The General Survey Act was a law passed by the United States Congress in April 1824, which authorized the president to have surveys made of routes for transport roads and canals "of national importance, in a commercial or military point of view, or necessary for the transportation of public mail." While such infrastructure of national scope had been discussed and shown wanting for years, its passage shortly followed the landmark US Supreme Court ruling, Gibbons v. Ogden , which first established federal authority over interstate commerce, including navigation by river. The US president assigned responsibility for the surveys to the Corps of Engineers (USACE).
180-521: Of the federally appropriated funds for surveys roads and canals of national importance, President James Monroe allocated one third of the sum to surveying a military highway connecting Detroit , Michigan , with Fort Dearborn in Chicago , Illinois . Commerce and the mail soon traveled much faster on what was called the Chicago Road . In a separate piece of legislation passed a month later that
360-831: A 100-mile zone, thus shifting its territorial claim four degrees of latitude to the south. Late in Monroe's second term, the U.S. concluded the Russo-American Treaty of 1824 with the Russian Empire, setting the southern limit of Russian sovereignty on the Pacific coast of North America at the 54°40′ parallel (the present southern tip of the Alaska Panhandle ). In October 1817, the United States cabinet held several lengthy meetings to address
540-455: A French dupe and at worst a traitor. With the power to appoint election officials in Virginia, Monroe exercised his influence to help Jefferson win Virginia's presidential electors . He also considered using the Virginia militia to force the outcome in favor of Jefferson. Jefferson won the 1800 election, and he appointed Madison as his Secretary of State. As a member of Jefferson's party and
720-436: A bitter split between their two major leaders, Adams and Alexander Hamilton . According to historian John Ferling , the jockeying for electoral votes, regional divisions, and the propaganda smear campaigns created by both parties made the election recognizably modern. At the end of a long and bitter campaign, Jefferson and Burr each won 73 electoral votes, Adams won 65, and Pinckney won 64. The Federalists swept New England ,
900-510: A commission as a lieutenant colonel and was expected to lead one of the regiments, but recruitment again proved to be a problem. On Jones's advice, Monroe returned to Williamsburg to study law at the College of William and Mary, becoming a protégé of Virginia Governor Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson, with whom Monroe soon formed a close and lifelong friendship, advised his protégé to pursue a political career and made his library available to him, where
1080-592: A craftsman and was a patriot who was involved in protests against the Stamp Act . His mother was the daughter of a Welsh immigrant whose family was one of the wealthiest in King George County . His paternal great-great-grandfather Patrick Andrew Monroe emigrated to America from Scotland in the mid-17th century as a Royalist after the defeat of Charles I in the English Civil War , and
1260-651: A definition of the boundary between Spanish and American possessions on the North American continent. Beginning at the mouth of the Sabine River the line ran along that river to the 32nd parallel , then due north to the Red River , which it followed to the 100th meridian , due north to the Arkansas River , and along that river to its source , then north to the 42nd parallel , which it followed to
1440-809: A delegate to the Virginia Ratifying Convention . He opposed the ratification of the United States Constitution . In 1790, Monroe won election to the Senate where he became a leader of the Democratic-Republican Party. He left the Senate in 1794 to serve as President George Washington 's ambassador to France but was recalled by Washington in 1796. Monroe won the election as Governor of Virginia in 1799 and strongly supported Jefferson's candidacy in
1620-492: A duel between the two. Throughout 1792 and 1793, Monroe and Madison responded to Hamilton's pamphlets accusing Jefferson of undermining Washington's authority with a series of six essays. These sharply worded replies were largely penned by Monroe. As leader of the Republicans in the Senate, Monroe soon became involved in matters of foreign relations. In 1794, he emerged as an opponent of Hamilton's appointment as ambassador to
1800-528: A frenzied letter-writing campaign to get Federalist Representatives to switch votes. He urged the Federalists to support Jefferson because he was "by far not so dangerous a man" as Burr; in short, he would much rather have someone with wrong principles than someone devoid of any. From February 11 to 17, the House cast a total of 35 ballots; each time eight state delegations voted for Jefferson, one short of
1980-748: A key role in the writing and passage of the Northwest Ordinance . The ordinance created the Northwest Territory , providing for federal administration of the territories West of Pennsylvania and North of the Ohio River . Another of Monroe's goals in the Confederate Congress was to negotiate American rights to free navigation on the Mississippi River . During this period, Jefferson continued to serve as
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#17327726462262160-462: A large margin, carrying all but one state outside of New England. Monroe won 3,400 votes in Virginia, but received little support elsewhere. Monroe, who had fallen out of favor with the majority of Republicans because of his candidacy, withdrew into private life for the next few years. The plan to sell his second house in Loudon County, Oak Hill , in order to renovate and expand Highland with
2340-522: A likely attack on New Orleans by the British, and he asked the governors of nearby states to send their militias to reinforce Jackson. He also called on Congress to draft an army of 100,000 men, increase compensation to soldiers, and establish a new national bank, the Second Bank of the United States , to ensure adequate funding for the war effort. Months after Monroe took office as Secretary of War,
2520-520: A mentor to Monroe, and, at Jefferson's prompting, he befriended another prominent Virginian, James Madison . On February 16, 1786, Monroe married Elizabeth Kortright (1768–1830), who came from New York City's high society, at Trinity Church in Manhattan. The marriage produced three children, Eliza in 1786, James in 1799 and Maria in 1802. Although Monroe was raised in the Anglican faith,
2700-731: A military expedition to cross into Spanish Florida and attack the Seminoles. In this expedition, led by Andrew Jackson , the US Army displaced numerous Seminole people from their houses along with burning their towns. Jackson also seized the Spanish territorial capital of Pensacola . With the capture of Pensacola, Jackson established de facto American control of the entire territory. While Monroe supported Jackson's actions, many in Congress harshly criticized what they saw as an undeclared war. With
2880-554: A military intelligence service should be established to Chesapeake Bay , which Armstrong dismissed as unnecessary. Since there was no functioning reconnaissance, Monroe formed his own small cavalry unit and began scouting the bay until the British withdrew from it. As the war dragged on, the British offered to begin negotiations in Ghent , and the United States sent a delegation led by John Quincy Adams to conduct negotiations. Monroe allowed Adams leeway in setting terms, so long as he ended
3060-617: A new assessment of the situation on the basis of previously unknown information at the scene of the war. Spain faced revolt in all of its American colonies and could neither govern nor defend Florida. On February 22, 1819, Spain and the United States signed the Adams–Onís Treaty , which ceded the Floridas in return for the assumption by the United States of claims of American citizens against Spain to an amount not exceeding $ 5,000,000 (~$ 141 million in 2023). The treaty also contained
3240-421: A particular party or candidate. Newspapers are also the main source of voting records in the early 19th century, and frontier states such as Tennessee had few in operation, without any known surviving examples. Below are the surviving popular vote figures as published in A New Nation Votes. Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, and Tennessee chose each of their electors from specially-drawn single-member districts,
3420-650: A policy of expansionism against the Spanish Empire. In the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain, the United States secured Florida and established its western border with New Spain . In 1823, Monroe announced the United States' opposition to any European intervention in the recently independent countries of the Americas with the Monroe Doctrine, which became a landmark in American foreign policy. Monroe
3600-617: A provision of the United States Constitution, a tie in a case of this type had to be resolved by the House of Representatives , with each state casting one vote. Although the congressional election of 1800 turned over majority control of the House of Representatives to the Democratic-Republicans by 68 seats to 38, the presidential election had to be decided by the outgoing House that had been elected in
3780-736: A representative of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata that his attitude was "impartial neutrality," Although not diplomatically recognized, the young republics enjoyed the advantages of a sovereign nation in economic, trade, and diplomatic relations with the United States. After Spain and America had fully ratified the Adams–Onís Treaty in February 1821 and a liberal government had come to power in Madrid , Monroe officially recognized
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#17327726462263960-512: A result of his service, Monroe became a member of the Society of the Cincinnati . Monroe resumed studying law under Jefferson and continued until 1783. He was not particularly interested in legal theory or practice, but chose to take it up because he thought it offered "the most immediate rewards" and could ease his path to wealth, social standing, and political influence. In 1782, Monroe
4140-485: A similar bill with an amendment, introduced on January 26, 1820, by John W. Taylor of New York , allowing Missouri into the union as a slave state . Initially, Monroe opposed any compromise that involved restrictions on slavery's expansion in federal territories. The question had been complicated by the admission in December of Alabama , a slave state, making the number of slave and free states equal. In addition, there
4320-647: A third term, the Federalists and Adams regarded himself as next-in-line. Hamilton appears to have hoped in 1796 that his influence within an Adams administration would be as great as or greater than in Washington's. By 1800, Hamilton had come to realize that Adams was too independent and thought the Federalist vice presidential candidate, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina, more suited to serving Hamilton's interests. In his third sabotage attempt toward Adams, Hamilton quietly schemed to elect Pinckney to
4500-521: A way to avoid war with both countries, Washington appointed Monroe as his minister (ambassador) to France , after Madison and Robert R. Livingston had declined the offer. At the same time, he appointed the Anglophile Federalist John Jay as his minister to Britain . Monroe took this position at a difficult time: America's negotiating position was made considerably more difficult by its lack of military strength. In addition,
4680-470: Is credited by some historians with inventing the modern electioneering process. Yet, throughout this entire process, the candidates themselves were conspicuously missing from the campaigning, at least publicly, due to fears that they may otherwise be tagged as "demagogues". Even a visit John Adams made to Washington was made into a public point of contention. Partisans on both sides sought any advantage they could find. In several states, this included changing
4860-515: Is divided into two electoral districts and half the electors are chosen from each district. In the 2015 musical Hamilton by Lin Manuel Miranda , the contest between Jefferson and Burr is recounted in " The Election of 1800 ". The song focuses on Alexander Hamilton 's role in deciding the outcome of the 1801 contingent election. The musical simplifies the complicated multiple elections somewhat, portraying Adams's unpopularity as making
5040-606: Is often called the first Rivers and Harbors Act , Congress also appropriated $ 75,000 to improve navigation on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers by removing sandbars, snags, and other obstacles. This work also was given to the Corps of Engineers, the only formally trained body of engineers in the new republic. With passage of the General Survey Act, Congress empowered the military to chart transportation improvements vital to
5220-549: Is sometimes called the " Revolution of 1800 ", the Democratic-Republican Party candidate, Vice President Thomas Jefferson , defeated the Federalist Party candidate and incumbent, President John Adams . The election was a political realignment that ushered in a generation of Democratic-Republican leadership. This was the first presidential election in American history to be a rematch. It
5400-659: Is why Monroe was later able to immediately take advanced courses in Latin and mathematics at the College of William & Mary . He attended this school only 11 weeks a year, as his labor was needed on the farm. During this time, Monroe formed a lifelong friendship with an older classmate, future Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Marshall . In 1772, Monroe's mother died after giving birth to her youngest child and his father died soon after, leaving him as
5580-611: The 1800 presidential election . As President Jefferson's special envoy, Monroe helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase , through which the United States nearly doubled in size. Monroe fell out with his longtime friend James Madison after Madison rejected the Monroe–Pinkney Treaty that Monroe negotiated with Britain. He unsuccessfully challenged Madison for the Democratic-Republican nomination in
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5760-487: The 1808 presidential election , but he joined Madison's administration as Secretary of State in 1811. During the later stages of the War of 1812 , Monroe simultaneously served as Madison's Secretary of State and Secretary of War. Monroe's wartime leadership established him as Madison's heir apparent, and he easily defeated Federalist candidate Rufus King in the 1816 presidential election . During Monroe's tenure as president,
5940-479: The 1808 presidential election . After Jefferson refused to submit the Monroe-Pinkney Treaty, Monroe had come to believe that Jefferson had snubbed the treaty out of the desire to avoid elevating Monroe above Madison in 1808. Out of deference to Jefferson, Monroe agreed to avoid actively campaigning for the presidency, but he did not rule out accepting a draft effort. The Democratic-Republican Party
6120-580: The 1st United States Congress , anti-federalist Henry Monroe persuaded Monroe to run against Madison, and he had the Virginia legislature draw a congressional district designed to elect Monroe. During the campaign, Madison and Monroe often traveled together, and the election did nothing to diminish their friendship. In the election for Virginia's Fifth District , Madison prevailed over Monroe, taking 1,308 votes compared to Monroe's 972 votes. After this defeat, Monroe moved his family from Fredericksburg to Albemarle County , first to Charlottesville and later to
6300-514: The American Revolutionary War and later served as the minister to France . The Democratic-Republicans nominated a ticket consisting of Vice President Thomas Jefferson of Virginia and former Senator Aaron Burr of New York . Jefferson had been the runner-up in the previous election and had co-founded the party with James Madison and others, while Burr was popular in the electorally important state of New York. While
6480-469: The Federalist Party collapsed as a national political force and Monroe was re-elected, virtually unopposed, in 1820 . As president, he signed the Missouri Compromise , which admitted Missouri as a slave state and banned slavery from territories north of the 36°30′ parallel. In foreign affairs, Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams favored a policy of conciliation with Britain and
6660-665: The General Assembly was split, with the Democratic-Republican-dominated House wishing to retain the general ticket and the Federalist-controlled Senate wishing to return to the district system, hoping to win at least some electoral votes. Eventually, this deadlock was broken by a last-minute compromise between the chambers that gave the Democratic-Republican eight electors and the Federalists seven. In New York,
6840-464: The House of Representatives . Under the terms laid out in the Constitution , the outgoing House of Representatives chose between Jefferson and Burr. Burr was accused of campaigning for the presidency himself in the contingent election despite being a member of Jefferson's party. Each state delegation cast one vote, and a victory in the contingent election required one candidate to win a majority of
7020-656: The Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the British also ended the practice of impressment. After the war, Congress authorized the creation of the Second Bank of the United States. Monroe resigned as Secretary of War in March 1815 and took over the leadership of the State Department again, emerging from the war politically strengthened and a promising presidential candidate. Monroe decided to seek the presidency in
7200-676: The National Convention , receiving a standing ovation for his speech celebrating republicanism . Monroe's passionate and friendly message of greeting at the inaugural ceremony before the National Convention was later criticized by Jay for its sentimentality, and Washington viewed the speech as "not well devised" in terms of venue and in light of American neutrality in the First Coalition War. Monroe experienced several early diplomatic successes, including
7380-629: The Pacific Ocean . The United States renounced all claims to the west and south of this boundary ( Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Colorado, Utah, Nevada ), so Spain surrendered any title she had to the Northwest ( Oregon Country ). In 1810, South America's wars of independence began, inspired by the American and French Revolutionary Wars, but the Madison administration, as well as Monroe himself during his first term in office, treated
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7560-801: The Philadelphia campaign and spent the winter of 1777–78 at the encampment of Valley Forge , sharing a log hut with Marshall. By late 1777, he was promoted to major and served as Lord Stirling's aide-de-camp. After serving in the Battle of Monmouth , the destitute Monroe resigned his commission in December 1778 and joined his uncle in Philadelphia. After the British captured Savannah , the Virginia legislature decided to raise four regiments, and Monroe returned to his native state, hoping to receive his own command. With letters of recommendation from Washington, Stirling, and Alexander Hamilton , Monroe received
7740-687: The United States . With only a minor military presence in Florida, Spain was not able to restrain the Seminole warriors who routinely crossed the border and raided American villages and farms, as well as protected southern slave refugees from slave owners and traders of the southern United States. The Seminole people were also providing sanctuary for runaway slaves, those of which the United States wanted back. In response to Seminole attacks and their provision of aid to escaped slaves, Monroe ordered
7920-503: The White House on August 24, 1814, Madison removed Armstrong as Secretary of War and turned to Monroe for help, appointing him Secretary of War on September 27. Monroe resigned as Secretary of State on October 1, 1814, but no successor was ever appointed and thus from October 1814 to February 28, 1815, Monroe effectively held both Cabinet posts. Now in command of the war effort, Monroe ordered General Andrew Jackson to defend against
8100-403: The congressional election of 1798 (at that time, the new presidential and congressional terms all started on March 4 of the year after a national election). In the outgoing House, the Federalists retained a majority of 60 seats to 46. When the electoral ballots were opened and counted on February 11, 1801, the certificate of election from Georgia was different than the others. Georgia had sent
8280-510: The legislature to secure a location where free and enslaved African Americans suspected of "conspiracy, insurgency, Treason, and rebellion" would be permanently banished outside the United States. Monroe thought that foreign and Federalist elements had created the Quasi War of 1798–1800, and he strongly supported Thomas Jefferson 's candidacy for president in 1800 . Federalists were likewise suspicious of Monroe, some viewing him at best as
8460-867: The 155 counties and independent cities making returns, Jefferson and Burr won in 115 (74.19%), whereas the Adams ticket carried 40 (25.81%). This was the last time that Vermont voted for the Federalists and the last time a Federalist won electoral votes from Pennsylvania. This was the first of two elections contested between people who would at some point serve as Vice President, the other being 1968 . Source (Popular Vote): A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825 Source (Electoral Vote): "Electoral College Box Scores 1789–1996" . National Archives and Records Administration . Retrieved July 30, 2005 . Votes for Federalist electors have been assigned to John Adams and votes for Democratic-Republican electors have been assigned to Thomas Jefferson. Only 6 of
8640-533: The 16 states chose electors by any form of popular vote. Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements. Eight votes were cast for electors pledged to both Adams and Jefferson; 2 votes were cast for electors of unknown affiliation. Source: "Tally of Electoral Votes for the 1800 Presidential Election, February 11, 1801" . The Center for Legislative Archives . National Archives. August 15, 2016 . Retrieved February 15, 2018 . Of
8820-406: The 16 states that took part in the 1800 election, six (Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Tennessee, and Virginia) used some kind of popular vote. In Rhode Island and Virginia, voters elected their state's entire Electoral College delegation at large; Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, and Tennessee all used some variation of single-member districts. In the rest, electors were chosen by
9000-455: The 1800 election was a re-match of the 1796 election , it ushered in a new type of American politics, a two-party republic and acrimonious campaigning behind the scenes and through the press. On top of this, the election pitted the "larger than life" Adams and Jefferson, who were formerly close allies turned political enemies. The campaign was bitter and characterized by slander and personal attacks on both sides. Federalists spread rumors that
9180-504: The 1808 presidential election in order to demonstrate the strength of his political position in Virginia. The regular Democratic-Republicans overcame the Quids in the nominating caucus, kept control of the party in Virginia, and protected Madison's base. Monroe did not publicly criticize Jefferson or Madison during Madison's campaign against Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney , but he refused to support Madison. Madison defeated Pinckney by
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#17327726462269360-423: The 1816 election, and his war-time leadership had established him as Madison's heir apparent. Monroe had strong support from many in the party, but his candidacy was challenged at the 1816 Democratic-Republican congressional nominating caucus . Since there was no longer a serious opposition party due to the decline of the Federalists, who were perceived as disloyal because of their pro-British stance and opposition to
9540-432: The Americas. Monroe previously served as governor of Virginia , a member of the United States Senate , U.S. ambassador to France and Britain, the seventh secretary of state, and the eighth secretary of war. During the American Revolutionary War , he served in the Continental Army . Monroe studied law under Thomas Jefferson from 1780 to 1783 and subsequently served as a delegate to the Continental Congress as well as
9720-421: The British Empire and helped avoid an expensive naval arms race in the Great Lakes. In the Pacific Northwest, American territorial claims clashed with those of Tsarist Russia , which had trading posts as far south as San Francisco Bay , and those of Great Britain. The situation intensified in the fall of 1821 when Saint Petersburg closed America's Pacific coastal sea north of 51° latitude to foreign ships within
9900-442: The British and French to end the attacks on American merchant ships. While the French agreed to reduce the attacks and release seized American ships, the British were less receptive to Monroe's demands. Monroe had long worked for peace with the British, but he came to favor war with Britain, joining with "war hawks" such as Speaker of the House Henry Clay . With the support of Monroe and Clay, Madison asked Congress to declare war upon
10080-441: The British frequently impressed sailors on U.S. ships in hopes of quelling their manpower issues. Many of the sailors they impressed had never been British subjects, and Monroe was tasked with persuading the British to stop their practice of impressment. Monroe found little success in this endeavor, partly due to Jefferson's alienation of the British minister to the United States, Anthony Merry . Rejecting Jefferson's offer to serve as
10260-546: The British, and Congress complied on June 18, 1812, thus beginning the War of 1812 . The war went very badly, and the Madison administration quickly sought peace, but were rejected by the British. The U.S. Navy did experience several successes after Monroe convinced Madison to allow the Navy's ships to set sail rather than remaining in port for the duration of the war. After the resignation of Secretary of War William Eustis , Madison asked Monroe to serve in dual roles as Secretary of State and Secretary of War, but opposition from
10440-526: The Cabinet without a prominent Westerner. In late 1817 Rush became the ambassador to Britain, and William Wirt succeeded him as Attorney General. With the exception of Crowninshield, the rest of Monroe's initial cabinet appointees remained in place for the remainder of his presidency. According to historian William Earl Weeks, "Monroe evolved a comprehensive strategy aimed at expanding the Union externally while solidifying it internally". He expanded trade and pacified relations with Great Britain while expanding
10620-414: The Colonies in response to the Boston Tea Party . In Williamsburg, British Governor John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore , dissolved the Assembly after protests by the delegates, who then decided to send a delegation to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Dunmore wanted to take advantage of the absence of the Burgesses, who had convened to Richmond, and had soldiers of the Royal Navy confiscate
10800-479: The Constitution. "High Federalists" considered Adams too moderate and would have preferred the leadership of Alexander Hamilton instead. Hamilton had apparently grown impatient with Adams and wanted a new president who was more receptive to his goals. During Washington's presidency, Hamilton had been able to influence the federal response to the Whiskey Rebellion (which threatened the government's power to tax citizens). When Washington announced that he would not seek
10980-448: The Continental Army and the Virginia militia had an abundance of officers, Monroe did not serve during the Yorktown campaign , and, much to his frustration, did not take part in the Siege of Yorktown . Although Andrew Jackson served as a courier in a militia unit at age 13, Monroe is regarded as the last U.S. president who was a Revolutionary War veteran, since he served as an officer of the Continental Army and took part in combat. As
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#173277264622611160-446: The Democratic-Republicans accused Federalists of subverting republican principles with the Alien and Sedition Acts , some of which were later declared unconstitutional after their expiration by the Supreme Court, and relying for their support on foreign immigrants ; they also accused Federalists of favoring Britain and the other coalition countries in their war with France in order to promote aristocratic, anti-democratic values. Adams
11340-407: The Democratic-Republicans dominated the South , and the parties split the Mid-Atlantic states of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The Democratic-Republicans' assumption that one or more electors in Rhode Island, Vermont, New Jersey, Georgia, Kentucky, or Tennessee would vote for Jefferson and not Burr resulted in a tie, known as the Burr dilemma . It necessitated a contingent election in
11520-411: The Democratic-Republicans in 1796, made gains in Maryland, and picked up Burr's home state of New York. In the six states choosing electors by some form of popular vote, they won a landslide over Adams and Pinckney, polling 15,846 more votes than the Federalist ticket. Adams made gains in Pennsylvania and North Carolina, but these votes were not enough to offset the Democratic-Republican gains elsewhere. Of
11700-401: The Democratic-Republicans were radical atheists who would ruin the country (based on the Democratic-Republican support for the French Revolution ). In 1798, George Washington had complained "that you could as soon scrub the blackamoor white , as to change the principles of a professed Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the Government of this Country". Meanwhile,
11880-401: The Federalists and Jefferson for the Democratic-Republicans) would win one more vote than the party's other nominee. The chief political issues revolved around the fallout from the French Revolution and the Quasi-War . The Federalists favored a strong central government and close relations with Great Britain . The Democratic-Republicans favored decentralization to the state governments, and
12060-413: The Georgia ballots had been rejected based on these supposed irregularities, Jefferson and Burr would have been left with 69 votes each, or one short of the 70 votes required for a majority, meaning a contingent election would have been required between the top five finishers (Jefferson, Burr, incumbent president John Adams, Charles C. Pinckney, and John Jay) in the House of Representatives. With these votes,
12240-470: The Jay Treaty, but it was incomplete and did not include the French note or Monroe's written response. Pickering saw this as a sign of Monroe's unsuitability and, together with Hamilton, persuaded Washington to replace Monroe as ambassador. Washington decided Monroe was inefficient, disruptive, and failed to safeguard the national interest. He recalled Monroe in November 1796, the letter of dismissal being deliberately delayed in order to prevent his return before
12420-399: The Louisiana Purchase, and the acquisition doubled the size of the United States. Monroe would travel to Spain in 1805 to try to win the cession of West Florida, but found that the American ambassador to Spain, Charles Pinckney , had alienated the Spanish government with crude threats of violence. In the negotiations on the outstanding territorial issues concerning New Orleans, West Florida and
12600-404: The Missouri Compromise is disputed. He viewed the issue of admission conditions more from a political perspective and did not convene a cabinet meeting on this matter. 1800 United States presidential election John Adams Federalist Thomas Jefferson Democratic-Republican Presidential elections were held in the United States from October 31 to December 3, 1800. In what
12780-406: The Monroe Doctrine. He first reiterated the traditional U.S. policy of neutrality with regard to European wars and conflicts. He then declared that the United States would not accept the recolonization of any country by its former European master, though he also avowed non-interference with existing European colonies in the Americas. Finally, he stated that European countries should no longer consider
12960-539: The Rio Grande, Monroe made no progress and was treated condescendingly, and with the support of France, Spain refused to consider relinquishing the territory. After the resignation of Rufus King , Monroe was appointed as the ambassador to Great Britain in 1803. The greatest issue of contention between the United States and Britain was that of the impressment of U.S. sailors. Many U.S. merchant ships employed British seamen who had deserted or dodged conscription, and
13140-499: The Senate limited Monroe to serving as acting Secretary of War until Brigadier General John Armstrong won Senate confirmation. Monroe and Armstrong clashed over war policy, and Armstrong blocked Monroe's hopes of being appointed to lead an invasion of Canada . When British warships appeared in the Potomac River estuary in the summer of the same year, Monroe urged that defensive measures be taken for Washington, D.C., and that
13320-499: The Senate. Though Monroe remained firmly opposed to any compromise that restricted slavery anywhere, he reluctantly signed the Compromise into law (March 6, 1820) only because he believed it was the least bad alternative for southern slaveholders. The legislation passed, and became known as "the Missouri Compromise ", which temporarily settled the issue of slavery in the territories. Monroe's presidential leadership role in drafting
13500-406: The U.S. and Spain signed Pinckney's Treaty . The treaty granted the U.S. limited rights to use the port of New Orleans . Immediately after Timothy Pickering succeeded Secretary of State Edmund Randolph , who had been the only Francophile member of Washington's cabinet, in December 1795, he worked to dismiss Monroe. In 1796, Monroe sent a dispatch summarizing his response to French complaints of
13680-859: The United Kingdom and a supporter of the First French Republic . Since 1791 he had taken sides with the French Revolution in several essays under the pseudonym Aratus. As the 1790s progressed, the French Revolutionary Wars came to dominate U.S. foreign policy, with the British and French navies both interfering with U.S. trade with Europe. Like most other Jeffersonians, Monroe supported the French Revolution , but Hamilton's followers tended to sympathize more with Britain. In 1794, hoping to find
13860-641: The United States from 1817 to 1825. He was the last Founding Father to serve as president as well as the last president of the Virginia dynasty . He was a member of the Democratic-Republican Party , and his presidency coincided with the Era of Good Feelings , concluding the First Party System era of American politics. He issued the Monroe Doctrine , a policy of limiting European colonialism in
14040-428: The United States at the expense of the Spanish Empire, from which he obtained Florida and the recognition of a border across the continent. Faced with the breakdown of the expansionist consensus over the question of slavery, the president tried to provide both North and South with guarantees that future expansion would not tip the balance of power between slave and free states, a system that, Weeks remarks, did indeed allow
14220-545: The United States would claim that France had sold West Florida to the United States for several years to come. Though he had not ordered the purchase of the entire territory, Jefferson strongly supported Monroe's actions, which ensured that the United States would continue to expand to the West. Overcoming doubts about whether the Constitution authorized the purchase of foreign territory, Jefferson won congressional approval for
14400-516: The War of 1812, the Democratic-Republican caucus in Congress was crucial to Monroe's victory. Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford had the support of numerous Southern and Western Congressmen, while Governor Daniel D. Tompkins was backed by several Congressmen from New York. Crawford appealed especially to many Democratic-Republicans who were wary of Madison and Monroe's support for
14580-532: The Western Hemisphere open to new colonization, a jab aimed primarily at Russia, which was attempting to expand its colony on the northern Pacific Coast. In the period between 1817 and 1819, Mississippi, Illinois, and Alabama were recognized as new states. This rapid expansion resulted in a growing economic divide between the regions and a change of power in Congress to the detriment of the southern states, which viewed their plantation economy, which
14760-578: The Years 1794, 5, and 6, which sharply attacked Washington's government and accused it of acting against America's interests. He followed the advice of his friend Robert Livingston who cautioned him to "repress every harsh and acrimonious" comment about Washington. However, he did complain that too often the U.S. government had been too close to Britain, especially regarding the Jay Treaty. Washington made notes on this copy, writing, "The truth is, Mr. Monroe
14940-496: The absence of a bill of rights and worried about surrendering taxation powers to the central government. Monroe called for the Constitution to include guarantees regarding free navigation on the Mississippi River and to give the federal government direct control over the militia in case of defense. In doing so, he wanted to prevent the creation of a standing army, which proved to be a critical point of contention between
15120-408: The act does not explicitly authorize it, much of the activity supported river and harbor projects, which the Corps planned and undertook, and surveys of roads and canals, and later railroads. Between 1824 and 1837, the Corps made 120 surveys and assisted or constructed 90 projects. Over the years, more appropriations were made; and the system of roads and canals developed in other areas. The passage of
15300-405: The acts and the Corps' work on the various interior transportation systems were vital foundations for economic development and westward expansion of the country in the 19th century. James Monroe James Monroe ( / m ə n ˈ r oʊ / mən- ROH ; April 28, 1758 – July 4, 1831) was a Founding Father of the United States , and served as the fifth president of
15480-467: The bilateral statement proposed by the British became a unilateral declaration by the United States. While Monroe thought that Spain was unlikely to re-establish its colonial empire on its own, he feared that France or the Holy Alliance might seek to establish control over the former Spanish possessions. On December 2, 1823, in his annual message to Congress, Monroe articulated what became known as
15660-470: The bill, and so the entire measure failed. The ensuing debates pitted the northern "restrictionists" (antislavery legislators who wished to bar slavery from the Louisiana territories and prohibit slavery's further expansion) against southern "anti-restrictionists" (proslavery legislators who rejected any interference by Congress inhibiting slavery expansion). During the following session, the House passed
15840-611: The capital of Williamsburg, Virginia , and enrolled him in the College of William and Mary in June 1774. Jones also introduced Monroe to important Virginians such as Thomas Jefferson , Patrick Henry , and George Washington . During this phase of the American Revolution , opposition to the British government grew in the Thirteen Colonies in reaction to the " Intolerable Acts ", a series of harsh laws against
16020-579: The cession of Florida make sense. Spain had been exhausted by the Peninsular War in Europe and needed to rebuild its credibility and presence in its colonies. Revolutionaries in Central America and South America were beginning to demand independence. Spain was unwilling to invest further in Florida, encroached on by American settlers, and it worried about the border between New Spain and
16200-595: The children were educated according to the teachings of the Episcopal Church . After a brief honeymoon on Long Island, New York , the Monroes returned to New York City to live with her father until Congress adjourned: In the fall of 1786, Monroe resigned from Congress and moved to his uncle Jones' house in Fredericksburg, Virginia , where he successfully passed the bar exam and became an attorney for
16380-522: The city. Meeting with François Barbé-Marbois , the French foreign minister, Monroe and Livingston agreed to purchase the entire territory of Louisiana for $ 15 million; the purchase became known as the Louisiana Purchase . In agreeing to the purchase, Monroe violated his instructions, which had only allowed $ 9 million for the purchase of New Orleans and West Florida. The French did not acknowledge that West Florida remained in Spanish possession, and
16560-608: The command of General Johann von Kalb , and the Virginia Militia. At the end of 1780, the British invaded Virginia and Monroe, who had become a colonel in the meantime, was given command of a regiment for the first time, but he was still unable to raise an army due to a lack of interested recruits, Monroe returned to his home in King George County, and was not present for the British raid on Richmond. As both
16740-611: The conclusion of a popular war that they had opposed. Monroe received 183 of the 217 electoral votes , winning every state but Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Delaware. Since he previously served as an officer of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War and as a delegate to the Continental Congress , he became the last president who was a Founding Father . Born in 1758, he was also
16920-744: The conflict between Paris and London in America intensified the confrontation between the Anglophile Federalists and the Francophile Republicans. While the Federalists were basically only aiming for independence from Great Britain, the Republicans wanted a revolutionary new form of government, which is why they strongly sympathized with the First French Republic. After arriving in France, Monroe addressed
17100-550: The conflicts as civil wars and kept the United States neutral. Monroe was deeply sympathetic to the revolutionary movements against Spain, and was determined that the United States should never repeat the policies of the Washington administration during the French Revolution, when the nation had failed to demonstrate its sympathy for the aspirations of peoples seeking to establish republican governments. He did not envisage military involvement in Latin American affairs, but only
17280-406: The constitutionally required certification language was contained on the outside of the envelope; and the ballot was not understood to be irregular under the election practices of the day. Brewer's arguments helped to influence Vice President Pence 's decision to reject the theory that he had such powers , via Judge J. Michael Luttig . Jefferson and Burr carried every state that had supported
17460-560: The continuation of American expansion for the best of four decades. Upon taking office, Monroe pursued warmer relations with Britain in the aftermath of the War of 1812. In 1817, the United States and Britain signed the Rush–Bagot Treaty , which regulated naval armaments on the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain and demilitarized the border between the U.S. and British North America . The Treaty of 1818 , also with Great Britain,
17640-465: The countries of Argentina , Peru , Colombia , Chile , and Mexico , all of which had won independence from Spain. Secretary of State Adams, under Monroe's supervision, wrote the instructions for the ministers to these new countries. They declared that the policy of the United States was to uphold republican institutions and to seek treaties of commerce on a most-favored-nation basis. The United States would support inter-American congresses dedicated to
17820-529: The declarations of independence by former Spanish colonies in South America and the increasing piracy, particularly from Amelia Island . Piracy on the southern border with the Floridas was intensified by smugglers, slave traders, and privateers who had fled from the Spanish colonies over which the mother country had lost control. Spain had long rejected repeated American attempts to purchase Florida. However, by 1818, Spain's troubling colonial situation made
18000-458: The development of economic and political institutions fundamentally differing from those prevailing in Europe. Monroe took pride as the United States was the first nation to extend recognition and to set an example to the rest of the world for its support of the "cause of liberty and humanity". In January 1821, Adams first expressed the idea that the American double continent should be closed to further colonization by foreign powers. The idea, which
18180-469: The early favorite to eventually succeed Monroe. An experienced diplomat, Adams had abandoned the Federalist Party in 1807 in support of Thomas Jefferson's foreign policy, and Monroe hoped that the appointment would encourage the defection of more Federalists. After General Andrew Jackson declined appointment as Secretary of War, Monroe turned to South Carolina Congressman John C. Calhoun , leaving
18360-475: The eldest son in charge of the family. Though he inherited property, including slaves, from both of his parents, the 16-year-old Monroe was forced to withdraw from school to support his younger brothers. His childless maternal uncle, Joseph Jones , became a surrogate father to Monroe and his siblings and paid off his brother-in-law's debts. A member of the Virginia House of Burgesses , Jones took Monroe to
18540-515: The elected Jeffersonians were also supporters of Pinckney, the revered native son of the state. If South Carolina's electors gave their votes to Jefferson and Pinckney, then Pinckney would place an electoral vote behind Jefferson, becoming the vice president. However, Pinckney stayed loyal to the instructions of his party's caucus and was adamant that any elector who voted for him must also vote for Adams. With uncommitted legislators not willing to desert Jefferson and Pinckney unwilling to abandon Adams,
18720-535: The election from resulting in a tie. A letter to Jefferson from Peter Freneau assured him that a member of the Republican delegation from South Carolina would vote for George Clinton instead of Aaron Burr and a report from Georgia indicated that two of its electors would deny Burr their votes. However, this information proved faulty. Thus, all of the Democratic-Republican electors cast their votes for both Jefferson and Burr, 73 in all for each of them. According to
18900-432: The establishment of a central bank and protective tariffs. Monroe largely ignored old party lines in making federal appointments, which reduced political tensions and augmented the sense of "oneness" that pervaded the United States. He made two long national tours to build national trust, which included ceremonies of welcome and expressions of good-will. Monroe appointed a geographically balanced cabinet, through which he led
19080-415: The establishment of the Second Bank of the United States. Despite his substantial backing, Crawford decided to defer to Monroe on the belief that he could eventually run as Monroe's successor, and Monroe won his party's nomination. Tompkins won the party's vice presidential nomination. The moribund Federalists nominated Rufus King as their presidential nominee, but the party offered little opposition following
19260-531: The executive branch. At Monroe's request, Crawford continued to serve as Treasury Secretary. Monroe also chose to retain Benjamin Crowninshield of Massachusetts as Secretary of the Navy and Richard Rush of Pennsylvania as Attorney General. Recognizing Northern discontent at the continuation of the Virginia dynasty, Monroe chose John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts as Secretary of State, making Adams
19440-479: The experiences of this and the previous election, sentiment for a new way of selecting the president and vice president rose significantly, resulting in the Twelfth Amendment . Sources: The votes of the representatives is typical and may have fluctuated from ballot to ballot, but the result for each state did not change. Even though Georgia had two representatives apportioned, one seat
19620-552: The federalists and the anti-federalists. Monroe also opposed the Electoral College , which he viewed as too corruptible and susceptible to state interests, and favored direct election of the president. After Madison reversed his decision and promised to pass a bill of rights, the Virginia Convention ratified the Constitution by a narrow vote, though Monroe himself voted against it. In the 1789 election to
19800-506: The first governor of Louisiana Territory , Monroe continued to serve as ambassador to Britain until 1807. In 1806 he negotiated the Monroe–Pinkney Treaty with Great Britain. It would have extended the Jay Treaty of 1794 which had expired after ten years. Jefferson had fought the Jay Treaty intensely in 1794–95 because he felt it would allow the British to subvert American republicanism . The treaty had produced ten years of peace and highly lucrative trade for American merchants, but Jefferson
19980-632: The fledgling army valued literacy in its officers, Monroe was commissioned with the rank of lieutenant, serving under Colonel George Weedon and later Captain William Washington . After months of training, Monroe and 700 Virginia infantrymen were called north to serve in the New York and New Jersey campaign . Monroe's regiment played a central role in the Continental Army's retreat across the Delaware River on December 7 in response to
20160-703: The fledgling party's leaders in the Senate. He also helped organize opposition to John Adams in the 1792 election, though Adams defeated George Clinton to win re-election as vice president. When Monroe took part in congressional investigations into Hamilton's illegal transactions with James Reynolds in November 1792, this led to the uncovering of the first political sex scandal in the United States: The payments had been hush money to keep Hamilton's affair with Reynolds' wife secret. Hamilton never forgave Monroe for this public humiliation, which almost led to
20340-419: The further introduction of slaves into Missouri and required that all future children of slave parents therein should be free at the age of twenty-five years. After three days of rancorous and sometimes bitter debate, the bill, with Tallmadge's amendments, passed. The measure then went to the Senate, which rejected both amendments. A House–Senate conference committee proved unable to resolve the disagreements on
20520-505: The governor's actions that they conducted daily military drills on campus afterward. On June 24, 1775, Monroe and 24 militiamen stormed the Governor's Palace, capturing several hundred muskets and swords. In early 1776, about a year and a half after his enrollment, Monroe dropped out of college and joined the 3rd Virginia Regiment in the Continental Army , despite mourning the death of his brother Spence, who had died shortly before. As
20700-589: The hostilities and preserved American neutrality. When a British fleet of 50 warships and 5,000 soldiers massed in the mouth of the Potomac, Monroe scouted the Chesapeake Bay with a troop and on August 21 sent the President a warning of the impending invasion so that Madison and his wife could flee in time and the state's assets and inhabitants could be evacuated. The British burned the U.S. Capitol and
20880-487: The immediate neighborhood of Monticello , where he bought an estate and named it Highland . After the death of Senator William Grayson in 1790, Virginia legislators elected Monroe to serve the remainder of Grayson's term. Since the Senate, unlike the House of Representatives, met behind closed doors, the public paid little attention to it and focused on the House of Representatives. Monroe therefore requested in February 1791 that Senate sessions be held in public, but this
21060-482: The last president who belonged to the Republican generation . Monroe's inauguration took place on March 4, 1817. As Monroe was the first president to take office during a period of peace and economic stability, the term " Era of Good Feelings " was soon coined. This period was characterized by the unchallenged dominance of the Republicans, who by the end of Madison's term had adopted some Federalist policies, such as
21240-420: The leader of the largest state in the country, Monroe emerged as one of Jefferson's two most likely successors, alongside Madison. Shortly after the end of Monroe's gubernatorial tenure, President Jefferson sent Monroe back to France to assist Ambassador Robert Livingston in negotiating the Louisiana Purchase . In the 1800 Treaty of San Ildefonso , France had acquired the territory of Louisiana from Spain; at
21420-464: The loss of Fort Washington. In late December, Monroe took part in a surprise attack on a Hessian encampment at the Battle of Trenton . Though the attack was successful, Monroe suffered a severed artery in the battle and nearly died. In the aftermath, Washington cited Monroe and William Washington for their bravery, and promoted Monroe to captain. After recovering for two months, Monroe returned to Virginia to recruit his own company of soldiers. Lacking
21600-434: The method of voting but instead passed a "stand up" election law, mandating that all votes be cast publicly and orally, an intimidating procedure that ordinarily favored those in power. Because each state could choose its own day to elect its electors in 1800, before Election Day on December 3, when electors "meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of
21780-523: The militia when the Assembly called it into action, but Monroe used his stature to convince legislators to enhance state involvement in transportation and education and to increase training for the militia. Monroe also began to give State of the Commonwealth addresses to the legislature, in which he highlighted areas in which he believed the legislature should act. Monroe also led an effort to create
21960-522: The nation's military protection or commercial growth. Army engineers helped design state and private roads, canals, and railroads, and soldiers cleared forests and laid roadbeds; the work was conducted under the direction of the executive branch . While the Act was initially seeded with an appropriation of $ 30,000, from 1824 to 1837, a total of $ 425,000 was provided to the Corps, with few restrictions, to undertake surveys and plan internal improvements . Although
22140-496: The necessary majority of nine. On February 17, on the 36th ballot, Bayard changed his vote from Burr to no selection, joined by his allies in Maryland and Vermont. This changed the Maryland and Vermont votes from no selection to Jefferson, giving him the votes of 10 states and the presidency. The four representatives present from South Carolina, all Federalists, also changed their 3–1 selection of Burr to four abstentions. Due to
22320-588: The original oral ballot. In 2004, David Fontana and Bruce Ackerman asserted that Georgia's certificate did not take the constitutionally mandated form of a "List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each". They claimed that Vice President Jefferson, who was counting the votes in his role as President of the Senate, immediately counted the votes from Georgia as votes for Jefferson and Burr, though they observed that "no objections were raised". If
22500-479: The outgoing Federalist-dominated New York legislature. Hamilton's plan was for the outgoing assembly to pass legislation that would establish the popular election of electors through electoral districts, a strategy almost certain to secure nine or ten of the twelve elector slots for the Federalists. Jay refused to participate in such an underhanded scheme. The Federalist legislature in Connecticut did not change
22680-456: The party attacked the taxes the Federalists imposed. The Democratic-Republicans also denounced the Alien and Sedition Acts , which the Federalists had passed to make it harder for immigrants to become citizens and to restrict statements critical of the federal government. The Democratic-Republicans were well organized at the state and local levels, while the Federalists were disorganized and suffered
22860-413: The party to step aside if he and Jefferson should tie in electoral votes. However, there was confusion as to whether or not Burr could simply concede the presidency to Jefferson and become vice-president, or whether he would have been forced to withdraw entirely and allow one of the Federalist candidates to become vice-president, as the Constitution was unclear on the matter. Regardless, he refused to disavow
23040-476: The people of Missouri to form a state constitution. Before the bill was returned to the House, a second amendment was adopted on the motion of Jesse B. Thomas of Illinois , excluding slavery from the Louisiana Territory north of the parallel 36°30′ north (the southern boundary of Missouri), except within the limits of the proposed state of Missouri. The House then approved the bill as amended by
23220-428: The potential weapon of commercial warfare against Britain. The president made no attempt to obtain another treaty, and as a result, the two nations drifted from peace toward the War of 1812 . Monroe was severely pained by the administration's repudiation of the treaty, and he fell out with Secretary of State James Madison. On his return to Virginia in 1807, Monroe received a warm reception, and many urged him to run in
23400-522: The presidency, writing in December 1800 to Representative Samuel Smith (R-MD) that he would not "engage to resign" if chosen president, adding that the question was "unnecessary, unreasonable and impertinent". Rumors circulated that Representative James A. Bayard (F-DE) had—purportedly in Burr's name—approached Smith and Edward Livingston (R-NY) with offers of political appointments if they voted for Burr. True or not, House Democratic-Republicans, who from
23580-668: The presidency. Given Pinckney's lack of political experience, he would have been expected to be open to Hamilton's influence. However, Hamilton's plan backfired and hurt the Federalist party, particularly after one of his letters, a scathing criticism of Adams that was fifty-four pages long, fell into the hands of a Democratic-Republican and soon after became public. It embarrassed Adams and damaged Hamilton's efforts on behalf of Pinckney, not to mention speeding Hamilton's own political decline. The contemporarily unorthodox public campaigning methods employed in 1800 were first employed by Jefferson's running mate and campaign manager, Aaron Burr, who
23760-843: The presidential election. Returning to his home in Charlottesville, he resumed his dual careers as a farmer and lawyer. Jefferson and Madison urged Monroe to run for Congress, but Monroe chose to focus on state politics instead. In 1797, Monroe published A View of the Conduct of the Executive, in the Foreign Affairs of the United States: Connected with the Mission to the French Republic, During
23940-472: The pressure on him to speak out on the future of the Western Hemisphere. For their part, the British also had a strong interest in ensuring the demise of Spanish colonialism, with all the trade restrictions mercantilism imposed. In October 1823, Richard Rush, the American minister in London, corresponded with Canning to work out a common position on a potential French intervention in South America. When Monroe
24120-446: The proceeds, failed due to the low real estate prices. After the election Monroe quickly reconciled with Jefferson, but their friendship endured further strains when Jefferson did not promote Monroe's candidacy to Congress in 1809. Monroe did not speak with Madison until 1810. Monroe devoted his attentions to farming at his Charlottesville estate, experimenting with new horticultural techniques in order to switch from tobacco, whose value
24300-655: The process of selecting electors to ensure the desired result. In Georgia, Democratic-Republican legislators replaced the popular vote with selection by the state legislature. In Virginia, the Democratic-Republican-controlled legislature switched from electoral districts to a general ticket , a winner-take-all system. Federalist legislators also switched methods, switching from districts and general tickets to legislature votes in Massachusetts and New Hampshire, respectively. In Pennsylvania,
24480-540: The protection of U.S. trade from French attacks. In February 1795, Monroe used his influence to secure the release of all American citizens imprisoned since the French Revolution and Adrienne de La Fayette , the wife of the Marquis de Lafayette. He had already secured the release of Thomas Paine in July 1794 and took him in, but when Paine worked on a diatribe against Washington despite Monroe's objections, they parted ways in
24660-546: The provision of moral support, as he believed that a direct American intervention would provoke other European powers into assisting Spain. Monroe initially refused to recognize the Latin American governments due to ongoing negotiations with Spain over Florida. Following their respective declarations of independence, the South American republics quickly sent emissaries to Washington to ask for diplomatic recognition and economic and trade relations. In 1818, Monroe assured
24840-416: The ratification of the proposed Constitution involved more than a simple clash between federalists and anti-federalists . Virginians held a full spectrum of opinions about the merits of the proposed change in national government, and those who held the middle ground in the ideological struggle became the central figures. Led by Monroe and Edmund Pendleton , these "federalists who are for amendments" criticized
25020-478: The real choice between Jefferson and Burr. Historians wrote that Adams did not lose that badly in the original election, with the musical inflating the size of Jefferson's victory. It implies Hamilton's support for Jefferson over Burr was the catalyst for the Burr–Hamilton duel ; in fact, while that helped sour relations between Burr and Hamilton, the duel was ultimately provoked by Hamilton's statements about Burr in
25200-423: The rejection to change the selection method backfired on the Federalists. In March 1800, two months before the assembly elections, the Democratic-Republicans attempted to pass a bill that would switch from a legislature vote to electoral districts, hoping they would secure at least a third of the state's seats. The Federalists defeated the measure, believing that they would win control of both chambers and award all of
25380-456: The results from which are as follows. States and districts where the margin of victory was under 1%: States and districts where the margin of victory was under 5%: States and districts where the margin of victory was under 10%: In February 1801, the members of the House of Representatives balloted as states to determine whether Jefferson or Burr would become president. There were sixteen states, each with one vote; an absolute majority of nine
25560-517: The same State with themselves" in accordance with the Constitution, the voting lasted from October to December. As election day neared, the election was too close to call. The last state to vote, South Carolina, chose its electors on December 2, and would become key to determining the election. The state elections in mid-October had produced an assembly that was about evenly divided between committed Federalists and Republicans, with 16 unaffiliated representatives who were all strongly pro-Jefferson. Many of
25740-468: The second consecutive incumbent vice president to be elected president. This is one of two presidential elections (along with the 1824 election ) that have been decided in the House. Both parties used congressional nominating caucuses to formally nominate tickets for the first time. The Federalists nominated a ticket consisting of incumbent President John Adams of Massachusetts and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina . Pinckney had fought in
25920-470: The second-most votes in 1796, he was elected vice president. In 1800, unlike in 1796, both parties formally nominated tickets. The Democratic-Republicans nominated a ticket consisting of Jefferson and Aaron Burr , while the Federalists nominated a ticket consisting of Adams and Charles C. Pinckney . Each party formed a plan by which one of their respective electors would vote for a third candidate or abstain so that its preferred presidential candidate (Adams for
26100-492: The spring of 1796. Months after Monroe arrived in France, the U.S. and Great Britain concluded the Jay Treaty , outraging both the French and Monroe—not fully informed about the treaty prior to its publication. Despite the undesirable effects of the Jay Treaty on Franco-American relations, Monroe won French support for U.S. navigational rights on the Mississippi River —the mouth of which was controlled by Spain —and in 1795
26280-468: The start of the 1800 campaign viewed Jefferson as their candidate for president and Burr for vice president, faced two abhorrent possible outcomes when the House met to vote: the Federalists could engineer a victory for Burr; or the Federalists could refuse to break the deadlock, leaving Federalist Secretary of State John Marshall as Acting President. Neither came to pass, however, chiefly due to Hamilton's energetic opposition to Burr. Hamilton embarked on
26460-405: The state delegations. Neither Burr nor Jefferson was able to win on the first 35 ballots of the contingent election, as most Federalist representatives backed Burr and all Democratic-Republican representatives backed Jefferson. Hamilton favored Jefferson over Burr, and he convinced several Federalists to switch their support to Jefferson, giving Jefferson a victory on the 36th ballot. Jefferson became
26640-434: The state legislature. Not until the 1836 presidential election would all states have direct popular selection of electors (except South Carolina, which had its state legislature vote for electors until 1868). Popular vote records for several states are incomplete, and the returns from Kentucky and Tennessee appear to have been lost; states did not print or issue electoral ballots, and most were issued by newspapers that supported
26820-525: The state's electoral votes to the Federalist nominees. However, in the April state elections, Aaron Burr's effective mobilization of the vote in New York City led to a reversal of the Federalist majority in the state legislature, providing crucial support for the Democratic-Republican ticket. In response to the Federalist defeat, Hamilton attempted to get Governor John Jay to call a special session of
27000-445: The state's first penitentiary , and imprisonment replaced other, often harsher, punishments. In 1800, Monroe called out the state militia to suppress Gabriel's Rebellion , a slave rebellion originating on a plantation six miles from the capital of Richmond. Gabriel and 27 other enslaved people who participated were all hanged for treason. The executions sparked compassionate feelings among the people of Virginia, and Monroe worked with
27180-609: The state. In 1787, Monroe won election to another term in the Virginia House of Delegates. Though he had become outspoken in his desire to reform the Articles, he was unable to attend the Philadelphia Convention due to his work obligations. In 1788, Monroe became a delegate to the Virginia Ratifying Convention , which voted on the adoption of the United States Constitution. In Virginia, the struggle over
27360-444: The support of Secretary of State Adams, Monroe defended Jackson against domestic and international criticism, and the United States began negotiations with Spain. Monroe later fixed the government's official position in a letter from Adams to Spanish Ambassador Luis de Onís , which he edited accordingly by removing all justifications for Jackson's actions. He also emphasized that although Jackson had exceeded his orders, he had come to
27540-470: The support of the more radical factions of the Democratic-Republicans. Madison also hoped that Monroe, an experienced diplomat with whom he had once been close friends, would improve upon Smith's performance. Madison assured Monroe that their differences regarding the Monroe-Pinkney Treaty had been a misunderstanding, and the two resumed their friendship. The Senate voted unanimously (30–0) to confirm him. On taking office, Monroe hoped to negotiate treaties with
27720-401: The temporary capital of New York City . In 1784, Monroe undertook an extensive trip through Western New York and Pennsylvania to inspect the conditions in the Northwest. The tour convinced him that the United States had to pressure Britain to abandon its posts in the region and assert control of the Northwest. While serving in Congress, Monroe became an advocate for western expansion, and played
27900-420: The time, many in the U.S. believed that France had also acquired West Florida in the same treaty. The American delegation originally sought to acquire West Florida and the city of New Orleans , which controlled the trade of the Mississippi River . Determined to acquire New Orleans even if it meant war with France, Jefferson also authorized Monroe to form an alliance with the British if the French refused to sell
28080-512: The total number of votes for Jefferson and Burr was 73, which gave them a majority of the total, but they were tied. Holly Brewer argued that Jefferson's counting of the Georgia ballot did not support this theory, and that Ackerman and Fontana were incorrect, because the ballot did in fact comply with constitutional requirements, since it contained a list of all four electoral college votes for both Jefferson and Burr respectively (and only them);
28260-418: The uncommitted legislators eventually reluctantly agreed to support Burr. Under the United States Constitution as it then stood, each elector cast two votes, and the candidate with a majority of the votes was elected president, with the vice presidency going to the runner-up. The Federalists therefore arranged for one of their Rhode Island electors to vote for John Jay instead of Charles Pinckney to prevent
28440-453: The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent . The treaty resulted in a return to the status quo ante bellum , and many outstanding issues between the United States and Britain remained. Americans celebrated the end of the war as a great victory, partly due to the news of the treaty reaching the United States shortly after Jackson's victory in the Battle of New Orleans . With the end of
28620-500: The wealth to induce soldiers to join his company, Monroe instead asked his uncle to return him to the front. Monroe was assigned to the staff of General William Alexander, Lord Stirling as an auxiliary officer. At the Battle of Brandywine , he formed a close friendship with the Marquis de Lafayette , a French volunteer who encouraged him to view the war as part of a wider struggle against religious and political tyranny. Monroe served in
28800-601: The weapons of the Virginian militia, which alarmed militiamen and students of the College of William & Mary, including Monroe. They marched to the Governor's Palace and demanded that Dunmore return the confiscated gunpowder. When more militiamen arrived in Williamsburg under the leadership of Patrick Henry, Dunmore agreed to pay compensation for the confiscated goods. Monroe and his fellow students were so incensed by
28980-420: The works of Epictetus in particular had a great influence on Monroe With the British increasingly focusing their operations in the Southern colonies , the Virginians moved the capital to the more defensible city of Richmond , and Monroe accompanied Jefferson to the new capital. Jefferson appointed Monroe as a military commissioner with the task of maintaining contact with the Southern Continental Army, under
29160-410: Was a bill in passage through the House (January 3, 1820) to admit Maine as a free state . Southern congressmen sought to force northerners to accept slavery in Missouri by connecting Maine and Missouri statehood. In this plan, endorsed by Monroe, Maine statehood would be held hostage to slavery in Missouri. In February 1820 the Senate passed a bill for the admission of Maine with an amendment enabling
29340-505: Was a member of the American Colonization Society which supported the colonization of Africa by freed slaves, and Liberia 's capital of Monrovia is named in his honor. Following his retirement in 1825, Monroe was plagued by financial difficulties and died on July 4, 1831, in New York City—sharing a distinction with Presidents John Adams and Thomas Jefferson of dying on the anniversary of U.S. independence . Historians have generally ranked him as an above-average president. James Monroe
29520-487: Was also the first election in American history where an incumbent president did not win re-election. Adams had narrowly defeated Jefferson in the 1796 election . Under the rules of the electoral system in place before the 1804 ratification of the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution , each member of the Electoral College cast two votes, with no distinction made between electoral votes for president and electoral votes for vice president. As Jefferson received
29700-427: Was attacked by both the opposition Democratic-Republicans and a group of so-called "High Federalists" aligned with Alexander Hamilton . The Democratic-Republicans felt that the Adams foreign policy was too favorable toward Britain; feared that the new army called up for the Quasi-War would oppress the people; opposed new taxes to pay for war; and attacked the Alien and Sedition Acts as violations of states' rights and
29880-501: Was born on April 28, 1758, in his parents' house in a wooded area of Westmoreland County in the Colony of Virginia , to (Andrew) Spence Monroe and Elizabeth Jones. The marked site is one mile (1.6 km) from the unincorporated community known today as Monroe Hall, Virginia . The James Monroe Family Home Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. He had one sister, Elizabeth and three younger brothers, Spence, Andrew and Joseph Jones. Monroe's father worked as
30060-414: Was cajoled, flattered, and made to believe strange things. In return he did, or was disposed to do, whatever was pleasing to that nation, reluctantly urging the rights of his own." On a party-line vote, the Virginia legislature elected Monroe as Governor of Virginia in 1799. He would serve as governor until 1802. The constitution of Virginia endowed the governor with very few powers aside from commanding
30240-404: Was concluded October 20, 1818, and fixed the present Canada–United States border from Minnesota to the Rocky Mountains at the 49th parallel . The accords also established a joint U.S.–British occupation of Oregon Country for the next ten years. Though they did not solve every outstanding issue between the U.S. and Britain, the treaties allowed for greater trade between the United States and
30420-439: Was dependent on slavery, as increasingly threatened. In February 1819, a bill to enable the people of the Missouri Territory to draft a constitution and form a government preliminary to admission into the Union came before the House of Representatives . During these proceedings, Congressman James Tallmadge, Jr. of New York "tossed a bombshell into the Era of Good Feelings" by offering the Tallmadge Amendment , which prohibited
30600-408: Was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates . After serving on Virginia's Executive Council, he was elected to the Fourth Congress of the Confederation in November 1783 and served in Annapolis until Congress convened in Trenton, New Jersey in June 1784. He had served a total of three years when he finally retired from that office by the rule of rotation. By that time, the government was meeting in
30780-438: Was evenly split and cast a blank ballot. The remaining state, Maryland, had five Federalist representatives to three Democratic-Republicans; one of its Federalist representatives voted for Jefferson, forcing that state delegation also to cast a blank ballot. Publicly, Burr remained quiet between mid-December 1800 and mid-February 1801, when the electoral votes were counted. Behind the scenes, he faced mounting pressure from within
30960-449: Was increasingly factionalized, with " Old Republicans " or "Quids" denouncing the Jefferson administration for abandoning what they considered to be true republican principles. The Quids, led by John Randolph of Roanoke , tried to enlist Monroe in their cause. The plan was to run Monroe for president in the 1808 election in cooperation with the Federalist Party , which had a strong base in New England. Monroe decided to run against Madison in
31140-521: Was initially rejected and not implemented until February 1794. During the presidency of George Washington , U.S. politics became increasingly polarized between the Anti-Administration Party , led by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and the Federalists , led by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Monroe stood firmly with Jefferson in opposing Hamilton's strong central government and strong executive. The Democratic-Republican Party coalesced around Jefferson and Madison, and Monroe became one of
31320-541: Was later adopted by Monroe, was influenced by the Adams–Onís Treaty and the negotiations on border disputes in the Oregon Country. Adams emphasized that the further colonization of America, except for Canada, should be in the hands of the Americans themselves. This later became a principle in Monroe's administration. After the Spanish Revolution of 1820 was ended by France, Secretary of War Calhoun and British Foreign Secretary George Canning warned Monroe that European powers might intend to intervene in South America, increasing
31500-417: Was part of an ancient Scottish clan known as Clan Munro . In 1650, he patented a large tract of land in Washington Parish, Westmoreland County, Virginia . Also among James Monroe's ancestors were French Huguenot immigrants, who came to Virginia in 1700. At age 11, Monroe was enrolled in Campbelltown Academy, the only school in the county. This school was considered the best in the colony of Virginia, which
31680-475: Was presented with this correspondence, which had yielded no tangible results, in mid-October 1823, his first reaction was to accept the British offer. Adams vigorously opposed cooperation with Great Britain, contending that a statement of bilateral nature could limit United States expansion in the future. He also argued that the British were not committed to recognizing the Latin American republics and must have had imperial motivations themselves. Two months later,
31860-579: Was required for victory. It was the outgoing House of Representatives, controlled by the Federalist Party, that was charged with electing the new president. Jefferson was the great enemy of the Federalists, and a faction of Federalist representatives tried to block him and elect Burr. Most Federalists voted for Burr, giving Burr six of the eight states controlled by Federalists. The seven delegations controlled by Democratic-Republicans all voted for Jefferson, and Georgia's sole Federalist representative also voted for him, giving him eight states. The Vermont delegation
32040-429: Was steadily declining, to wheat. In 1810, Monroe returned to the Virginia House of Delegates and was elected to another term as governor in 1811, but served only four months, as less than two months into his term, Monroe was asked on Madison's behalf if he would be willing to succeed Robert Smith as Secretary of State. In April 1811, Madison appointed Monroe to his cabinet as Secretary of State in hopes of shoring up
32220-439: Was still opposed. When Monroe and the British signed the new treaty in December 1806, Jefferson refused to submit it to the Senate for ratification. Although the treaty called for ten more years of trade between the United States and the British Empire and gave American merchants guarantees that would have been good for business, Jefferson was unhappy that it did not end the hated British practice of impressment and refused to give up
32400-452: Was vacant due to the death of James Jones . Even though South Carolina had six representatives apportioned, Thomas Sumter was absent due to illness, and Abraham Nott departed for South Carolina between the first and final ballots. The Constitution, in Article II, Section 1 , provided that the state legislatures should decide the manner in which their electors were chosen. Different state legislatures chose different methods: State
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