561: The negative. This negative could then be used to expose the photosensitized printing plate for an offset press . In this way the heavy investment in hot metal typesetting could be adapted to the newer offset technology during a transition period. Another synergy and transition mechanism was using paper tapes made for TTS systems (linotype) and monotype tapes directly by the photo typesetter system. These tapes could be read and processed by many, maybe most optical setting systems. This allows avoiding actual use of metal, while preserving some of

9594-458: The number of stamens, beginning with Monandria (one stamen), Diandria (two stamens), etc. up to Decandria (ten stamens). The flowers in the eleventh (L) class, Dodecandria, have 12–19 stamens. The following four classes (M–P) are characterized not only by the number of stamens but also by their position; the four classes (Q–T) have stamens united in a bundle or phalanx, the next three classes (V–Y) have stamens and pistils in separate flowers. The whole

9717-404: The operator his choice of line lengths and body sizes. As the mold disk is turning, the first elevator simultaneously rises to its upper position and the space bands and matrices are vertically aligned in preparation for the second transfer. The matrices have a series of teeth in a V-shaped notch on top, and as the transfer is completed, the matrices slide onto the second elevator bar which carries

9840-401: The other machines were operated by (non-QWERTY) keyboards, in the Ludlow Typograph the matrices for each line were assembled in a stick by hand. This machine was able to cast display body sizes that other mechanical composition systems were unable to produce. In this way headings could be produced to complement text produced on other machines. It also used the same alloy as Linotype machines, so

9963-459: The personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term Mammalia for

10086-400: The plants in the garden, which he published in 1738 as Hortus Cliffortianus . This list was published with engravings by Georg Ehret (1708–1770) and Jan Wandelaer (1690–1759). Linnaeus included Ehret's Tabella (an illustration of his "Sexual System" of plant classification) in his Genera Plantarum but without credit to the artist. This provoked the accusation from Ehret that "When he was

10209-403: The press run is completed and the slugs removed from the form, they are tossed into the ‘hell box’ for remelting into new ingots. At intervals the lead is remelted and the oxidized metal (dross) skimmed off. As part of this process, ‘plus metal’ is added in the form of small ingots to replenish that portion of the alloyed metals that was lost by the formation of dross (by oxidization of the metal in

10332-461: The quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in Skånska Resa . In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in

10455-570: The southernmost province Scania . This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy. In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater , or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick —a mark of great respect. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin . In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania , again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On

10578-407: The space bands are stored in a box closer to the keyboard. Once a key is pressed, the matrix passes through what is known as the ‘assembler front’, down past a rotating fiber reinforced wheel (known as the star wheel) and into the ‘assembling elevator’ which serves the same purpose as the hand compositor's stick. When the space band key near the keyboard is pressed, one of the space bands drops out of

10701-415: The space bands’ range. With the matrices aligned and the space bands set to the correct measure, the machine then ‘locks up’ the line with great force and the plunger injects the molten type metal into the space created by the mold cavity and the assembled line. The machine then separates the mold disk (carrying the freshly cast slug), the metal pot, and the first elevator. The mold disk then turns to present

10824-758: The twinflower that would become his favourite. He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens , the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer , a common and economically important animal in Lapland. Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia , making major inland incursions from Umeå , Luleå and Tornio . He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks. Although Lapland

10947-636: The two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his Critica Botanica to him, as " opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit ". Linnaeus would later name a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants. The next year, 1737, he published Genera Plantarum , in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with Corollarium Generum Plantarum , with another sixty ( sexaginta ) genera. His work at Hartekamp led to another book, Hortus Cliffortianus ,

11070-474: The two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg . Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state. In Uppsala, Linnaeus met

11193-400: The type metal to be projected up onto the ceiling, no matter the height. As with the Linotype / Intertype machines, the Ludlow machines were often fitted with metal feeders to keep the pot filled to optimum level. Towards the end of its life as a common backshop type setter, the Ludlow was often joined by the "Super Surfacer" a specially designed surface plane that would smooth the surface of

11316-455: The use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures. In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests. In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on

11439-448: The value and investment in the "typesetting" and communication side of hot metal. Such systems were widely used in the later years of hot metal, and optical typesetting systems kept supporting and further developing TTS standard, alongside similar systems for most of the optical typesetting era. The nature of text printed via the hot-metal method is notably different from that produced by the phototypesetting processes that followed it. As

11562-550: The way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the military to make rifles. While there, they also visited the Ramlösa mineral spa , where he remarked on

11685-476: The way, the pair stopped in Hamburg , where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra . Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake , cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent

11808-427: The white space between each word. Since the type used was proportional and not fixed in width, solving this justification problem mechanically was very important. Some later models had a feature that permitted the lines to be cast with the alignment to either left, right or centered. Operators running earlier models would use special ‘blank’ matrices (in four sizes) to manually create the proper amount of whitespace beyond

11931-485: The world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his "apostles". His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored

12054-537: The æ ligature, both in handwritten documents and in publications. Carl's patronymic would have been Nilsson, as in Carl Nilsson Linnæus. Linnaeus's father began teaching him basic Latin, religion, and geography at an early age. When Linnaeus was seven, Nils decided to hire a tutor for him. The parents picked Johan Telander, a son of a local yeoman . Linnaeus did not like him, writing in his autobiography that Telander "was better calculated to extinguish

12177-405: The ‘vise automatic', which comes into play on tight lines. Both scenarios, if not stopped by these safety features, usually result in a “squirt” of molten type metal , encasing the matrices and the elevator in metal in the process. Not only is it time-consuming to clean up after a squirt, a tight line usually has not come down far enough to mate with the slots on the mold face, resulting in damage to

12300-433: Was zoological . Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus was the one who inverted the scale to its present usage, in 1745. In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to

12423-687: Was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature , the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy ". Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus and, after his 1761 ennoblement , as Carolus a Linné . Linnaeus was the son of a curate and was born in Råshult , in the countryside of Småland , southern Sweden . He received most of his higher education at Uppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published

12546-580: Was a machine used to cast rules and spacing material (leading) of a specific width: 1, 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 , 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, or 36 point. This was used extensively in page layout and line spacing, that is, adjusting the white space between paragraphs and any other area when small bits of white space were needed. Large areas of white space were created by wooden or later metal blocks called 'furniture'. Smaller odd areas were filled with square or rectangular blocks in various point sizes called quads . All these line-casting machines used various alloys near

12669-413: Was a region with limited biodiversity , Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book Flora Lapponica . However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system. In Flora Lapponica Linnaeus's ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in

12792-640: Was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to Sébastien Vaillant . In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled in Lund University in Skåne . He was registered as Carolus Linnæus , the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications. Professor Kilian Stobæus , natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as

12915-511: Was a useful adjunct to page makeup for newspapers as, when a print run was completed, all the metal could be remelted at once, without having to be separated or the type from the headings redistributed back into case. The success of these machines lay in different fields. The Monotype caster was more popular for bookwork that required the ability to make manual corrections and edits while the slug casting systems found success in newspaper production, where speed of production and 'make ready' for print

13038-441: Was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history , instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala. Ten days after he

13161-487: Was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from

13284-409: Was daring and thorough, based on an exceptional and practical knowledge of plants; although influenced by somewhat outmoded ideas, it had exactly the salutary effect which he wanted it to have: consistency and simplicity. These two were prime needs for taxonomy in 1737." Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné ,

13407-522: Was developed in the late nineteenth century as a development of conventional cast metal type. The technology had several advantages: it reduced labour since type sorts did not need to be slotted into position manually, and each casting created crisp new type for each printing job. In the case of Linotype machines , each line was cast as a robust continuous block (hence "line o'type") which was useful for rapid newspaper printing. Two different approaches to mechanising typesetting were independently developed in

13530-448: Was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: "If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds." In 1734, Linnaeus led

13653-416: Was essential. Another essential difference between Monotype and the "slug"-producing machines is that a Monotype machine functions with a minimal set of matrices. Each character needs one matrix. Linecasters cannot function this way, and these systems need quite large magazines of matrices to be able to set a complete line of text with the usual character repetitions. Indeed, the nominal 90-channel magazine of

13776-428: Was filled before the metal solidified. If the stick was not properly filled out or mounted firmly, or the special terminating block was forgotten, a dreaded "splash" would result, often encasing the operator's toes in molten lead and leaving a mess that needed to be peeled off the Ludlow surfaces. Operators were encouraged to wear heavy boots with steel toes and be quick at removing one. It was also not uncommon for some of

13899-625: Was here that he wrote a book Hortus Cliffortianus , in the preface of which he described his experience as "the happiest time of my life". (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named "Linnaeushof". It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe. ) In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense. He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane,

14022-400: Was most times made of an alloy (8-10% tin, 15-20% antimony) slightly harder than the line casting alloys but was not as hard as the foundry type used for hand setting of loose letters. This allowed reasonable print runs or conversion to stereotypes for longer print runs. But these machines could produce type with all possible alloys, when needed. The used type, like the slugs from line casters,

14145-467: Was moved on a turtle (a rolling table with an accurately flat steel surface) to the manual proof press, where it was hand inked and a single very high quality proof was pulled. This proof could then be photographed and converted to a negative. Black paper was inserted before the proof was photographed for each of the photos on the final page to create clear windows in the negative. The separately made halftones would be taped into these clear windows on

14268-558: Was named Ingemarsson after his father Ingemar Bengtsson. When Nils was admitted to the University of Lund , he had to take on a family name. He adopted the Latinate name Linnæus after a giant linden tree (or lime tree), lind in Swedish, that grew on the family homestead. This name was spelled with the æ ligature . When Carl was born, he was named Carl Linnæus, with his father's family name. The son also always spelled it with

14391-531: Was one of his greatest achievements: his genera and their nomenclature stand at the beginning of the victory of Linnaean taxonomy . He dealt with the theory of generic names in the Critica Botanica which was a prelude to his main practical work on the subject, the Genera Plantarum . The rules for the formation of generic names are contained in the Fundamenta but are worked out in greater detail in

14514-420: Was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message: "Tell him I know no greater man on Earth." Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: "With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza , I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly." Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: "Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become

14637-551: Was permitted to visit the mines. In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic , where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands , then a highly revered place to study natural history. On

14760-411: Was re-melted when no longer needed. Each time remelting caused some loss of tin and antimony, through oxidation. This loss needed to be monitored and compensated. The Monotype Corporation survived the demise of the hot metal typesetting era by selling digital type. Towards the end of its life, hot metal composition in newspapers was kept alive by the proof press. As each page was set and locked up, it

14883-406: Was to cast complete lines as one slug, usually comprising a whole line of text. Of this system there were at least five manufacturers: The Linotype and similar Intertype machines came out with paper tape and electronic automation near the end of their lifecycles, which allowed for the news wire services to send breaking news to remote newspaper offices for prompt setting into late editions. While

15006-752: Was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils . He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, Genera Plantarum and Critica Botanica . He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden , Adonis Uplandicus . Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén , returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén gave Linnaeus private tutoring in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had

15129-414: Was upset, he was given a flower, which immediately calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him their names. Soon Linnaeus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants. Carl's father was the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent surname. Before that, ancestors had used the patronymic naming system of Scandinavian countries: his father

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