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54-539: In deciding on what type of vine training system to use, growers also consider the climate conditions of the vineyard where the amount of sunlight, humidity and wind could have a large impact on the exact benefits the training system offers. For instance, while having a large spread out canopy (such as what the Geneva Double Curtain offers) can promote a favorable leaf to fruit ratio for photosynthesis, it offers very little wind protection. In places such as

108-487: A cane-trained system, there are no permanent cordons or branches that are kept year after year. The vine is pruned down to the spur in winter, leaving only one strong cane which is then trained into becoming the main branch for next year's crop. Examples of cane trained systems include the Guyot and Pendelbogen . With spur-trained systems, the main branch or cordon is kept each year with only individual canes being pruned during

162-721: A given area. In the early 20th century, many of these traditions were codified into specific wine laws and regulations such as the French AOC system. The widespread study and utilization of various training systems began in the 1960s when many New World wine regions were developing their wine industry. Without the centuries of tradition that influenced Old World winemaking and viticulture, vine growers in areas like California , Washington , Australia and New Zealand conducted large scale research into how particular vine training systems, pruning and canopy management techniques impacted wine quality. As research in this area continued into

216-497: A grape vine's canopy which will influence the potential yield of that year's crop as well as the quality of the grapes due to the access of air and sunlight needed for the grapes to ripen fully and for preventing various grape diseases. As one of the world's oldest cultivated crops, grapevines have been trained for several millennia. Cultures such as the ancient Egyptians and Phoenicians discovered that different training techniques could promote more abundant and fruitful yields. When

270-471: A grape's quality by causing increases in the levels of potassium , malic acid and pH in the grapes while decreasing the amount of sugar , tartaric acid and color producing anthocyanins . Beyond a lack of sunlight, excessive shading limits the amount of air circulation that can take place within a vine's canopy. In wet, humid climates poor air circulation can promote the development of various grape diseases such as powdery mildew and grey rot . While

324-422: A habitat in which that surculose plant is the dominant species. Root sprouts also may grow from the roots of trees that have been felled. Tree roots ordinarily grow outward from their trunks a distance of 1.5 to 2 times their heights, and therefore root sprouts can emerge a substantial distance from the trunk. This is a phenomenon of natural " asexual reproduction ", also denominated " vegetative reproduction ". It

378-466: A long growing season that is very dry during the summer. Wine regions with maritime climates are characterised by their close proximity to large bodies of water (such as oceans , estuaries and inland seas) that moderate their temperatures. Maritime climates share many characteristics with both Mediterranean and continental climates and are often described as a "middle ground" between the two extremes. Like Mediterranean climates, maritime climates have

432-646: A long growing season, with water currents moderating the region's temperatures. However, Mediterranean climates are usually very dry during the growing season, and maritime climates are often subject to the viticultural hazards of excessive rain and humidity that may promote various grape diseases , such as mold and mildew . Like continental climates, maritime climates will have distinct seasonal changes, but they are usually not as drastic, with warm, rather than hot, summers and cool, rather than cold, winters. Maritime climates also exist in some wine-growing areas of highlands of subtropical and tropical latitudes, including

486-466: A photosynthetic plant, grapevines need access to sunlight in order to complete their physiological processes. Through photosynthesis , less than 10% of the full sunlight received by a leaf is converted into energy which makes obstacles such as shading even more detrimental to the plant. Even if the leaves at the top of the canopy are receiving plenty of sunlight, the young buds, grape clusters and leaves below will still experience some negative impact. During

540-465: A single curtain ( Guyot ) or double ( Lyre ). For cordon and many other spur trained systems, they could be described as unilateral (utilizing only 1 arm or cordon) or bilateral with both arms extending from the trunk. Two other classifications, based on trellising, are whether or not the vine is "staked" with an external support structure and the number of wires used in the trellising. Vines may be individual staked either permanently, as many vineyards along

594-765: Is a form of dispersal vector that allows plants to spread to habitats that favor their survival and growth. Some species, such as poplars and blackthorn , produce root sprouts that can spread rapidly, and they can form thick mats of roots that can reclaim areas that have been cleared of vegetation by logging, erosion, pasturing. These plants could be considered invasive , but they are cultivated or permitted to grow to stabilize soils and even to then be naturally replaced by non-pioneer species in locations as such those that have been developed for public works and along channels of waterways that may flood and reservoirs . These plants form shaded areas wherein new species may grow and gradually replace them. Stolons are stems that grow on

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648-522: Is a strategy of plant propagation . The complex of clonal individuals and the originating plant comprise a single genetic individual, i. e., a genet . The individual root sprouts are clones of the original plant, and each has a genome that is identical to that of the originating plant from which it grew. Many species of plants reproduce through vegetative reproduction, e. g. Canada thistle , cherry , apple , guava , privet , hazel , lilac , tree of heaven , and Asimina triloba . The root sprout

702-410: Is being overly vigorous with parts of the vine (most notably the grape clusters) suffering due to lack of resources. While it may seem that more foliage would promote increased photosynthesis (and such carbohydrate production), this is not always the case since the leaves near the top of the canopy create excess shading that hinders photosynthesis in the leaves below. One of the objectives of vine training

756-483: Is to create an "open canopy" that allows limited excess leaf growth and allows plenty of sunlight to penetrate the canopy. Vine training systems can be broadly classified by a number of different measurements. One of the oldest means was based on the relative height of the trunk with the distance of the canopy from the ground being described as high-trained (also known as "high culture" or vignes hautes ) or low-trained ( vignes basses ). The ancient Romans were adherents of

810-524: The Châteauneuf-du-Pape , strong prevailing winds called le mistral can take the fruit right off the vine so a more condensed, protective vine training system is desirable for vineyards there. While closely related, the terms trellising , pruning and vine training are often used interchangeably even though they refer to different things. Technically speaking, the trellis refers to the actual stakes, posts, wires or other structures that

864-548: The Greeks began to colonize southern Italy in the 8th century BC, they called the land Oenotria which could be interpreted as "staked" or land of staked vines. In the 1st century AD, Roman writers such as Columella and Pliny the Elder gave advice to vineyard owners about what type of vine trainings worked well for certain vineyards. Historically, regional tradition largely dictated what type of vine training would be found in

918-408: The gobelet training system which tend to hang low to the ground. Some training systems such as the Guyot and cordons can be adapted to both high and low trained styles. One of the most common manners of classifying vine training systems now is based on which parts of the vines are permanent fixtures which determines which parts of the vine are removed each year as part of the winter pruning. With

972-430: The grapevine is attached to. Some vines are allowed to grow free standing without any attachment to a trellising structure. Part of the confusion between trellising and vine training systems stems from the fact that vine training systems will often take on the name of the particular type of trellising involved. Pruning refers to the cutting and shaping of the cordon or "arms" of the grapevine in winter which will determine

1026-407: The phylloxera epidemic of the 19th century, many vines are grafted on phylloxera -resistant rootstock . However, the "top part" of the grafted vine is still very susceptible to the phylloxera, and should a part of that vine take root both the daughter and the original mother vine will risk being infected by the louse. Additionally this daughter vine will leech resources of water and nutrients from

1080-575: The 21st century, new vine training systems were developed that could be adapted to the desired wine making style as well as the labor needs and particular mesoclimate of the vineyard. While the most pertinent purpose of establishing a vine training system is canopy management, especially dealing with shading, there are many other reasons that come into play. As members of the Vitis family, grapevines are climbing plants that do not have their own natural support like trees. While grapevines have woody trunks,

1134-475: The Guyot, Mosel arch and Pendelbogen. Conversely, spur trained vines are "cane pruned" meaning that the individual canes are relatively permanent with only excess buds at the end of the cane being removed. Cordons are trained in either a unilateral (one arm) or bilateral (two arms) fashion with the latter resembling the letter "T". The cordons of grapevines are most commonly trained horizontally along wires as in

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1188-560: The Lyre and Scott Henry systems. However, notable exceptions do exist, such as the "V" and "Y" trellis systems which elevate the cordon to various angles that resemble their namesake letter. Note that vertical trellising systems, such as the VSP system often used in New Zealand, refer to the vertical orientation of the fruit canes in an upward manner and not the cordon "arms" of the vines. From

1242-522: The Scott Henry, this downward growth is achieved by the use of movable wires that first allow the canes to grow upwards until about 2 to 3 weeks before harvest when they are then shifted downwards where the weight of gravity on the hanging grape clusters helps keep the canes pointing down. The leafy foliage of a grapevine's canopy will be dependent on the particular grape variety and its propensity for vigorous growth. These leaves emerge from shoots on

1296-470: The annual growth cycle of the grapevine, excessive shading can reduce the success rate of bud formation, budbreak, fruit set as well as the size and quantity of grape berries on a cluster. The grape clusters receive some benefit from receiving direct sunlight through enhanced ripening of various phenolic compounds that can contribute to a wine's aroma and quality. In addition to having decreased physiological ripeness , excessive shade will negatively impact

1350-579: The bank of the Rhone Valley which are at risk of wind damage, or temporarily as some young vines are to provide extra support. Within a trellis system fruiting canes and young shoots are attached to wires strung out across the rows. The number of wires used (one, two, three) and whether or not they are movable (such as the Scott Henry ) will influence the size of the canopy and the yield. Climate categories in viticulture In viticulture,

1404-445: The base of a tree or shrub are called basal shoots; these are distinguished from shoots that grow from adventitious buds on the roots of a tree or shrub, which may be called root sprouts or suckers. A plant that produces root sprouts or runners is described as surculose . Water sprouts produced by adventitious buds may occur on the above-ground stem, branches or both of trees and shrubs. Suckers are shoots arising underground from

1458-457: The climate of the southern hemisphere wine regions (making them maritime or possibly Mediterranean) than they would on the larger northern hemisphere continents. There are also several wine regions (such as Spain ) that have areas that exhibit a continental Mediterranean climate due to their altitude or distance from the sea. These regions will have more distinct seasonal change than Mediterranean climates, but still retain some characteristics like

1512-512: The climates of wine regions are categorised based on the overall characteristics of the area's climate during the growing season . While variations in macroclimate are acknowledged, the climates of most wine regions are categorised (somewhat loosely based on the Köppen climate classification ) as being part of a Mediterranean (for example Tuscany ), maritime (ex: Bordeaux ) or continental climate (ex: Columbia Valley ). The majority of

1566-438: The climatic influences of a particular area goes a long way in influencing the type of grape varieties grown in a region and the type of viticultural practices that will be used. The presence of adequate sun, heat and water are all vital to the healthy growth and development of grapevines during the growing season. Additionally, continuing research has shed more light on the influence of dormancy that occurs after harvest when

1620-616: The cordon, plant shoots emerge from the bud that eventually develops mature bark and becomes the fruiting cane from which grape clusters will emerge. These canes can be positioned and trained to whatever angle is desired by the grower. Typically, they are positioned upwards but they can be bent into an arch such as a Pendelbogen or Mosel arch system, or trained to point downwards such as the Scott Henry and Sylvos system. The latter method requires more labor-intensive trellising and training for Vitis vinifera vines which are naturally more inclined to grow upwards rather than down. In systems such as

1674-441: The cordon. When the canes are cut back nearly to the base of the cordon, the shortened stub is called a "spur". Grapevines can either be cane trained or spur trained . In cane training, the grapevines are "spur pruned" meaning that in the winter the fruiting canes are pruned essentially down to their spurs with over 90 percent of the previous year's growth (or "brush" as it is known) removed. Examples of cane training systems include

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1728-444: The fruiting cane in a manner similar to the grape clusters themselves. A vine is described as "vigorous" if it has a propensity to produce many shoots that are outwardly observable as a large, leafy canopy. The ability of the grapevine to support such a large canopy is dependent on the health of its root system and storage of carbohydrates . If a vine does not have a healthy and extensive root system in proportion to its canopy, then it

1782-423: The fruiting zone in a consistent spot on each vine makes it easier to set up machinery for pruning, spraying and harvesting. Many vine training systems are designed to avoid excessive shading of the fruit by the leafy growth (the "canopy"). While some shading is beneficial, especially in very hot and sunny climates, to prevent heat stress, excessive amounts of shading can have negative impact on grape development. As

1836-415: The grapevine essentially shuts down and reserves its energy for the beginning of the next year's growing cycle. In general, grapevines thrive in temperate climates which grant the vines long, warm periods during the crucial flowering , fruit set and ripening periods . The physiological processes of a lot of grapevines begin when temperatures reach around 10 °C (50 °F). Below this temperature,

1890-413: The growing season continental climates will have wide diurnal temperature variations , with very warm temperatures during the day that drop drastically at night. During the winter and early spring months, frost and hail can be viticultural hazards. Depending on the particular macroclimate of the region, irrigation may be needed to supplement seasonal rainfall. These many climatic influences contribute to

1944-588: The growing season, not all of which may be provided by natural rain fall. In Mediterranean and many continental climates, the climate during the growing season may be quite dry and require additional irrigation. In contrast, maritime climates often suffer the opposite extreme of having too much rainfall during the growing season which poses its own viticultural hazards. Other climate factors such as wind , humidity , atmospheric pressure , sunlight as well as diurnal temperature variations —which can define different climate categories—can also have pronounced influences on

1998-408: The high-trained vine systems with the tendone system of vines trained high over head along a pergola being one example. In the 1950s, Austrian winemaker Lenz Moser advocated the high-culture style of training, recommending low density plantings of vines with trunks 4 ft (1.25 m) high. One of the benefits of a high-trained system is better frost protection versus low-trained systems such as

2052-451: The mother vine which can diminish the quality of both vines' grape production. Other reasons for vine training involve setting up the vineyard and each individual vine canopy for more efficient labor usage or mechanization. Vines that are trained to have their "fruiting zone" of grape clusters at waist to chest height are easier for vineyard workers to harvest without straining their bodies with excessive bending or reaching. Similarly, keeping

2106-434: The number of buds that are allowed to become grape clusters. In some wine regions , such as France , the exact number of buds is outlined by Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) regulations. During the summer growing season , pruning can involve removing young plant shoots or excess bunches of grapes with green harvesting. Vine training systems utilize the practice of trellising and pruning in order to dictate and control

2160-420: The roots some distance from the base of a tree or shrub. In botany , a root sprout or sucker is a severable plant that grows not from a seed but from the meristem of a root at the base of or a certain distance from the original tree or shrub . Root sprouts may emerge a substantial distance from the base of the originating plant, are a form of vegetative dispersal , and may form a patch that constitutes

2214-469: The southern Appalachian Mountains in the United States, the eastern Australian highlands and the central highlands of Mexico. Basal shoot Basal shoots , root sprouts , adventitious shoots , and suckers are words for various kinds of shoots that grow from adventitious buds on the base of a tree or shrub , or from adventitious buds on its roots . Shoots that grow from buds on

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2268-407: The surface of the soil or immediately below it and form adventitious roots at their nodes , and new clonal plants from the buds . Not all horizontal plant stems are stolons. Plants with stolons are described as "stoloniferous". Stolons, especially those above the surface of the soil are often denominated "runners". Rhizomes , in contrast, are root-like stems that may either grow horizontally on

2322-468: The surface of the soil or in other orientations underground. Root sprouts and basal shoots can be used to propagate woody plants. Root sprouts can be dug or severed with some of the roots still attached. As for basal shoots, stool beds involve cutting a juvenile plant proximate to the surface of the soil and heaping soil over the cut so that basal shoots will form adventitious roots and later can be severed to form multiple, rooted, new plants. The technique

2376-427: The term canopy is popularly used to describe the leafy foliage of the vine, the term actually refers to the entire grapevine structure that is above ground. This includes the trunk , cordon , stems , leaves , flowers , and fruit . Most vine training deals primarily with the "woody" structure of the vine-the cordons or "arms" of the vine that extend from the top of the trunk and the fruiting "canes" that extend from

2430-431: The very marked seasonal changes that occur throughout the growing season, with hot temperatures during the summer season and winters cold enough for periodic ice and snow. This is generally described as having a high degree of continentality . Regions with this type of climate are often found inland on continents without a significant body of water (such as an inland sea ) that can moderate their temperatures. Often during

2484-436: The vine. One of the characteristics that differentiates the various climate categories from one another is the occurrence and length of time that these optimal temperatures appear during the growing season. In addition to temperature, the amount of rainfall (and the need for supplemental irrigation ) is another defining characteristics. On average, a grapevine needs around 710 mm (28 in) of water for sustenance during

2538-440: The vines are usually in a period of dormancy. Drastically below this temperature, such as the freezing point of 0 °C (32 °F) the vines can be damaged by frost . When the average daily temperature is between 17 and 20 °C (63 and 68 °F) the vine will begin flowering. When temperatures rise up to 27 °C (80 °F) many of the vine's physiological processes are in full stride as grape clusters begin to ripen on

2592-414: The viticulture of an area. Wine regions with Mediterranean climates are characterised by their long growing seasons of moderate to warm temperatures. Throughout the year there is little seasonal change, with temperatures in the winter generally warmer than those of maritime and continental climates. During the grapevine growing season, there is very little rainfall (with most precipitation occurring in

2646-413: The way they are pruned in the winter so systems that are described as "cane-trained" will be spur pruned while systems that are "spur-trained" will be cane-pruned. Within these larger classifications, the vine training system may be further distinguished by the canopy such as whether it is free (like goblet ) or constrained by shoot positioning along wires (such as VSP trellising ) and whether it includes

2700-412: The weight of a vine's leafy canopy and grape clusters will often bring the vine's cordons or "arms" down towards the ground unless it receives some form of support. In viticulture, growers want to avoid any part of the cordon from touching the ground because of the vine's natural inclination to send out suckers or basal shoots and take root in that area where the cordon is touching the ground. Ever since

2754-409: The wide vintage variation that is often typical of continental climates such as Burgundy . There are more wine regions with continental climates in the northern hemisphere than there are in the southern hemisphere. This is due, in part, to small land mass size of southern hemisphere continents relative to the large oceans nearby. This difference means that the oceans exert a more direct influence on

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2808-587: The winter months) which increases the risk of the viticultural hazard of drought and may present the need for supplemental irrigation. The Mediterranean climate is most readily associated with the areas around the Mediterranean basin , where viticulture and winemaking first flourished on a large scale due to the influence of the Phoenicians , Greeks , and Romans of the ancient world . Wine regions with continental climates are characterised by

2862-536: The winter. While vines that are cane trained will often have a thin, smooth main branch, spur trained vines will often have thick, dark and gnarled cordon branches. Many old vine vineyards will often utilize spur training system. Some examples of spur-training systems include the goblet or bush vine systems, and Cordon de Royat . Some systems, like the Scott Henry and VSP Trellis , can be adapted to both spur and cane training. Vine systems that are classified as either cane or spur trained may be alternately described by

2916-513: The world's premium wine production takes place in one of these three climate categories in locations between the 30th parallel and 50th parallel in both the northern and southern hemisphere . While viticulture does exist in some tropical climates , most notably Brazil , the amount of quality wine production in those areas is so small that the climate effect has not been as extensively studied as other categories. Beyond establishing whether or not viticulture can even be sustained in an area,

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