143-664: On 8 December 2008, the Genocide Prevention Task Force , co-chaired by Madeleine Albright , a former US Secretary of State, and William Cohen , a former US Secretary of Defense, released its final report which concludes that the US government can prevent genocide and mass atrocities in the future. In the words of Cohen, "This report provides a blueprint that can enable the United States to take preventive action, along with international partners, to forestall
286-423: A Czech diplomat, and Anna Korbel (née Spieglová). At the time of Albright's birth, Czechoslovakia had been independent for less than 20 years, having gained independence from Austria-Hungary after World War I . Her father was a supporter of Tomáš Masaryk and Edvard Beneš . Marie Jana had a younger sister Katherine and a younger brother John (these versions of their names are Anglicized ). When Marie Jana
429-571: A 1925 military pact between France and the Czechoslovak Republic. Germany had started a low-intensity undeclared war on Czechoslovakia on 17 September 1938. In reaction, Britain and France on 20 September formally requested Czechoslovakia cede the Sudetenland territory to Germany. This was followed by Polish and Hungarian territorial demands brought on 21 and 22 September, respectively. Meanwhile, German forces conquered parts of
572-501: A 2017 article in The BMJ . Following The Washington Post ' s profile of Albright by Michael Dobbs , an Austrian man named Philipp Harmer launched legal action against Albright, claiming her father had illegally taken possession of artwork that belonged to his great-grandfather, Karl Nebrich. Nebrich, a German-speaking Prague industrialist, abandoned some of the possessions in his apartment when ethnic Germans were expelled from
715-741: A PhD from Columbia University in 1975, writing her thesis on the Prague Spring . She worked as an aide to Senator Edmund Muskie from 1976 to 1978, before serving as a staff member on the National Security Council under Zbigniew Brzezinski . She served in that position until 1981 when President Jimmy Carter left office. After leaving the National Security Council, Albright joined the academic faculty of Georgetown University in 1982 and advised Democratic candidates regarding foreign policy. Following
858-693: A Yugoslav school, and so she was taught privately by a governess before being sent to the Prealpina Institut pour Jeunes Filles finishing school in Chexbres , on Lake Geneva in Switzerland. She learned to speak French while in Switzerland and changed her name from Marie Jana to Madeleine. The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia took over the government in 1948, with support from the Soviet Union . As an opponent of communism , Korbel
1001-534: A business consultant and brand ambassador for Herbalife , a global multi-level marketing (MLM) corporation that develops and sells dietary supplements. The company is alleged to be a fraudulent pyramid scheme. In September 2009, Albright opened an exhibition of her personal jewelry collection at the Museum of Art and Design in New York City, which ran until January 2010. In 2009, Albright also published
1144-457: A collective agreement to guarantee the borders of Germany and Czechoslovakia. A new Czechoslovak cabinet, under General Jan Syrový , was installed and on 23 September a decree of general mobilization was issued which was accepted by the public with a strong enthusiasm – within 24 hours, one million men joined the army to defend the country. The Czechoslovak Army , modern, experienced and possessing an excellent system of frontier fortifications ,
1287-553: A condition of lifting economic sanctions, even after the end of the Clinton administration on January 20, 2001. Albright received the U.S. Senator H. John Heinz III Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by the Jefferson Awards Foundation , in 2001. Following Albright's term as Secretary of State, Czech president Václav Havel spoke openly about
1430-814: A consulting firm, and was the Michael and Virginia Mortara Endowed Distinguished Professor in the Practice of Diplomacy at Georgetown University's School of Foreign Service . She was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama in May 2012. Albright served on the board of the Council on Foreign Relations . Albright was born Marie Jana Körbelová in 1937 in the Smíchov district of Prague , Czechoslovakia. Her parents were Josef Korbel ,
1573-531: A deadline of 28 September at 2:00 pm to cede the Sudetenland to Germany or face war. At this point the British government began to make war preparations, and the House of Commons was reconvened from a parliamentary recess. On 27 September 1938, when negotiations between Hitler and Chamberlain were strained, Chamberlain addressed the British people, saying, in particular: "How horrible, fantastic, incredible it
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#17327980831441716-494: A direct transfer of the area to its own control. Polish envoy to Prague Kazimierz Papée marked that the return of Cieszyn Silesia will be a sign of a goodwill and the "redress of injustice" of 1920. Similar notes were sent to Paris and London with a request that Polish minority in Czechoslovakia should gain the same rights as Sudeten Germans. On the next day Beneš sent a letter to Polish president Ignacy Mościcki with
1859-762: A former Liberal cabinet minister, who arrived in Prague on 3 August with instructions to persuade Beneš to agree to a plan acceptable to the Sudeten Germans. On 20 July, Bonnet told the Czechoslovak ambassador in Paris that while France would declare its support in public to help the Czechoslovak negotiations, it was not prepared to go to war over Sudetenland. In August, the German press was full of stories alleging Czechoslovak atrocities against Sudeten Germans, with
2002-542: A four-power conference of Britain, France, Germany, and Italy in Munich on 29 September to settle the Sudeten problem prior to the deadline of 2:00 pm. Mussolini agreed. Hitler's only request was to make sure that Mussolini be involved in the negotiations at the conference. Nevile Henderson , Alexander Cadogan , and Chamberlain's personal secretary Lord Dunglass passed the news of the conference to Chamberlain while he
2145-616: A global, multidisciplinary effort to strengthen the rule of law for the development of communities of opportunity and equity. Albright was a co-investor with Jacob Rothschild, 4th Baron Rothschild , and George Soros in a $ 350 million investment vehicle called Helios Towers Africa, which intends to buy or build thousands of mobile phone towers in Africa. During the 1990s and 2000s, many surveys and studies concluded that excess deaths in Iraq—specifically among children under
2288-790: A guest appearance on Parks and Recreation , in the eighth episode of the seventh season. At the National Press Club in Washington, D.C., on November 13, 2007, Albright declared that she and William Cohen would co-chair a new Genocide Prevention Task Force created by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum , the American Academy of Diplomacy , and the United States Institute of Peace . Their appointment
2431-478: A journalist, and Albright worked as a picture editor for Encyclopædia Britannica . The following year, Joseph Albright began work at Newsday in New York City, and the couple moved to Garden City on Long Island. That year, she gave birth to twin daughters, Alice Patterson Albright and Anne Korbel Albright. The twins were born six weeks premature and required a long hospital stay. As a distraction, Albright began Russian language classes at Hofstra University in
2574-438: A major natural obstacle to a possible German attack. Strengthened by significant border fortifications , the Sudetenland was of absolute strategic importance to Czechoslovakia. On 30 September, Czechoslovakia submitted to the combination of military pressure by Germany, Poland, and Hungary, and diplomatic pressure by Britain and France, and agreed to surrender territory to Germany following the Munich terms. The Munich Agreement
2717-409: A new order for Operation Green on 30 May and that it was accompanied by a covering letter from Wilhelm Keitel that stated that the plan must be implemented by 1 October at the very latest. In the meantime, the British government demanded that Beneš request a mediator . Not wishing to sever his government's ties with Western Europe , Beneš reluctantly accepted. The British appointed Lord Runciman ,
2860-490: A partial mobilization in response to a possible German invasion. On 20 May, Hitler presented his generals with a draft plan of attack on Czechoslovakia that was codenamed Operation Green . He insisted that he would not "smash Czechoslovakia" militarily without "provocation", "a particularly favourable opportunity" or "adequate political justification." On 28 May, Hitler called a meeting of his service chiefs, ordered an acceleration of U-boat construction and brought forward
3003-547: A population of 227,399 people. Administratively the annexed area was divided between Frysztat County and Cieszyn County . The historian Dariusz Baliszewski wrote that during the annexation there was no co-operation between Polish and German troops, but there were cases of co-operation between Polish and Czech troops defending territory against Germans, for example in Bohumín . The Polish ultimatum finally led Beneš to decide, by his own account, to abandon any idea of resisting
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#17327980831443146-452: A promise of "border's rectification", but the letter was delivered only on 26 September. The answer of Mościcki delivered on 27 September was evasive, but it was accompanied with the demand of Polish government to hand over two Trans-Olza counties immediately, as a prelude to ultimate settlement of the border dispute. Beneš's answer wasn't conclusive: he agreed to hand over the disputed territory to Poland but argued that it could not be done on
3289-576: A reactionary element in the Conservative Party . Daladier believed that Hitler's ultimate goals were a threat. He told the British in a late April 1938 meeting that Hitler's real long-term aim was to secure "a domination of the Continent in comparison with which the ambitions of Napoleon were feeble." He went on to say: "Today it is the turn of Czechoslovakia. Tomorrow it will be the turn of Poland and Romania . When Germany has obtained
3432-598: A relationship with another woman; the divorce was finalized in 1983. Albright joined the academic staff at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., in 1982, specializing in Eastern European studies. She also directed the university's program on women in global politics. She served as a major Democratic Party foreign policy advisor, briefing vice-presidential candidate Geraldine Ferraro in 1984 and presidential candidate Michael Dukakis in 1988 (both campaigns ended in defeat). In 1992, Bill Clinton returned
3575-579: A resolution condemning Cuba: "This is not cojones . This is cowardice." The line endeared her to President Clinton, who said it was "probably the most effective one-liner in the whole administration's foreign policy". When Albright appeared at a memorial service for the deceased in Miami on March 2, 1996, she was greeted with chants of "libertad". In 1996, Albright entered into a secret pact with Richard Clarke , Michael Sheehan , and James Rubin to overthrow U.N. secretary-general Boutros Boutros-Ghali, who
3718-415: A result of the settlement. The Sudeten Germans celebrated what they saw as their liberation. The imminent war, it seemed, had been avoided. The Nobel laureate , Thomas Mann , took to pen and pulpit in defense of his surrogate homeland proclaiming his pride at being a Czechoslovak citizen and praising the republic's achievements. He attacked a "Europe ready for slavery" writing that "The Czechoslovak people
3861-468: A secret Army meeting was held. Beck read his lengthy report to the assembled officers. They all agreed something had to be done to prevent certain disaster. Beck hoped they would all resign together but no one resigned except Beck. His replacement, General Franz Halder , sympathized with Beck and they both conspired with several top generals, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris (Chief of German Intelligence) and Graf von Helldorf (Berlin's Police Chief) to arrest Hitler
4004-403: A separate faction went for different candidates such as Senator Sam Nunn of Georgia, Senator George J. Mitchell of Maine, and former Assistant Secretary of State Richard Holbrooke . Albright orchestrated a campaign on her own behalf that proved successful. When Albright took office as the 64th U.S. Secretary of State on January 23, 1997, she became the first female U.S. Secretary of State and
4147-568: A solution to avert a war. Chamberlain decided to do this after conferring with his advisors Lord Halifax , Sir John Simon , and Sir Samuel Hoare . The meeting was announced at a special press briefing at 10 Downing Street , and led to a swell of optimism in British public opinion. Chamberlain arrived by a chartered British Airways Lockheed Electra in Germany on 15 September and then arrived at Hitler's residence in Berchtesgaden for
4290-735: A speech at a Nazi Party rally in Nuremberg on the Sudeten crisis condemning the actions of the government of Czechoslovakia. Hitler denounced Czechoslovakia as being a fraudulent state that was in violation of international law's emphasis of national self-determination , claiming it was a Czech hegemony although the Germans , the Slovaks , the Hungarians , the Ukrainians and the Poles of
4433-564: Is no diminution of NATO, no discrimination and no duplication – because I think that we don't need any of those three "Ds" to happen". In February 1998, Albright partook in a town-hall style meeting at St. John Arena in Columbus where she, William Cohen , and Sandy Berger attempted to make the case for military action in Iraq. The crowd was disruptive, repeatedly drowning out the discussion with boos and anti-war chants. James Rubin downplayed
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4576-465: Is ready to take up a fight for liberty and transcends its own fate" and "It is too late for the British government to save the peace. They have lost too many opportunities." President Beneš of Czechoslovakia was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize in 1939. Though the British and French were pleased, a British diplomat in Berlin claimed he had been informed by a member of Hitler's entourage that soon after
4719-494: Is that we should be digging trenches and trying on gas masks here because of a quarrel in a far-away country between people of whom we know nothing." On 28 September at 10:00 am, four hours before the deadline and with no agreement to Hitler's demand by Czechoslovakia, the British ambassador to Italy, Lord Perth , called Italy's Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano to request an urgent meeting. Perth informed Ciano that Chamberlain had instructed him to request that Mussolini enter
4862-590: The Anschluss of Austria to Germany, Henlein met with Hitler in Berlin on 28 March 1938, and was instructed to make demands unacceptable to the democratic Czechoslovak government, led by President Edvard Beneš . On 24 April, the SdP issued a series of demands known as the Karlsbader Programm . Henlein demanded autonomy for Germans in Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovak government responded by saying that it
5005-556: The 1992 presidential election , Albright helped assemble President Bill Clinton 's National Security Council. She was appointed United States ambassador to the United Nations from 1993 to 1997, a position she held until her elevation as secretary of state. Secretary Albright served in that capacity until President Clinton left office in 2001. Albright served as chair of the Albright Stonebridge Group ,
5148-848: The 2003 invasion of Iraq , although after the U.S. was committed to the war, she said she would support the President. Albright served on the board of directors for the Council on Foreign Relations and on the International Advisory Committee of the Brookings Doha Center . As of 2016, she was the Mortara Distinguished Professor of Diplomacy at the Georgetown University School of Foreign Service in Washington, D.C. Albright served as chairperson of
5291-569: The Albright Stonebridge Group . Affiliated with the firm is Albright Capital Management , which was founded in 2005 to engage in private fund management related to emerging markets. Albright accepted a position on the board of directors of the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) in 2003. In 2005, she declined to run for re-election to the board in the aftermath of the Richard Grasso compensation scandal, in which Grasso,
5434-471: The Cheb District and Jeseník District , where local battles included use of German artillery, Czechoslovak tanks, and armored vehicles. Lightly armed German infantry briefly overran other border counties before being repelled. Poland also grouped its army units near its common border with Czechoslovakia and conducted an unsuccessful probing offensive on 23 September. Hungary moved its troops towards
5577-481: The Czech Republic ) towards the agreement. With Sudetenland gone to Germany, Czecho-Slovakia (as the state was now renamed) lost its defensible border with Germany and the Czechoslovak border fortifications. Without them its independence became more nominal than real. Czechoslovakia also lost 70 per cent of its iron/steel industry, 70 per cent of its electrical power and 3.5 million citizens to Germany as
5720-722: The Episcopal Church at the time of her marriage. The couple were married in Wellesley in 1959, shortly after her graduation. They lived in Rolla, Missouri , while Joseph completed his military service at nearby Fort Leonard Wood . During this time, Albright worked at The Rolla Daily News . The couple moved to Joseph's hometown of Chicago, Illinois, in January 1960. Joseph worked at the Chicago Sun-Times as
5863-780: The European theatre of World War II and the collapse of Nazi Germany and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia , the Korbel family returned to Prague. Korbel was appointed as press attaché at the Czechoslovakian Embassy in Yugoslavia , and the family moved to Belgrade—then part of Yugoslavia—which was governed by the Communist Party . Korbel was concerned his daughter would be exposed to Marxism in
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6006-456: The German general staff , noted that Hitler's change of heart in favour of quick action was because Czechoslovak defences were still being improvised, which would no longer be the case two to three years later, and British rearmament would not come into effect until 1941 or 1942. General Alfred Jodl noted in his diary that the partial Czechoslovak mobilization of 21 May had led Hitler to issue
6149-759: The National Democratic Institute for International Affairs and as president of the Truman Scholarship Foundation . She was also the co-chair of the Commission on Legal Empowerment of the Poor and was the chairwoman of the Council of Women World Leaders Women's Ministerial Initiative up until November 16, 2007, when she was succeeded by Margot Wallström . Albright guest starred on the television drama Gilmore Girls as herself on October 25, 2005. She also made
6292-626: The North Shore of Long Island . Korbel applied for political asylum , arguing that as an opponent of Communism, he was under threat in Prague. Korbel stated "I cannot, of course, return to the Communist Czechoslovakia as I would be arrested for my faithful adherence to the ideals of democracy. I would be most obliged to you if you could kindly convey to his Excellency the Secretary of State that I beg of him to be granted
6435-727: The Russian Institute (now Harriman Institute), an M.A. and a PhD, writing her master's thesis on the Soviet diplomatic corps and her doctoral dissertation on the role of journalists in the Prague Spring of 1968. She also took a graduate course given by Zbigniew Brzezinski , who later became her boss at the U.S. National Security Council . Albright returned to Washington, D.C., in 1968, and commuted to Columbia for her doctor of philosophy, which she earned in 1975. She began fund-raising for her daughters' school, involvement which led to several positions on education boards. She
6578-591: The Sudeten German Party (SdP), which was "militant, populist, and openly hostile" to the Czechoslovak government. It soon captured two-thirds of the vote in districts with a heavy German population. Historians differ as to whether the SdP was a Nazi front organisation from its beginning, or if it evolved into one. By 1935, the SdP was the second-largest political party in Czechoslovakia as German votes concentrated on this party, and Czech and Slovak votes were spread among several parties. Shortly after
6721-604: The Trump administration for its delay in filling some diplomatic posts as a sign of "disdain for diplomacy". After 2016, Albright served as chair of Albright Stonebridge Group, a consulting firm, and chair of the advisory council for The Hague Institute for Global Justice , which was founded in 2011 in The Hague . She also served as an Honorary Chair for the World Justice Project (WJP). The WJP works to lead
6864-543: The U.S. Secretary of State , a post she held in the cabinet of President Bill Clinton from 1997 to 2001. Born in Prague , Czechoslovakia, Albright immigrated to the United States after the 1948 communist coup d'état when she was eleven years old. Her father, diplomat Josef Korbel , settled the family in Denver , Colorado, and she became a U.S. citizen in 1957. Albright graduated from Wellesley College in 1959 and earned
7007-626: The U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania were bombed in August 1998. "What do you think will happen if you lose another embassy?" Clarke asked. "The Republicans in Congress will go after you." "First of all, I didn't lose these two embassies", Albright shot back. "I inherited them in the shape they were." In 1998, at the NATO summit , Albright articulated what became known as the "three Ds" of NATO, "which
7150-420: The United Kingdom , the French Republic , and Fascist Italy . The agreement provided for the German annexation of part of Czechoslovakia called the Sudetenland , where more than three million people, mainly ethnic Germans , lived. The pact is also known in some areas as the Munich Betrayal ( Czech : Mnichovská zrada ; Slovak : Mníchovská zrada ), because of a previous 1924 alliance agreement and
7293-401: The Village of Hempstead nearby. In 1962, the family moved to Washington, D.C., where they lived in Georgetown . Albright studied international relations and continued in Russian at the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies , a division of Johns Hopkins University in the capital. Joseph's aunt Alicia Patterson died in 1963, and the Albrights returned to Long Island with
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#17327980831447436-670: The West Wing as the National Security Council's congressional liaison. Following Carter's loss in 1980 to Ronald Reagan , Albright moved on to the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., where she was given a grant for a research project. She chose to write on the dissident journalists involved in Poland 's Solidarity movement, then in its infancy but gaining international attention. She traveled to Poland for her research, interviewing dissidents in Gdańsk , Warsaw , and Kraków . Upon her return to Washington, her husband announced his intention to divorce her so that he could pursue
7579-466: The White House to the Democratic Party, and Albright was employed to handle the transition to a new administration at the National Security Council. In January 1993, Clinton nominated her to be U.S. ambassador to the United Nations , her first diplomatic posting. Albright was appointed ambassador to the United Nations , a Cabinet -level position, shortly after Clinton was inaugurated, presenting her credentials on February 9, 1993. During her tenure at
7722-419: The occupation of the Sudetenland by 10 October, and an international commission would decide the future of other disputed areas. Czechoslovakia was informed by Britain and France that it could either resist Nazi Germany alone or submit to the prescribed annexations. The Czechoslovak government, realizing the hopelessness of fighting the Nazis alone, reluctantly capitulated (30 September) and agreed to abide by
7865-441: The Allies' demands. Later that evening, Hitler grew worried that he had gone too far in pressuring Chamberlain, and telephoned Chamberlain's hotel suite, saying that he would accept annexing only the Sudetenland, with no designs on other territories, provided that Czechoslovakia begin the evacuation of ethnic Czechs from the German majority territories by 26 September at 8:00am. After being pressed by Chamberlain, Hitler agreed to have
8008-410: The Blitz —but later moved to Beaconsfield , then Walton-on-Thames , on the outskirts of London. They kept a large metal table in the house, which was intended to shelter the family from the recurring threat of German air raids. While in England, Marie Jana was one of the children shown in a documentary film designed to promote sympathy for war refugees in London. After the defeat of the Nazis in
8151-422: The Czechoslovak government had killed 300 Sudeten Germans. Hitler also expressed concern to Chamberlain about what he perceived as British "threats." Chamberlain responded that he had not issued "threats" and in frustration asked Hitler "Why did I come over here to waste my time?" Hitler responded that if Chamberlain was willing to accept the self-determination of the Sudeten Germans, he would be willing to discuss
8294-460: The Czechoslovak government. It demanded the immediate evacuation of Czechoslovak troops and police and gave Prague time until noon the following day. At 11:45 a.m. on 1 October the Czechoslovak Foreign Ministry called the Polish ambassador in Prague and told him that Poland could have what it wanted but then requested a 24-hour delay. On 2 October, the Polish Army , commanded by General Władysław Bortnowski , annexed an area of 801.5 km with
8437-501: The Democratic Party, responding to then-GOP candidate Mitt Romney 's assertion that Russia was the "number-one geopolitical foe" of the United States. According to Albright, Romney's statement was proof that he had "little understanding of what was actually going on in the 21st Century [and] he is not up to date and that is a very dangerous aspect [of his candidacy]". Albright described Donald Trump as "the most un-American, anti-democratic leader" in U.S. history. She also criticized
8580-458: The Fourth Plan, granting nearly all the demands of the agreement. The Sudeten Germans were under instruction from Hitler to avoid a compromise, and the SdP held demonstrations that provoked a police action in Ostrava on 7 September, in which two of their parliamentary deputies were arrested. The Sudeten Germans used the incident and false allegations of other atrocities as an excuse to break off further negotiations. On 12 September, Hitler made
8723-478: The Munich Agreement, Hitler's determination to invade Czechoslovakia on 1 October 1938 had provoked a major crisis in the German command structure. The Chief of the General Staff, General Ludwig Beck, protested in a lengthy series of memos that it would start a world war that Germany would lose, and urged Hitler to put off the projected conflict. Hitler called Beck's arguments against war " kindische Kräfteberechnungen " ("childish force calculations"). On 4 August 1938,
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#17327980831448866-413: The Munich agreement read "Hitler gets less than his Sudeten demands" and reported that a "joyful crowd" hailed Daladier on his return to France and that Chamberlain was "wildly cheered" on his return to Britain. In France, the only political party to oppose the Munich Agreement was the Communist Party . The British population had expected an imminent war, and the "statesman-like gesture" of Chamberlain
9009-454: The Munich settlement. They were not invited to the conference and felt they had been betrayed by the British and French governments. Many Czechs and Slovaks refer to the Munich Agreement as the Munich Diktat ( Czech : Mnichovský diktát ; Slovak : Mníchovský diktát ). The phrase " Munich Betrayal " ( Mnichovská zrada ; Mníchovská zrada ) is also used because the military alliance Czechoslovakia had with France proved useless. This
9152-457: The Polish ambassador to France, told French Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet that if France moved against Germany to defend Czechoslovakia, "We shall not move." Łukasiewicz also told Bonnet that Poland would oppose any attempt by Soviet forces to defend Czechoslovakia from Germany. Édouard Daladier told Jakob Suritz , the Soviet ambassador to France, "Not only can we not count on Polish support but we have no faith that Poland will not strike us in
9295-406: The Sudetenland being ceded to Germany. The discussions ended with a firm British-French plan in place. Britain and France demanded that Czechoslovakia cede to Germany all territories in which the German population represented over 50% of the Sudetenland's total population. In exchange for that concession, Britain and France would guarantee the independence of Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia rejected
9438-568: The Sudetenland with no reductions would force Hitler to accept the agreement. Upon being told of this, Hitler responded "Does this mean that the Allies have agreed with Prague's approval to the transfer of the Sudetenland to Germany?", Chamberlain responded "Precisely", to which Hitler responded by shaking his head, saying that the Allied offer was insufficient. He told Chamberlain that he wanted Czechoslovakia to be completely dissolved and its territories redistributed to Germany, Poland, and Hungary, and told Chamberlain to take it or leave it. Chamberlain
9581-449: The U.N., she had a rocky relationship with the U.N. secretary-general , Boutros Boutros-Ghali , whom she criticized as "disengaged" and "neglect[ful]" of genocide in Rwanda . Albright wrote: "My deepest regret from my years in public service is the failure of the United States and the international community to act sooner to halt these crimes." In Shake Hands with the Devil , Roméo Dallaire writes that in 1994, in Albright's role as
9724-459: The U.S. Permanent Representative to the U.N. , she avoided describing the killings in Rwanda as "genocide" until overwhelmed by the evidence for it; this is now how she described these massacres in her memoirs. She was instructed to support a reduction or withdrawal (something which never happened) of the U.N. Assistance Mission for Rwanda but was later given more flexibility. Albright later remarked in PBS documentary Ghosts of Rwanda that "it
9867-486: The U.S. at the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong on July 1, 1997. She along with the British contingents boycotted the swearing-in ceremony of the Chinese-appointed Hong Kong Legislative Council , which replaced the elected one. In October 1997, she voiced her approval for national security exemptions to the Kyoto Protocol , arguing that NATO operations should not be limited by controls on greenhouse gas emissions , and hoped that other NATO members would also support
10010-400: The United Kingdom, Jan Masaryk , was elated upon hearing of the support for Czechoslovakia from British and French opponents of Hitler's plans, saying "The nation of Saint Wenceslas will never be a nation of slaves." On 25 September, Czechoslovakia agreed to the conditions previously agreed upon by Britain, France, and Germany. The next day, however, Hitler added new demands, insisting that
10153-489: The United States refused to yield to international pressure to drop its lone veto. After four deadlocked meetings of the Security Council, Boutros-Ghali suspended his candidacy and became the only U.N. secretary-general ever to be denied a second term. The United States then fought a four-round veto duel with France, forcing it to back down and accept Kofi Annan as the next secretary-general. In his memoirs, Clarke said that "the entire operation had strengthened Albright's hand in
10296-511: The Western powers decided on war with Germany. However, these proposals and statements did not elicit any reaction from British and French governments that were bent on averting war by appeasing Germany." Hitler's adjutant, Fritz Wiedemann , recalled after the war that he was "very shocked" by Hitler's new plans to attack Britain and France three to four years after "deal[ing] with the situation" in Czechoslovakia. General Ludwig Beck , chief of
10439-515: The age of 5—greatly increased after the implementation of sanctions against Iraq following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990. On the other hand, several later surveys conducted during the U.S.-led occupation of Iraq (2003–2011) "all put the U5MR in Iraq during 1995–2000 in the vicinity of 40 per 1000," suggesting that "there was no major rise in child mortality in Iraq after 1990 and during
10582-899: The agreement. The settlement gave Germany the Sudetenland starting 10 October, and de facto control over the rest of Czechoslovakia as long as Hitler promised to go no further. On 30 September after some rest, Chamberlain went to Hitler's apartment in the Prinzregentenstraße and asked him to sign a statement calling the Anglo-German Naval Agreement "symbolic of the desire of our two countries never to go to war with one another again." After Hitler's interpreter translated it for him, he happily agreed. On 30 September, upon his return to Britain, Chamberlain delivered his controversial " peace for our time " speech to crowds in London. The Czechoslovaks were dismayed with
10725-569: The back." However, the Polish government indicated multiple times (in March 1936 and May, June and August 1938) that it was prepared to fight Germany if the French decided to help Czechoslovakia: "Beck's proposal to Bonnet, his statements to Ambassador Drexel Biddle, and the statement noted by Vansittart, show that the Polish foreign minister was, indeed, prepared to carry out a radical change of policy if
10868-463: The book Read My Pins: Stories from a Diplomat's Jewel Box about her pins. In August 2012, when speaking at an Obama campaign event in Highlands Ranch, Colorado , Albright was asked the question "How long will you blame that previous administration for all of your problems?", to which she replied "Forever". In October 2012, Albright appeared in a video on the official Twitter feed for
11011-461: The border to Czechoslovakia and attack Czechoslovak units. The few who crossed, however, were repulsed by Czechoslovak forces and retreated to Poland. The Polish ambassador in Germany learned about the results of Munich Conference on 30 September from Ribbentrop , who assured him that Berlin conditioned the guarantees for the remainder of Czechoslovakia on the fulfilment of Polish and Hungarian territorial demands. Polish foreign minister Józef Beck
11154-585: The border with Czechoslovakia, without attacking. The Soviet Union announced its willingness to come to Czechoslovakia's assistance, provided that the Red Army would be able to cross Polish and Romanian territory. Both countries refused to allow the Soviet army to use their territories. An emergency meeting of the main European powers–not including Czechoslovakia, although their representatives were present in
11297-516: The chairman of the NYSE board of directors, had been granted $ 187.5 million in compensation, with little governance by the board on which Albright sat. During the tenure of the interim chairman, John S. Reed , Albright served as chairwoman of the NYSE board's nominating and governance committee. Shortly after the appointment of the NYSE board's permanent chairman in 2005, Albright submitted her resignation. According to PolitiFact , Albright opposed
11440-674: The claims of ethnic Germans in Poland and Hungary also be satisfied. On 26 September, Chamberlain sent Sir Horace Wilson to carry a personal letter to Hitler declaring that the Allies wanted a peaceful resolution to the Sudeten crisis. Later that evening, Hitler made his response in a speech at the Berlin Sportpalast ; he claimed that the Sudetenland was "the last territorial demand I have to make in Europe" and gave Czechoslovakia
11583-636: The clear implication being that Mussolini supported Germany in the crisis. On 20 September, German opponents within the military met to discuss the final plans of a plot they had developed to overthrow the Nazi regime. The meeting was led by General Hans Oster , the deputy head of the Abwehr (Germany's counter-espionage agency). Other members included Captain Friedrich Wilhelm Heinz [ de ] , and other military officers leading
11726-417: The competition to be Secretary of State in the second Clinton administration". When Clinton began his second term in January 1997, following his re-election, he required a new Secretary of State, as incumbent Warren Christopher was retiring. The top level of the Clinton administration was divided into two camps on selecting the new foreign policy. Outgoing Chief of Staff Leon Panetta favored Albright, but
11869-503: The construction of his new battleships, Bismarck and Tirpitz , to spring 1940. He demanded that the increase in the firepower of the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau be accelerated. While recognizing that this would still be insufficient for a full-scale naval war with Britain, Hitler hoped it would be a sufficient deterrent. Ten days later, Hitler signed a secret directive for war against Czechoslovakia to begin no later than 1 October. On 22 May, Juliusz Łukasiewicz ,
12012-454: The contemporary Czech Constitutional court . In the following days, Czechoslovak forces suffered over 100 personnel killed in action, hundreds wounded and over 2,000 abducted to Germany. On 18 September, Italy's Duce Benito Mussolini made a speech in Trieste , Italy, where he declared "If there are two camps, for and against Prague, let it be known that Italy has chosen its side", with
12155-501: The country actually wanted to be in a union with the Czechs. Hitler accused Beneš of seeking to gradually exterminate the Sudeten Germans and claimed that since Czechoslovakia's creation, over 600,000 Germans had been intentionally forced out of their homes under the threat of starvation if they did not leave. He alleged that Beneš's government was persecuting Germans along with Hungarians, Poles, and Slovaks and accused Beneš of threatening
12298-529: The country after World War II under the Beneš decrees . His apartment, at 11 Hradčanská Street in Prague, was subsequently given to Korbel and his family. Harmer alleged that Korbel stole his great-grandfather's artwork. Counsel for Albright's family stated that Harmer's claim was unfounded. Munich Agreement The Munich Agreement was an agreement reached in Munich on 30 September 1938, by Nazi Germany ,
12441-411: The days following Munich, Chamberlain received more than 20,000 letters and telegrams of thanks, and gifts including 6000 assorted bulbs from grateful Dutch admirers and a cross from Pope Pius XI . Poland was building up a secret Polish organization in the area of Trans-Olza from 1935. In summer 1938, Poland tried to organize guerrilla groups in the area. On 21 September, Poland officially requested
12584-462: The disruptions, claiming the crowd was supportive of a war policy. Later that year, both Bill Clinton and Albright insisted that an attack on Saddam Hussein could be stopped only if Hussein reversed his decision to halt arms inspections. In an interview on The Today Show , February 19, 1998, Albright said "If we have to use force, it is because we are America; we are the indispensable nation. We stand tall and we see further than other countries into
12727-445: The eve of the German invasion, because it would disrupt Czechoslovak preparations for war. Poles recognised the answer as playing for time. Polish diplomatic actions were accompanied by placing army along the Czechoslovak border on 23–24 September and by giving an order to the so-called "battle units" of Trans-Olza Poles and the "Trans-Olza Legion", a paramilitary organisation that was made up of volunteers from all over Poland, to cross
12870-828: The exemptions at the Third Conference of the Parties in Kyoto, Japan. According to several accounts, Prudence Bushnell , U.S. ambassador to Kenya , repeatedly asked Washington for additional security at the embassy in Nairobi , including in a letter directly addressed to Albright in April 1998. Bushnell was ignored. She later stated that when she spoke to Albright about the letter, Albright told her that it had not been shown to her. In Against All Enemies , Richard Clarke writes about an exchange with Albright several months after
13013-424: The future...." Albright became one of the highest level Western diplomats ever to meet Kim Jong-il , the then-leader of communist North Korea , during an official state visit to that country in 2000. On January 8, 2001, in one of her last acts as Secretary of State, Albright made a farewell call to Kofi Annan and said that the U.S. would continue to press Iraq to destroy all its weapons of mass destruction as
13156-468: The government of Czechoslovakia of being a client regime of France , claiming that the French Minister of Aviation Pierre Cot had said, "We need this state as a base from which to drop bombs with greater ease to destroy Germany's economy and its industry." On 13 September, after internal violence and disruption in Czechoslovakia ensued, Chamberlain asked Hitler for a personal meeting to find
13299-640: The highest-ranking woman in the history of the U.S. government at the time of her appointment. Not being a natural-born citizen of the U.S., she was not eligible as a U.S. presidential successor . During her tenure, Albright considerably influenced American foreign policy in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Middle East. Following the Dayton Agreement , in which a cease-fire in the Bosnian War
13442-459: The independence of Czechoslovakia and the Treaty of Trianon defined the borders of the new state, which was divided in to the regions of Bohemia and Moravia in the west and Slovakia and Subcarpathian Rus' in the east, including more than three million Germans, 22.95% of the total population of the country. They lived mostly in border regions of the historical Czech Lands for which they coined
13585-492: The integrity of Czechoslovakia by occupying the remainder of the country and creating the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia . The conquered nation's significant military arsenal played an important role in Germany's invasions of Poland and France in 1939 and 1940. Much of Europe celebrated the Munich Agreement, as they considered it a way to prevent a major war on the continent. Adolf Hitler announced that it
13728-513: The intention of forcing the West into putting pressure on the Czechoslovaks to make concessions. Hitler hoped that the Czechoslovaks would refuse and that the West would then feel morally justified in leaving the Czechoslovaks to their fate. In August, Germany sent 750,000 soldiers along the border of Czechoslovakia, officially as part of army maneuvres. On 4 or 5 September, Beneš submitted
13871-413: The issue. After the meeting, Daladier flew to London on 16 September to meet with British officials to discuss a course of action. The situation in Czechoslovakia became tenser that day, with the Czechoslovak government issuing an arrest warrant for Henlein, who had arrived in Germany a day earlier to take part in the negotiations. The French proposals ranged from waging war against Germany to supporting
14014-528: The limited war against the Czechs which he had been aiming for all summer. In early October, Chamberlain's press secretary asked for a public declaration of German friendship with Britain to strengthen Chamberlain's domestic position; Hitler instead delivered speeches denouncing Chamberlain's "governessy interference." In August 1939, shortly before the invasion of Poland, Hitler told his generals: "Our enemies are men below average, not men of action, not masters. They are little worms. I saw them at Munich." Before
14157-404: The matter. Hitler also convinced Chamberlain that he did not truly wish to destroy Czechoslovakia, but that he believed that upon a German annexation of the Sudetenland the country's minorities would each secede and cause the country to collapse. Chamberlain and Hitler held discussions for three hours, and the meeting adjourned. Chamberlain flew back to Britain and met with his cabinet to discuss
14300-536: The meeting with Chamberlain, Hitler had furiously said: "Gentlemen, this has been my first international conference and I can assure you that it will be my last." On another occasion, he had been heard saying of Chamberlain: "If ever that silly old man comes interfering here again with his umbrella, I'll kick him downstairs and jump on his stomach in front of the photographers." In one of his public speeches after Munich, Hitler declared: "Thank God we have no umbrella politicians in this country." Hitler felt cheated of
14443-503: The meeting. The flight was one of the first times a head of state or diplomatic official flew to a diplomatic meeting in an airplane , as the tense situation left little time to take a train or boat . Henlein flew to Germany on the same day. That day, Hitler and Chamberlain held discussions in which Hitler insisted that the Sudeten Germans must be allowed to exercise the right of national self-determination and be able to join Sudetenland with Germany. Hitler repeatedly falsely claimed that
14586-437: The moment he gave the invasion order. This plan would only work if Britain issued a strong warning and a letter to the effect that they would fight to preserve Czechoslovakia. This would help to convince the German people that certain defeat awaited Germany. Agents were therefore sent to England to tell Chamberlain that an attack on Czechoslovakia was planned, and of their intention to overthrow Hitler if this occurred. The proposal
14729-590: The nationalities with being branded traitors if they were not loyal to the country. He stated that he, as the head of state of Germany, would support the right of the self-determination of fellow Germans in the Sudetenland. He condemned Beneš for his government's recent execution of several German protesters. He accused Beneš of being belligerent and threatening behaviour towards Germany which, if war broke out, would result in Beneš forcing Sudeten Germans to fight against their will against Germans from Germany. Hitler accused
14872-504: The negotiations and urge Hitler to delay the ultimatum. At 11:00 am, Ciano met Mussolini and informed him of Chamberlain's proposition; Mussolini agreed with it and responded by telephoning Italy's ambassador to Germany and told him "Go to the Fuhrer at once, and tell him that whatever happens, I will be at his side, but that I request a twenty-four-hour delay before hostilities begin. In the meantime, I will study what can be done to solve
15015-405: The new name Sudetenland , which bordered on Germany and the newly created country of Austria . The Sudeten Germans were not consulted on whether they wished to be citizens of Czechoslovakia. Although the constitution guaranteed equality for all citizens, there was a tendency among political leaders to transform the country "into an instrument of Czech and Slovak nationalism ." Some progress
15158-514: The notion of Joseph taking over the family newspaper business. Albright gave birth to another daughter, Katharine Medill Albright, in 1967. She continued her studies at Columbia University's Department of Public Law and Government. (It was later renamed as the political science department, and is located within the School of International and Public Affairs .) She earned a certificate in Russian from
15301-467: The oil and wheat it needs, she will turn on the West. Certainly we must multiply our efforts to avoid war. But that will not be obtained unless Great Britain and France stick together, intervening in Prague for new concessions but declaring at the same time that they will safeguard the independence of Czechoslovakia. If, on the contrary, the Western Powers capitulate again they will only precipitate
15444-563: The period of the sanctions." On May 12, 1996, then-ambassador Albright defended the sanctions on a 60 Minutes segment in which Lesley Stahl asked her, "We have heard that half a million children have died. I mean, that's more children than died in Hiroshima . And, you know, is the price worth it?" and Albright replied, "We think the price is worth it." The segment won an Emmy Award . Albright later criticized Stahl's segment as "amount[ing] to Iraqi propaganda", saying that her question
15587-630: The planned coup d'etat met at the meeting. On 22 September, Chamberlain, about to board his plane to go to Germany for further talks at Bad Godesberg , told the press who met him there that "My objective is peace in Europe, I trust this trip is the way to that peace." Chamberlain arrived in Cologne , where he received a lavish grand welcome with a German band playing " God Save the King " and Germans giving Chamberlain flowers and gifts. Chamberlain had calculated that fully accepting German annexation of all of
15730-475: The possibility of Albright succeeding him. Albright was reportedly flattered, but denied ever seriously considering the possibility of running for office in her country of origin. Albright was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2001. Also that year, Albright founded the Albright Group , an international strategy consulting firm based in Washington, D.C., that later become
15873-548: The previous appeasement of Hitler had shown, France and Britain were intent on avoiding war. The French government did not wish to face Germany alone and took its lead from British Conservative government of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain . He considered the Sudeten German grievances justified and believed Hitler's intentions to be limited. Both Britain and France, therefore, advised Czechoslovakia to accede to Germany's demands. Beneš resisted and, on 19 May, initiated
16016-472: The problem." Hitler received Mussolini's message while in discussions with the French ambassador. Hitler responded "My good friend, Benito Mussolini, has asked me to delay for twenty-four hours the marching orders of the German army, and I agreed." Of course, this was no concession, as the invasion date was set for 1 October 1938. Upon speaking with Chamberlain, Lord Perth gave Chamberlain's thanks to Mussolini as well as Chamberlain's request that Mussolini attend
16159-403: The proposed solution. On 17 September 1938 Hitler ordered the establishment of Sudetendeutsches Freikorps , a paramilitary organization that took over the structure of Ordnersgruppe, an organization of ethnic Germans in Czechoslovakia that had been dissolved by the Czechoslovak authorities the previous day due to its implication in a large number of terrorist activities. The organization
16302-591: The right to stay in the United States, the same right to be given to my wife and three children." With the help of Philip Moseley, a Russian language professor at Columbia University in New York City, Korbel obtained a position on the staff of the political science department at the University of Denver in Colorado. He became dean of the university's school of international relations , and later taught future U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice . The school
16445-424: The specter of future cases of genocide and mass atrocities." Recommendations include: This United States government–related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Madeleine Albright Madeleine Jana Korbel Albright (born Marie Jana Körbelová , later Korbelová; May 15, 1937 – March 23, 2022) was an American diplomat and political scientist who was the first woman to serve as
16588-591: The supervision of German and Czechoslovak forces. The memorandum also stated that if Czechoslovakia did not agree to the German demands by 2 pm on 28 September, Germany would take the Sudetenland by force. On the same day, Chamberlain returned to Britain and announced that Hitler demanded the annexation of the Sudetenland without delay. The announcement enraged those in Britain and France who wanted to confront Hitler once and for all, even if it meant war, and its supporters gained strength. The Czechoslovak Ambassador to
16731-516: The town, or the Soviet Union , an ally to both France and Czechoslovakia–took place in Munich, Germany, on 29–30 September 1938. An agreement was quickly reached on Hitler's terms, and signed by the leaders of Germany, France, Britain, and Italy. The Czechoslovak mountainous borderland marked a natural border between the Czech state and the Germanic states since the early Middle Ages; it also presented
16874-532: The ultimatum set for 1 October (the same date that Operation Green was set to begin). Hitler then said to Chamberlain that this was one concession that he was willing to make to the Prime Minister as a "gift" out of respect for the fact that Chamberlain had been willing to back down somewhat on his earlier position. Hitler went on to say that upon annexing the Sudetenland, Germany would hold no further territorial claims upon Czechoslovakia and would enter into
17017-473: The war they wish to avoid." Perhaps discouraged by the arguments of French military leaders and civilian officials regarding their unprepared military and weak financial situation, and still traumatized by France's bloodbath in World War I, which he had personally witnessed, Daladier ultimately let Chamberlain have his way. On his return to Paris, Daladier, who had expected a hostile crowd, was acclaimed. In
17160-545: Was Zdeněk Fierlinger , a former Czechoslovakian prime minister . She became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1957, and joined the College Democrats of America . While home in Denver from Wellesley, Korbel worked as an intern for The Denver Post . There she met Joseph Albright . He was the nephew of Alicia Patterson , owner of Newsday and wife of philanthropist Harry Frank Guggenheim . Korbel converted to
17303-600: Was a loaded question . She wrote, "I had fallen into a trap and said something I did not mean", and that she regretted coming "across as cold-blooded and cruel". She apologized for her remarks in a 2020 interview with The New York Times , calling them "totally stupid". Albright addressed the controversy in her 2020 memoir, acknowledging that her answer was "a mistake" and "that UN sanctions contributed to hardships in Iraq," but also noting that "the producers of 60 Minutes were duped. Subsequent research has shown that Iraqi propagandists deceived international observers," citing
17446-605: Was a very, very difficult time, and the situation was unclear. You know, in retrospect, it all looks very clear. But when you were [there] at the time, it was unclear about what was happening in Rwanda." Also in 1996, after Cuban military pilots shot down two small civilian aircraft flown by the Cuban-American exile group Brothers to the Rescue over international waters, she announced at a UN Security Council meeting debating
17589-474: Was addressing Parliament, and Chamberlain suddenly announced the conference and his acceptance to attend at the end of the speech to cheers. When United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt learned the conference had been scheduled, he telegraphed Chamberlain, "Good man." Discussions began at the Führerbau immediately after Chamberlain and Daladier arrived, giving them little time to consult. The meeting
17732-428: Was also reflected by the fact that especially the French government had expressed the view that Czechoslovakia would be considered as being responsible for any resulting European war should the Czechoslovak Republic defend herself with force against German incursions. The slogan " About us, without us! " ( O nás bez nás! ; O nás bez nás! ) summarizes the feelings of the people of Czechoslovakia (now Slovakia and
17875-611: Was at first greeted with acclaim. He was greeted as a hero by the royal family and invited on the balcony at Buckingham Palace before he had presented the agreement to the British Parliament . The generally positive reaction quickly soured, despite royal patronage. However, there was opposition from the start. Clement Attlee and the Labour Party opposed the agreement, in alliance with two Conservative MPs, Duff Cooper and Vyvyan Adams , who had been seen up to then as
18018-1133: Was born, her father was serving as a press-attaché at the Czechoslovak Embassy in Belgrade . The signing of the Munich Agreement in September 1938—and the German occupation of Czechoslovakia by Adolf Hitler 's troops—forced the family into exile because of their links with Beneš. Josef and Anna converted from Judaism to Catholicism in 1941. Marie Jana and her siblings were raised in the Roman Catholic faith. In 1997, Albright said her parents never told her or her two siblings about their Jewish ancestry and heritage. The family moved to Britain in May 1939. Here her father worked for Beneš's Czechoslovak government-in-exile . Her family first lived on Kensington Park Road in Notting Hill , London—where they lived throughout
18161-690: Was criticized by Harut Sassounian and the Armenian National Committee of America , as both Albright and Cohen had spoken against a Congressional resolution on the Armenian genocide . Albright endorsed and supported Hillary Clinton in her 2008 presidential campaign . Albright was a close friend of Clinton and served as an informal advisor on foreign policy matters. On December 1, 2008, President-elect Barack Obama nominated then-Senator Clinton for Albright's former post of Secretary of State. During this period, she also served as
18304-440: Was disappointed with such a turn of events. In his own words the conference was "an attempt by the directorate of great powers to impose binding decisions on other states (and Poland cannot agree on that, as it would then be reduced to a political object that others conduct at their will)." As a result, at 11:45 p.m. on 30 September, 11 hours after the Czechoslovak government accepted the Munich terms, Poland gave an ultimatum to
18447-426: Was eventually invited to organize a fund-raising dinner for the 1972 presidential campaign of U.S. Senator Ed Muskie of Maine. This association with Muskie led to a position as his chief legislative assistant in 1976. However, after the 1976 U.S. presidential election of Jimmy Carter , Albright's former professor Brzezinski was named National Security Advisor , and recruited Albright from Muskie in 1978 to work in
18590-908: Was forced to resign from his position. He later obtained a position on a United Nations delegation to Kashmir . He sent his family to the United States, by way of London, to wait for him when he arrived to deliver his report to the UN Headquarters , then located in Lake Success, New York . Korbel's family emigrated from the United Kingdom on the SS America , departing Southampton on November 5, 1948, and arriving at Ellis Island in New York Harbor on November 11, 1948. The family initially settled in Great Neck on
18733-432: Was generally applauded. Prime Minister Daladier of France did not believe, as one scholar put it, that a European War was justified "to maintain three million Germans under Czech sovereignty." Gallup Polls in Britain, France, and the United States indicated that the majority of people supported the agreement. President Beneš of Czechoslovakia was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize in 1939. The New York Times headline on
18876-571: Was held in English , French , and German . A deal was reached on 29 September, and at about 1:30 a.m. on 30 September 1938, Adolf Hitler , Neville Chamberlain, Benito Mussolini and Édouard Daladier signed the Munich Agreement. The agreement was officially introduced by Mussolini although in fact the Italian plan was nearly identical to the Godesberg proposal: the German army was to complete
19019-552: Was his last territorial claim in Northern Europe. Today, the Munich Agreement is widely regarded as a failed act of appeasement , and the term has become "a byword for the futility of appeasing expansionist totalitarian states." The First Czechoslovak Republic was created in 1918 after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of World War I . The Treaty of Saint-Germain recognized
19162-610: Was made to integrate the Germans and other minorities, but they continued to be underrepresented in the government and the army. Moreover, the Great Depression beginning in 1929 impacted the highly industrialized and export-oriented Sudeten Germans more than it did the Czech and Slovak populations. By 1936, 60 percent of the unemployed people in Czechoslovakia were Germans. In 1933, Sudeten German leader Konrad Henlein founded
19305-757: Was named the Josef Korbel School of International Studies in 2008 in his honor. Madeleine Korbel spent her teen years in Denver and in 1955 graduated from the Kent Denver School in Cherry Hills Village , a suburb of Denver. She founded the school's international relations club and was its first president. She attended Wellesley College, in Wellesley, Massachusetts , on a full scholarship, majoring in political science , and graduated in 1959. The topic of her senior thesis
19448-566: Was prepared to fight. The Soviet Union announced its willingness to come to Czechoslovakia's assistance, provided that the Red Army would be able to cross Polish and Romanian territory. Both countries refused to allow the Soviet army to use their territories. In the early hours of 24 September, Hitler issued the Godesberg Memorandum , which demanded that Czechoslovakia cede the Sudetenland to Germany no later than 28 September, with plebiscites to be held in unspecified areas under
19591-524: Was reached, President Clinton committed to sending American troops to Bosnia to enforce the agreement, as strongly recommended by Albright. According to Albright's memoirs, she once argued with Colin Powell for the use of military force by asking, "What's the point of you saving this superb military for, Colin, if we can't use it?" Albright strongly advocated for U.S. economic sanctions against Saddam Hussein 's Iraq. As Secretary of State, she represented
19734-478: Was rejected by the British Cabinet and no such letter was issued. Accordingly, the proposed removal of Hitler did not go ahead. On this basis it has been argued that the Munich Agreement kept Hitler in power—Halder remained bitter about Chamberlain's refusal for decades after the war—although whether the attempted removal would have been any more successful than the 1944 plot is doubtful. The agreement
19877-556: Was running unopposed for a second term in the 1996 selection . After 15 U.S. peacekeepers died in a failed raid in Somalia in 1993, Boutros-Ghali became a political scapegoat in the United States. They dubbed the pact "Operation Orient Express" to reflect their hope that other nations would join the United States. Although every other member of the United Nations Security Council voted for Boutros-Ghali,
20020-603: Was shaken by this statement. Hitler went on to tell Chamberlain that since their last meeting on the 15th, Czechoslovakia's actions, which Hitler claimed included killings of Germans, had made the situation unbearable for Germany. Later in the meeting, a deception was undertaken to influence and put pressure on Chamberlain: one of Hitler's aides entered the room to inform Hitler of more Germans being killed in Czechoslovakia, to which Hitler screamed in response "I will avenge every one of them. The Czechs must be destroyed." The meeting ended with Hitler refusing to make any concessions to
20163-518: Was sheltered, trained and equipped by German authorities and conducted cross-border terrorist operations into Czechoslovak territory. Relying on the Convention for the Definition of Aggression , Czechoslovak president Edvard Beneš and the government-in-exile later regarded 17 September 1938 as the beginning of the undeclared German-Czechoslovak war. This understanding has been assumed also by
20306-652: Was soon followed by the First Vienna Award on 2 November 1938, separating largely Hungarian inhabited territories in southern Slovakia and southern Subcarpathian Rus' from Czechoslovakia. On 30 November 1938, Czechoslovakia ceded to Poland small patches of land in the Spiš and Orava regions. In March 1939, the First Slovak Republic , a German puppet state , proclaimed its independence. Shortly afterwards, Hitler reneged on his promises to respect
20449-521: Was willing to provide more minority rights to the German minority but was initially reluctant to grant autonomy. The SdP gained 88% of the ethnic German votes in May 1938. With tension high between the Germans and the Czechoslovak government, Beneš, on 15 September 1938, secretly offered to give 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi) of Czechoslovakia to Germany, in exchange for a German agreement to admit 1.5 to 2.0 million Sudeten Germans expelled by Czechoslovakia. Hitler did not reply. As
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