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137-608: Through the 17th and 18th century the power of the Genoese navy and fleet declined, thanks to bankers and no longer merchants being the strongest economic force in the Republic. The Genoese navy was finally disbanded following the annexation of Genoa by the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont in 1815. A center of trade since antiquity , the city of Genoa relied heavily on income from merchant shipping and trade . As such, piracy posed

274-597: A Viceroy governing the island on the king's behalf. This arrangement continued after the personal union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon to form Spain under the Habsburg dynasty . During this time the island became a target for Barbary pirates , due to the frequent wars between Spain and the Ottoman Empire . From the 1570s onward a series of towers, known today as the Spanish Towers, were built around

411-492: A stern castle, to afford more cargo space by keeping the crew and tiller up, out of the way; and to give the helmsman a better view. A cog, compared with the carvel-built vessels more traditional in the Mediterranean, was expensive and required specialist shipwrights . However, their simpler sail setup meant that cogs only required half the crew of similar-sized vessels equipped with lateen sails, as were common in

548-520: A white peace in 1243. In the eastern Mediterranean, conflicts between Genoese and Venetian merchants in Acre resulted in the War of Saint Sabas being fought from 1256 to 1270. During the conflict the Genoese navy was defeated in a series of pitched battles against Venice, and so it resorted to attacking merchant convoys instead of warships. This strategy proved highly effective and would become known as "War of

685-400: A 240 ton cog being used for military transportation. Cogs were typically constructed largely of oak , and had full lapstrake, or clinker , planking covering their sides, generally starting from the bilge strakes , with double-clenched iron nails for plank fastenings. At the stem , chases are formed; that is, in each case, the land of the lower strake is tapered to a feather edge at

822-455: A Byzantine province until the Arab conquest of Sicily in the 9th century. After that, communications with Constantinople became very difficult, and powerful families of the island assumed control of the land. Facing Arab attempts to sack and conquer, while having almost no outside help, Sardinia used the principle of translatio imperii ("transfer of rule") and continued to organize itself along

959-690: A French army. The lands that had formerly been under the control of the city of Genoa were reconstituted into the Ligurian Republic , a French client state . However, the Genoese navy remained intact. In 1798 the Ligurian fleet dispatched some of its ships to aid Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt and Syria ; this ended in disaster when the French fleet was scattered or destroyed at the Battle of

1096-588: A Hanseatic cog were discovered in the estuary sediment of the Pärnu River in Estonia which has been dated to 1300. In 2012, a cog dating from the early 15th century was discovered preserved from the keel up to the decks in the silt of the River IJssel in the city of Kampen , Netherlands . During its excavation and recovery an intact brick dome oven and glazed tiles were found in the galley as well as

1233-561: A Venetian fleet off the coast of Pylos . At the ensuing Battle of Sapienza Genoa sank or captured 35 Venetian galleys. A peace treaty was signed between Venice and Milan in 1355, bringing an end to the conflict. While the status quo in the east was maintained, the Kingdom of Aragon was able to establish itself as a major rival to Genoese domination of the Western Mediterranean. Genoa broke free from Milanese control following

1370-487: A beam of 5 to 8 meters (16 to 26 ft) and were 40–200 tons burthen . Cogs were rarely as large as 300 tons, although a very small number were considerably larger, over 1,000 tons. A rule of thumb for crew size was that one sailor, exclusive of any dedicated fighting men, was required for every 10 tons burthen of the cog, although this may generate a suggested crew size on the low side of Medieval practice. Crews of up to 45 for civilian cogs are recorded, and 60 for

1507-516: A blue border, or using a blue flag with the Savoy cross in one canton. Eventually, King Charles Albert of Savoy adopted the "revolutionary" Italian tricolor , surmounted by the Savoyard shield, as his flag. This flag would later become the flag of the Kingdom of Italy , and the tricolor without the Savoyard escutcheon remains the flag of Italy . References : Cog (ship) A cog

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1644-402: A constant issue. The navy encouraged captains to keep their crew alive by issuing heavy fines to those who lost too many men. The republic mandated that every galley in service be crewed with a barber - who also served as a surgeon - in order to maintain a standard of hygiene aboard the ship. Looking to provide its sailors with durable clothing that could be worn wet or dry, the navy began in

1781-654: A defeat in 1378 when a squadron was destroyed by the Venetians off of the Cape d'Anzio . Genoa won a victory in May 1379, after which the fleet sailed to the port of Chioggia in the Adriatic and captured the city. The Genoese intended to use their new position at Chioggia to blockade the city of Venice, but on June 24, 1380 the navy was defeated and driven from the city by a Venetian relief force. 17 Genoese warships were captured in

1918-485: A few were considerably larger, over 1,000 tons. Although the name cog is recorded as early as the 9th century, the seagoing vessel of that name seems to have evolved on the Frisian coast during the 12th century. Cogs progressively replaced Viking -type vessels such as knarrs in northern waters during the 13th century. Cogs could carry more cargo than knarrs of a similar size. Their flat bottoms allowed them to settle on

2055-462: A level in harbour, making them easier to load and unload. Their high sides made them more difficult to board in a sea fight, which made them safer from pirates. Cogs were a type of round ship, characterized by a flush-laid flat bottom at midships which gradually shifted to overlapped strakes near the posts. They were propelled by a single, large, rectangular sail. Typical seagoing cogs ranged from about 15 to 25 meters (49 to 82 ft) in length with

2192-601: A liberal ministry under Count Camillo Benso di Cavour was installed and the Kingdom of Sardinia became the engine driving Italian unification . The Kingdom of Sardinia took part in the Crimean War , allied with the Ottoman Empire , Britain , and France, and fighting against Russia. In 1859, France sided with the Kingdom of Sardinia in a war against Austria , the Austro-Sardinian War . Napoleon III did not keep his promises to Cavour to fight until all of

2329-484: A military campaign which lasted a year or so, occupied the Pisan territories of Cagliari and Gallura along with the city of Sassari , claiming the territory as the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica . In 1353, Arborea waged war on Aragon. The Crown of Aragon did not reduce the last of the judicates (indigenous kingdoms of Sardinia) until 1420. The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica retained its separate character as part of

2466-566: A prison in Bologna. The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica (later, just the "Kingdom of Sardinia" from 1460 ) was a state whose king was the King of Aragon , who started to conquer it in 1324, gained full control in 1410, and directly ruled it until 1460. In that year it was incorporated into a sort of confederation of states, each with its own institutions, called the Crown of Aragon , and united only in

2603-586: A secret clause in the Treaty of Anagni . This was an inducement to join in the effort to restore Sicily , then under the rule of James's brother Frederick III of Sicily , to the Angevin dynasty over the oppositions of the Sicilians. The two islands proposed for this new kingdom were occupied by other states and fiefs at the time. In Sardinia, three of the four states that had succeeded Byzantine imperial rule in

2740-430: A single sail. This made them unhandy, limiting their ability to tack in the harbour and making them very reliant on wind direction at the start of voyages. The flat bottom permitted cogs to be readily beached and unloaded at low tide when quays were not available; a useful trait when purpose-built jetties were not common. Cogs were expected to have a working life of approximately 40 years. The earliest origins of

2877-531: A substantial threat to the city's merchants, who were forced to pay for the defense of their ships. The city was likewise vulnerable to attack, a fact made apparent when in 935 a fleet led by Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Tamimi of the Fatimids sacked the city . The Muslim incursion spurred the city to build strong harbor defenses, and renewed interest in an armed merchant marine to patrol the Ligurian Sea . In 1005

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3014-514: A vessel identified by contemporary sources as a cog is the Lübeck city seal from 1223. The early cogs were fitted with a side-mounted rudder oar that also functioned as a leeboard and was rigged with a single broad square sail that functioned similar to a lug sail . Around 1200, the side rudder began to be replaced with a centerline rudder attached to a sternpost and developed in the typical medieval cog. Cogs could carry more cargo than knarrs;

3151-496: Is bevelled to suit the angle at which the next strake will lie in relation with it. This varies all along the land. The new strake is held in position on the preceding one before the fastening is done. The keel , or keel-plank, was only slightly thicker than the adjacent garboards and had no rabbet . Both stem and stern-posts were straight and rather long, and connected to the keel-plank through intermediate pieces called hooks . The lower plank hoods terminated in rabbets in

3288-739: Is a type of ship that was used during the Middle Ages , mostly for trade and transport but also in war. It first appeared in the 10th century, and was widely used from around the 12th century onward. Cogs were clinker-built , generally of oak . Cogs were fitted with a single mast and a single square sail . They were used primarily for trade in north-west medieval Europe, especially by the Hanseatic League . Typical seagoing cogs were from 15 to 25 meters (49 to 82 ft) long, 5 to 8 meters (16 to 26 ft) wide, and were of 30–200 tons burthen . Cogs were rarely as large as 300 tons although

3425-634: The Balearics , commanded by Mujāhid al-ʿĀmirī (Latinized as Museto ). The Saracen attempt to invade the island was stopped by the Judicates with the support of the fleets of the maritime republics of Pisa and Genoa . Pope Benedict VIII also requested aid from the two maritime republics in the struggle against the Arabs. After the Great Schism , Rome made many efforts to restore Latinity to

3562-713: The Crusades in 1095 resulted in a great period of prosperity for Genoa. As new crusaders were constantly needed to secure the Holy Land (and later to reinforce the Crusader states ), Genoa was able to profit by assisting in the transport of military forces from Europe. To better support the crusaders, a squadron of 12 Genoese galleys were deployed to the Holy Land during the First Crusade . The ships served to counter

3699-680: The Duke of Savoy , Victor Amadeus II . The Savoyards united it with their historical possessions on the Italian mainland, and the kingdom came to be progressively identified with the mainland states, which included, besides Savoy and Aosta , dynastic possessions like the Principality of Piedmont and the County of Nice , over both of which the Savoyards had been exercising their control since

3836-525: The Houses of Anjou and Aragon , established on paper a Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae that would be a fief of the papacy. Then, ignoring the indigenous states which already existed, the Pope offered his newly created fief to James II of Aragon , promising him papal support should he wish to conquer Pisan Sardinia in exchange for Sicily. In 1323 James II formed an alliance with Hugh II of Arborea and, following

3973-669: The Judicate of Arborea in the course of war with the Republic of Pisa , James II seized the Pisan territories in the former states of Cagliari and Gallura and asserted his papally-approved title. In 1347, Aragon made war on landlords of the Doria House and the Malaspina House, who were citizens of the Republic of Genoa , which controlled most of the lands of the former Logudoro state in north-western Sardinia, including

4110-481: The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia had been conquered. Following the bloody battles of Magenta and Solferino , both French victories, Napoleon thought the war too costly to continue and made a separate peace behind Cavour's back in which only Lombardy would be ceded. Due to the Austrian government's refusal to cede any lands to the Kingdom of Sardinia, they agreed to cede Lombardy to Napoleon, who in turn then ceded

4247-603: The Kingdom of Naples , Sardinia, and the bulk of the Duchy of Milan. During the War of the Quadruple Alliance , Victor Amadeus II , Duke of Savoy and King of Sicily, had to agree to yield Sicily to the Austrian Habsburgs and receive Sardinia in exchange. The exchange was formally ratified in the Treaty of The Hague of 17 February 1720. Because the Kingdom of Sardinia had existed since the 14th century,

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4384-804: The Maddalena archipelago in the Strait of Bonifacio from the Republic of Genoa and claimed it as part of Sardinia. Since then the archipelago has been a part of the Sardinian region. In 1792, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the other states of the Savoy Crown joined the First Coalition against the French First Republic , but was beaten in 1796 by Napoleon and forced to conclude the disadvantageous Treaty of Paris (1796) , giving

4521-474: The Treaty of Stupinigi , the Kingdom of Sardinia extended its protectorate over the Principality of Monaco . In the reaction after Napoleon, the country was ruled by conservative monarchs: Victor Emmanuel I (1802–21), Charles Felix (1821–31) and Charles Albert (1831–49), who fought at the head of a contingent of his own troops at the Battle of Trocadero , which set the reactionary Ferdinand VII on

4658-522: The Treaty of Turin (1816) transferred Carouge and adjacent areas to the newly created Swiss Canton of Geneva . In 1847–48, through an act of Union analogous to the one between Great Britain and Ireland , the various Savoyard states were unified under one legal system with their capital in Turin, and granted a constitution, the Statuto Albertino . By the time of the Crimean War in 1853,

4795-545: The Unification of Italy , leading to the port becoming a driving factor in Genoa's economic revival. These facilities were badly damaged by a British attack during World War II, after which the area was renovated; the Genoese ship building industry was moved out of the old harbor of the city, while the grounds of the former arsenal were converted into piers for docking ships and Genoa's cruise ship terminal. The oldest part of

4932-541: The Venetian navy , the Genoese fleet was unable to catch them, and Genoa's merchants suffered greatly during the war. A change came in 1298 when a major engagement was fought in the Adriatic Sea off the coast of Korčula . At the Battle of Curzola , a fleet of 75 Genoese galleys decisively defeated a force of 95 Venetian galleys, destroying or capturing 83 of the enemy ships. However, Genoese casualties were heavy and

5069-671: The 10th century. The Archons still wrote in Greek or Latin, but one of the oldest documents left of the Judicate of Cagliari (the so-called Carta Volgare ), issued by Torchitorio I de Lacon-Gunale in 1070, was already written in the Romance Sardinian language , albeit with the Greek alphabet . The realm was divided into four small kingdoms, the Judicates of Cagliari , Arborea , Gallura and Logudoro , perfectly organized as

5206-535: The 13th century and 1388, respectively. The formal name of this composite state was the " States of His Majesty the King of Sardinia ", and it was and is referred to as either Sardinia – Piedmont , Piedmont–Sardinia , or erroneously the Kingdom of Piedmont , since the island of Sardinia had always been of secondary importance to the monarchy. Under Savoyard rule, the kingdom's government, ruling class, cultural models and center of population were entirely situated in

5343-428: The 16th century to equip sailors with Genoese-produced denim jeans , and in doing so became one of the driving forces behind the adoption of the clothing. Genoese sailors and marines were armed with boarding swords and bucklers or with crossbows and muskets . In the 16th century the Genoese marines were protected by iron or steel Cuirasses and wore Morions . The Genoese government maintained special facilities on

5480-538: The 9th century had passed through marriage and partition under the direct or indirect control of Pisa and Genoa in the 40 years preceding the Anagni treaty. Genoa had also ruled Corsica since conquering the island nearly two centuries before ( c . 1133). There were other reasons beside this papal decision: it was the final successful result of the long fight against the Ghibelline (pro-imperial) city of Pisa and

5617-586: The Arborean army led by Brancaleone Doria again swept most of the island into Arborean rule. This situation lasted until 1409 when the army of the Judicate of Arborea suffered a heavy defeat by the Aragonese army in the Battle of Sanluri . After the sale of the remaining territories for 100,000 gold florins to the Judicate of Arborea in 1420, the "Kingdom of Sardinia" extended throughout the island, except for

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5754-462: The Black Death greatly reduced the Genoese navy's strength. The rise of larger nation states also sapped the ability of the relatively small city-state to compete militarily. Genoa (with French support) launched a crusade against Tunisia in 1390, with the intent to protect Genoese trade colonies from Muslim pirates. During the war the Genoese navy provided ships while French knights laid siege to

5891-510: The Chase" to the Genonese, in which faster Genoese galleys would outrun slower, better organized Venetian squadrons. The disastrous defeats at the hands of Pisa and Venice hindered Genoese ambitions, but also led to the creation of a dedicated naval force in Genoa. Larger galleys were built, the office of High Admiral was granted more powers, and the formidable Genoese crossbowmen were added to

6028-460: The Crown of Aragon and was not merely incorporated into the Kingdom of Aragon. At the time of his struggles with Arborea, Peter IV of Aragon granted an autonomous legislature to the kingdom and its legal traditions. The kingdom was governed in the king's name by a viceroy . In 1420, Alfonso V of Aragon , king of Sicily and heir to Aragon, bought the remaining territories for 100,000 gold florins of

6165-524: The Crown of Aragon to a united Spain. The defeat of the local kingdoms, communes and signorie , the firm Aragonese (later Spanish) rule, the introduction of a sterile feudalism , as well as the discovery of the Americas, provoked an unstoppable decline of the Kingdom of Sardinia. A short period of uprisings occurred under the local noble Leonardo Alagon , marquess of Oristano , who defended his territories against Viceroy Nicolò Carroz and managed to defeat

6302-465: The French army free passage through Piedmont. On 6 December 1798 Joubert occupied Turin and forced Charles Emmanuel IV to abdicate and leave for the island of Sardinia. The provisionary government voted to unite Piedmont with France. In 1799 the Austro-Russians briefly occupied the city, but with the Battle of Marengo (1800), the French regained control. The island of Sardinia stayed out of

6439-490: The Genoese navy consisted of only 10 galleys. Genoa allied itself with Spain during the war, leading to France laying siege to the city in 1625. Spain launched an expedition to relieve Genoa, known as the Relief of Genoa . In 1684 the French navy bombarded the city , an act that devastated parts of Genoa and razed the Republic's shipyards. In the postwar period the republic commissioned a number of frigates and corvettes into

6576-575: The Genoese navy contributed 29 galleys (53 ships in total) to the Holy League fleet at the pivotal Battle of Lepanto , during which the Genoese admiral Giovanni Andrea Doria commanded the right flank of the Ottoman fleet. The decisive Christian victory started the slow reversal of Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean. 1556 saw the republic create the Magistrato delle galee (magistrate of

6713-412: The Genoese navy should shift its doctrine from competition with other Christian nations to that of cooperation with other Europeans against Muslim piracy . He was also a strong proponent of using naval artillery , and as such equipped many of the navy's vessels with cannon. The revival period ended in the mid-16th century due to a series of military failures. The Imperial fleet was decisively defeated by

6850-760: The Holy Roman Empire itself. Furthermore, Sardinia was then under the control of the very Catholic kings of Aragon, and the last result of rapprochement of the island to Rome. The Sardinian church had never been under the control of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople ; it was an autonomous province loyal to Rome and belonging to the Latin Church , but during the Byzantine period became influenced by Byzantine liturgy and culture. In 1297, Pope Boniface VIII , intervening between

6987-406: The Italian capital until 1865, when the capital was moved to Florence . But many revolts exploded throughout the peninsula, especially in southern Italy, and on the island of Sicily, because of the perceived unfair treatment of the south by the Piedmontese ruling class. The House of Savoy ruled Italy until 1946, when Italy was declared a republic by referendum . The result was 54.3% in favor of

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7124-436: The Judicate of Arborea in the 1420 from the last judge, William III of Narbonne , and the "Kingdom of Sardinia" extended throughout the island, except for the city of Castelsardo (at that time called Casteldoria or Castelgenovese ) that was stolen from the Doria in 1448, and renamed Castillo Aragonés ( Aragonese Castle ). Corsica, which had never been conquered, was dropped from the formal title and Sardinia passed with

7261-554: The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica, the Archons (ἄρχοντες) or, in Latin, judices , who reigned in the island from the 9th or 10th century until the beginning of the 11th century, can be considered real kings of all Sardinia (Κύριε βοήθε ιοῦ δού λού σου Tουρκοτουρίου ἅρχωντοσ Σαρδινίας καί τής δού ληςσου Γετιτ ), even though nominal vassals of the Byzantine emperors. Of these sovereigns, only two names are known: Turcoturiu and Salusiu (Tουρκοτουριου βασιλικου προτοσπαθαριου και Σαλουσιου των ευγενεστατων άρχωντων), who probably ruled in

7398-401: The Kingdom of Sardinia were to keep the new acquisitions they would have to cede Savoy and Nice to France. This was done through the Treaty of Turin , which also called for referendums to confirm the annexation. Subsequently, somewhat controversial referendums showed over 99.5% majorities in both areas in favour of joining France. In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi started his campaign to conquer

7535-412: The Ligurian Republic would be allowed to sail under the French flag. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars , the city was granted to the Kingdom of Sardinia . The Genoese navy was disbanded on 3 January 1815, the day the city was annexed. The Genoese navy was divided between a public fleet and a private fleet. The public fleet was directly funded by the city's government, and its ships were built at

7672-433: The Limfjord in northern Jutland offered a fairly protected passage between the North Sea and the Baltic. Due to its unusual geographical conditions and strong currents, the passage was constantly filling with sand and was completely blocked by the early 12th century. This change produced new challenges. The larger ships, which could not be pulled across the sand bars, had to sail around the Jutland peninsula and circumnavigate

7809-472: The Mediterranean. A structural benefit of clinker construction is that it produces a vessel that can safely twist and flex around its long axis (running from bow to stern), which is an advantage in North Atlantic rollers , provided the vessel has a small overall displacement . A limitation of cogs is that they lack points to mount additional masts: at least some fore-and-aft sails are desirable for maneuverability but clinker-built cogs were effectively limited to

7946-514: The Nile . In 1804, newly crowned Emperor Napoleon sought to appropriate the remnants of the Genoese navy and Genoa's shipyards for use against Great Britain, and so the city agreed to begin constructing 10 ships of the line (one of which, the Brillant , would be captured while under construction and commissioned into the Royal Navy) and 10 frigates for the French Navy . In exchange for this service, Genoese officers and sailors were allowed to hold positions on French ships. In addition, all ships of

8083-407: The Ottomans and the Barbary states . He fought against the Holy Roman Empire on behalf of France in 1522 before leading the Genoese fleet into Genoa and expelling the French in 1528. Doria then came into the service of Emperor Charles V of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire and was granted the office of Imperial Admiral . Doria incorporated the Genoese navy into the Imperial navy and went on to defend

8220-415: The Ottomans at the Battle of Preveza in 1538, a Genoese fleet was damaged by a series of storms during the 1541 Algiers expedition , a Genoese-Spanish fleet was defeated at Ponza in 1552, and the navy failed to stop a French force from capturing Corsica in 1553. Genoa sent a contingent of her fleet to a Christian alliance that was defeated by the Ottomans at the Battle of Djerba in 1560. However, in 1571

8357-470: The Ottomans closed the Dardanelles and Hellespont to Christian shipping. This act cut the Genoese navy off from its bases in the Black Sea, and Genoa found itself isolated from the colonies that had for centuries provided the republic access to Russia and Central Asia . With no way to return home and having had their lines of communication disrupted, the Genoese squadron in the Black Sea dispersed. Now indefensible, warehouses, fortresses, and ships built by

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8494-462: The Pisan-led 1113–15 Balearic Islands expedition to suppress Majorcan piracy. At this time the fleet relied principally on two types of galleys, heavy Byzantine -style dromon ( dromone ) , and lighter Italian-style galleys. This fleet was supplemented by armed merchant cogs . The Genoese fleet was effective in converting merchant galleys into warships during wartime, and so made extensive use of such converted vessels. In addition to supporting

8631-428: The Pope (who was at the time in a dispute with the Holy Roman Emperor), and sent a fleet to transport a Guelph army to Rome in a show of support for the papal cause. The Ghibellines discovered the plan and, along with a Pisan fleet, intercepted the Genoese navy at the Battle of Giglio in 1241. Weighted down with passengers and baggage, the Genoese navy lost 3 galleys sunk and 27 captured. The second war with Pisa ended in

8768-410: The Republic of Genoa was established; The new government was headed by a consul who would be elected every few years by the wealthiest merchants and landowners in the city. The young republic was as such dominated by the needs and desires of the merchant houses, and the navy was given a place of high importance in the new thalassocracy . A High Admiral was appointed, and with the government coordinating

8905-414: The Republic. When the Duchy of Savoy acquired the Kingdom of Sicily in 1713 and the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1723, the flag of Savoy became the flag of a naval power. This posed the problem that the same flag was already in use by the Knights of Malta . Because of this, the Savoyards modified their flag for use as a naval ensign in various ways, adding the letters FERT in the four cantons, or adding

9042-405: The Sardinian Parliament proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy , so ratifying the annexations of all other Apennine states, plus Sicily, to the Kingdom of Sardinia. The institutions and laws of the kingdom were quickly extended to all of Italy, abolishing the administrations of the other regions. Piedmont became the most dominant and wealthiest region in Italy and the capital of Piedmont, Turin, remained

9179-471: The Sardinian church, politics and society, and to finally reunify the island under one Catholic ruler, as it had been for all of southern Italy, when the Byzantines had been driven away by Catholic Normans . Even the title of "Judge" was a Byzantine reminder of the Greek church and state, in times of harsh relations between eastern and western churches ( Massacre of the Latins , 1182, Siege of Constantinople (1204) , Recapture of Constantinople , 1261). Before

9316-501: The Savoyards had built the kingdom into a strong power. There followed the annexation of Lombardy (1859), the central Italian states and the Two Sicilies (1860), Venetia (1866), and the Papal States (1870). On 17 March 1861, to more accurately reflect its new geographic, cultural and political extent, the Kingdom of Sardinia changed its name to the Kingdom of Italy , and its capital was eventually moved first to Florence and then to Rome . The Savoy-led Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia

9453-438: The Spanish throne. Victor Emmanuel I disbanded the entire Code Napoléon and returned the lands and power to the nobility and the Church. This reactionary policy went as far as discouraging the use of roads built by the French. These changes typified Sardinia. The Kingdom of Sardinia industrialized from 1830 onward. A constitution, the Statuto Albertino , was enacted in the year of revolutions, 1848 under liberal pressure. In

9590-408: The ancient Roman and Byzantine model. The island was not the personal property of the ruler and of his family, as was then the dominant practice in western Europe, but rather a separate entity and during the Byzantine Empire , a monarchical republic , as it had been since Roman times. Starting from 705 to 706, Saracens from north Africa (recently conquered by Arab armies) harassed the population of

9727-416: The arsenal became the foundation for the Galata - Museo del mare , a museum dedicated to the naval history of Genoa. [REDACTED] Media related to Genoese navy at Wikimedia Commons Kingdom of Sardinia The Kingdom of Sardinia , also referred to as the Kingdom of Sardinia - Piedmont , Sardegna and Corsica or Piedmont–Sardinia as a composite state during the Savoyard period,

9864-405: The city of Alghero and the semiautonomous Republic of Sassari , and added them to its direct domains. The Judicate of Arborea , the only Sardinian state that remained independent of foreign domination, proved far more difficult to subdue. Threatened by the Aragonese claims of suzerainty and consolidation of the rest of the island, in 1353 Arborea, under the leadership of Marianus IV , started

10001-464: The city of Castelsardo (at that time called Casteldoria or Castelgenovese ), which had been stolen from the Doria in 1448. The subduing of Sardinia having taken a century, Corsica, which had never been wrested from the Genoese, was dropped from the formal title of the kingdom. Under the Crown of Aragon Sardinia continued to be governed as a semi-independent kingdom, retaining its own parliament and

10138-602: The city of Kaffa from the Golden Horde and went on to establish further trading colonies in the Black Sea and Byzantine Empire . This expansion brought Genoa into further conflict with the powerful city-state of Venice, which also had trade relations in the area. The bitter rivalry escalated into the first of the Venetian–Genoese wars in 1296, at which point Genoa's fleet consisted of 125 galleys. Despite outnumbering

10275-439: The city's shipyards were unable to quickly replace the ships lost at Curzola. The conflict ended in a relative stalemate in 1299. Following the war, Genoa dominated the Mediterranean slave trade and the Genoese navy employed thousands of galley slaves as oarsmen. This new policy decreased the cost of maintaining the navy, as rowers no longer had to be paid (as opposed to Venice, which only employed paid rowers), but also decreased

10412-566: The city's waterfront (collectively known as the Genoese Arsenal) where the republic's galleys were built, berthed, and maintained. The flags of the great Italian naval powers are incorporated into the ensign of the modern day Italian Navy . The cities represented include Genoa, Venice, Pisa, and Amalfi. The Genoese Navy's shore facilities left a major mark on the waterfront of modern-day Genoa. The Genoese Arsenal's extensive facilities were converted from military to civilian use following

10549-492: The city, they also left it vulnerable to disease. In 1347 the Black Death was introduced to Kaffa during a Mongol siege and soon spread aboard fleeing Genoese ships. A Genoese merchant fleet sailing from Kaffa spread the disease to Messina , from which city the plague spread to the rest of Europe. Over 40,000 people in the city of Genoa died in the pandemic, a disaster that reduced the amount of money available to finance

10686-399: The coastal cities. Information about the Sardinian political situation in the following centuries is scarce. Due to Saracen attacks, in the 9th century Tharros was abandoned in favor of Oristano , after more than 1800 years of occupation; Caralis , Porto Torres and numerous other coastal centres suffered the same fate. There is a record of another massive Saracen sea attack in 1015–16 from

10823-413: The cog are believed to be logboats from around northern Germany. These developed into larger craft built in the same basic shape, but with planking instead of hollowed-out logs. Another development was into Kahnen , flat-bottomed boats , with pointed ends for and aft that were constructed by splitting a hollowed-out log and widening the bottom with planks that were nailed to knee-shaped ribs attached to

10960-490: The conclusion of the war, and the republic was reestablished. In 1378 the War of Chioggia broke out between Genoa and Venice, a conflict Genoa initiated to counter Venetian threats to the Republic's trade routes in the Black Sea. During the war, a large percentage of the navy was relegated to escorting transport ships from Genoa to Crimea. The Venetians took advantage of the absence of Genoese warships and raided coastal settlements under Genoese control. The Genoese navy suffered

11097-449: The conquest of the remaining Sardinian territories, which formed the Kingdom of Sardinia. In 1368 an Arborean offensive succeeded in nearly driving the Aragonese from the island, reducing the "Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica" to just the port cities of Cagliari and Alghero and incorporating everything else into their own kingdom. A peace treaty returned the Aragonese their previous possessions in 1388, but tensions continued and, in 1382,

11234-629: The cost of durability and maneuverability. Genoese galleys were also noted to have larger holds than the galleys of other naval powers; this extra space allowed Genoese galleys to carry more provisions, cargo, or soldiers. Like its rivals Venice and Aragon, the Genoese specialized in quickly converting merchant galleys into warships during times of war. Genoa fielded two types of galleys; smaller and faster ones that were used to protect trade in times of peace, and heavier dromon-style galleys built for battle and garrison duty. The lighter galleys (many of which were classified as galiots ) were more numerous, while

11371-462: The crew and tiller up, out of the way. Current archaeological evidence points to the Frisian coast or Western Jutland as the possible birthplace of this type of vessel. The transformation of the cog into a true seagoing trader came not only during the time of the intense trade between West and East but also as a direct answer to the closure of the western entrance to the Limfjord . For centuries,

11508-427: The crews of Genoese warships. When a third war broke out between Pisa and Genoa, the rebuilt Genoese fleet won a major victory at the 1284 Battle of Meloria , in which the Genoese captured 37 Pisan galleys and 9000 sailors. The battle left Genoa the strongest naval power in the Western Mediterranean. With Pisa in a state of decline, Genoa expanded into Corsica and northern Sardinia. In 1266 Genoese merchants purchased

11645-461: The dangerous Cape Skagen to get to the Baltic. This resulted in major modifications to old ship structures, which can be observed by analyzing the evolution of the earliest cog finds of Kollerup, Skagen, and Kolding. This caused a boom in the number of small cogs, and the need for spacious and seaworthy ships led to the development of the cog as the workhorse of the Hanseatic League . It soon became

11782-469: The economy of Genoa ensured that bankers, not merchants, became the strongest economic force in the city. The need to protect trade routes declined as a consequence, shrinking the need for a large navy. In addition, the development of larger, organized navies for the development of dedicated warships that outclassed the dual role merchant-warships favored by Genoa. At the start of the Thirty Years' War

11919-409: The end of the strake where it meets the stem or stern-post . This allows the end of the strake to be fastened to the apron with the outside of the planking mutually flush at that point and flush with the stem. This means that the boat's passage through the water will not tend to lift the ends of the planking away from the stem. Before the next plank is fitted, the face of the land on the lower strake

12056-525: The ensuing rout, and the Genoese army was left stranded in Chioggia without supplies. The Genoese garrison later surrendered the town, and the War of Chioggia soon ended in a status quo, having exhausted both Genoa and Venice. The Genoese navy lost vital sailors, ships, and was supplanted as the leading naval power in the Western Mediterranean by Aragon. The costly wars against Venice and the devastating impact of

12193-496: The era) of Genoa. The galley was the primary ship used by the Genoese Navy. These ships possessed an advantage in terms of maneuverability when compared to purely sailing vessels, and their design allowed them to be produced relatively quickly. Genoese galleys were lighter and longer (45 meters long as opposed to the Mediterranean standard of 40–42 meters) than contemporary Venetian and Ottoman galleys, though this speed came at

12330-542: The exchange allowed Victor Amadeus to retain the title of king in spite of the loss of Sicily. Victor Amadeus initially resisted the exchange, and until 1723 continued to style himself King of Sicily rather than King of Sardinia. The state took the official title of Kingdom of Sardinia, Cyprus and Jerusalem , as the House of Savoy still claimed the thrones of Cyprus and Jerusalem , although both had long been under Ottoman rule. In 1767–1769, Charles Emmanuel III annexed

12467-585: The expense of the Byzantine Empire and other countries friendly to Genoese merchants. The gradual loss of Imperial territory, coupled with the destruction of smaller Christian states such as Trebizond , Cyprus , and Amasra chipped away at Genoese mercantile interests in the Black Sea. The Ottomans constructed a massive fleet, and in doing so became the dominant naval power in the Eastern Mediterranean. In 1453 Constantinople fell , and

12604-476: The expense of the state. These ships were used in major battles and to defend the harbor of Genoa itself. The private fleet was much larger than the public fleet, and was made up from ships belonging to the various merchant families that dominated Genoese politics. Both fleets were under the command of the office of the High Admiral, who was appointed by the ruler (either the doge, council, or duke depending on

12741-495: The first of the Genoese-Pisan Wars . The first of the wars ended inconclusively, but resulted in a century of raiding and piracy as both cities fought over Corsica and Sardinia. In the 1230s a second, undeclared war erupted between Genoa and Pisa as part of the wider Guelphs-Ghibellines Conflict . The Holy Roman Emperor sided with Pisa when the war broke out, forcing Genoa to find allies abroad. The republic sided with

12878-568: The fleet. Many sailors were also killed by the Black Death, leaving the navy undermanned. A third conflict with Venice began over trading disputes in the Black Sea in 1350. Venice allied itself with the Kingdom of Aragon and the Byzantine Empire, and in doing so mustered a large force that outnumbered the Genoese navy. Genoa won a costly victory at a battle in the Bosporus Straits in February 1352 that forced Byzantium to withdraw from

13015-632: The fortress of Koroni from the Ottomans and capture the city of Patras . A major victory over the Ottomans in the Battle of Girolata by the Genoese navy resulted in the capture of 11 galleys and Admiral Dragut . After retiring from military service, Doria, who was genuinely devoted to his native city of Genoa, worked to re-establish the republic's independence, free of the interference of foreign powers. The Genoese economy began to shift from trade to banking and manufacturing as Portugal and Spain established their overseas empires, and Doria advocated that

13152-507: The fortress of Mahdi. The war was a success for the Christian forces, but also resulted in the French gaining political influence in Genoa, which was pressured to declare itself a French fiefdom in 1396. The Genoese navy was brought under French control, and on 7 October 1403 was decisively defeated by Venice at the Battle of Modon after the Genoese fleet raided Venetian trade colonies. The Republic gained independence from France in 1409, but

13289-462: The galleys) to combat small-scale piracy. During the 15th century competition between Genoa, Venice, Spain, and Portugal resulted in the creation of the Carrack . Genoa built a number of carracks during the 16th century and incorporated them into the navy. The decline of the Genoese navy and fleet continued through the 17th and 18th centuries, perhaps starting as soon as the 16th century. Changes in

13426-528: The great merchant houses of Genoa, which continued to dominate the politics and economy of the republic. In an effort to suppress piracy, the fleet was occasionally deployed to fight against Muslim corsairs from Aghlabid in North Africa . After decades of disorder caused by the Norman conquest of southern Italy , the Genoese navy assisted in the capture of the city of Mahdia in 1087. The beginning of

13563-441: The heavy galleys were usually only put to sea (or constructed, if the fleet was undersized) during times of war. The fleet also made extensive use of Brigantines and Feluccas , small sailing ships which acted as scouts and raiders when the republic's galleys were unable to operate effectively. In addition to galleys and light sailing ships, Genoa refitted merchant ships for combat roles during wartime. As naval technology progressed,

13700-428: The hooks and posts, but upper hoods were nailed to the exterior faces of the posts. Caulking was generally tarred moss that was inserted into curved grooves, covered with wooden laths , and secured by metal staples called sintels . The cog-built structure would be completed with a stern -mounted, hanging, central rudder on a heavy stern-post, which was a uniquely northern development. The single, thick, mast

13837-476: The interpretation as a cog. It was around 16 m long and its wood dated from 1339. The discovery by Modderman was however not well known in the literature. The most famous cog in existence today is the Bremen cog . The artifact originates from the 1380s and was discovered in 1962. Prior to this discovery, the existence of cogs was primarily documented in medieval texts and seals. In 1990 the well-preserved remains of

13974-524: The island of Sardinia and established de facto their de jure authority. In 1420, after the Sardinian–Aragonese war , the last competing claim to the island was bought out. After the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile , Sardinia became a part of the burgeoning Spanish Empire . In 1720, the island and its kingdom were ceded by the Habsburg and Bourbon claimants to the Spanish throne to

14111-413: The island under his rule, despite years of war against the other Sardinian judges, and he finally concluded a peace treaty with them in 1172. The second did not have the opportunity. Invested with the title from his father, Emperor Frederick II in 1239, he was soon recalled by his parent and appointed Imperial Vicar for Italy. He died in 1272 without direct recognized heirs after a detention of 23 years in

14248-683: The island's coast to guard against pirate raids. The Spanish domination of Sardinia ended at the beginning of the 18th century, as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession . By the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713, Spain's European empire was divided: Savoy received Sicily and parts of the Duchy of Milan , while Charles VI (the Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria ), received the Spanish Netherlands ,

14385-550: The king and his prime minister, wanted to conquer Rome as well. Garibaldi was disappointed in this development, as well as in the loss of his home province, Nice , to France. He also failed to fulfill the promises that had gained him popular and military support by the Sicilians: that the new nation would be a republic, not a kingdom, and that the Sicilians would see great economic gains after unification. The former did not come to pass until 1946. On 17 March 1861, law no. 4671 of

14522-533: The larger country to continuously pressure the republic. During the 1795 Battle of Genoa , a French fleet with Genoese support was defeated by the British Royal Navy off the coast of the city. This resulted in the Royal Navy establishing a years-long blockade of Genoa that significantly affected the republic's economy. In 1797 the republic was dissolved and the city of Genoa itself was occupied by

14659-414: The leadership of admiral and statesman Andrea Doria , who renewed interest in the navy. Doria was born in Genoa and served as a mercenary for various nations during his early life. He returned from service as a mercenary captain in 1503 to encourage Genoa to resist French encroachment, but failed and was forced to flee the city. From 1503 to 1522 Doria commanded a Genoese squadron in the Mediterranean against

14796-466: The main cargo carrier in Atlantic and Baltic waters. Eventually, around the 14th century, the cog reached its structural limits, and larger or more seaworthy vessels needed to be of a different type. This was the hulk , which already existed but was much less common than the cog. There is no evidence that hulks descended from cogs, but it is clear that a lot of technological ideas were adapted between

14933-526: The mainland domains of the House of Savoy were occupied and eventually annexed by Napoleonic France , the king of Sardinia temporarily resided on the island for the first time in Sardinia's history under Savoyard rule. The Congress of Vienna (1814–15), which restructured Europe after Napoleon's defeat, returned to Savoy its mainland possessions and augmented them with Liguria , taken from the Republic of Genoa . Following Geneva 's accession to Switzerland ,

15070-564: The mainland. Therefore, while the capital of the island of Sardinia and the seat of its viceroys had always been de jure Cagliari , it was the Piedmontese city of Turin , the capital of Savoy since the mid 16th century, which was the de facto seat of power. This situation would be conferred official status with the Perfect Fusion of 1847, when all the kingdom's governmental institutions would be centralized in Turin. When

15207-490: The navy began to incorporate galleons and man-o-war into the fleet, though never on the same scale as the galley. Genoese sailors were recruited from the city's populace or from the colonies. Many only served part time in the military, instead being professional merchant sailors, fishermen, or mercenaries. The republic also crewed many of its galleys with criminals, prisoners of war, and slaves. Conditions for sailors (both free and enslaved) were challenging, with disease being

15344-523: The navy, Genoese traders and merchants came to dominate the Ligurian Sea in the 11th century. The city-state was considered one of the four Repubbliche Marinare in Italy alongside Venice , Pisa , and Amalfi . However, the early fleet was composed of ships levied from private merchants, fishermen, and lacked dedicated warships. As such, the 11th century fleet was relegated to protecting the trade of

15481-583: The navy, though funding for the force was minimal. In 1742 the last possession of the Genoese in the Mediterranean, the island fortress of Tabarka , was lost to Tunis . Following the rise of first Revolutionary France and later Napoleonic France , the Genoese Republic's political situation became increasingly untenable. While officially neutral during the French Revolutionary Wars , Genoa's close proximity to France allowed

15618-507: The number of men available for boarding parties, as Genoese captains did not trust armed slaves. In 1340 a contingent of 15 Genoese galleys under the command of Pietro Barbavera fought for the French fleet against the English fleet at the pivotal Battle of Sluys . As Genoa continued to expand its trade network during the 14th century, the navy was increasingly employed to defend trade routes. While these naval trade routes greatly benefited

15755-431: The numerically superior Aragonese fleet at the Battle of Ponza . The Aragonese flagship was forced to surrender and King Alfonso V of Aragon was captured. Despite this setback, Aragon prevailed in the conflict and Sicily came under Aragonese control, making passage through the Strait of Messina difficult and further disrupting Genoese naval activities. Starting in the 15th century the Ottoman Empire began to expand at

15892-402: The person of the king. The Crown of Aragon was made by a council of representatives of the various states and grew in importance for the main purpose of separating the legacy of Ferdinand II of Aragon from that of Isabella I of Castile when they married in 1469. The idea of the kingdom was created in 1297 by Pope Boniface VIII , as a hypothetical entity created for James II of Aragon under

16029-468: The prestige of the military had been severely damaged and the city remained a coveted political conquest for both France and Aragon. In 1435 a Genoese fleet was dispatched at the request of Milan to the town of Gaeta , which was besieged by Aragon. At the time, the Duke of Milan and the King of Aragon were fighting as to who would control the Kingdom of Sicily . The Genoese fleet arrived at Gaeta and defeated

16166-515: The reach of the French for the rest of the war and was, for the first time in centuries governed directly by its king instead of a viceroy. In 1814, the Crown of Savoy enlarged its territories with the addition of the former Republic of Genoa , now a duchy, and it served as a buffer state against France. This was confirmed by the Congress of Vienna , which returned the region of Savoy to its borders after it had been annexed by France in 1792. By

16303-472: The republic established a number of Genoese trading colonies in the Mediterranean and Black Seas during the Crusades. The Lebanese town of Byblos came completely under Genoese control, and the republic was entitled to 1/3 of the crusader-controlled city of Acre's income. The Genoese fleet sheltered in these ports and defended them from pirates. In the early 12th century the Genoese navy participated in

16440-421: The republic were lost. The former Genoese colonies were eventual annexed by regional powers, with Kaffa falling to the Ottomans in 1475. Despite the decline of the Genoese Navy and the Republic, Genoa's sailors remained in high regard. Cartographers and navigators such as Christopher Columbus , Battista Agnese , and Pietro Vesconte all hailed from the city state. The Genoese navy saw a period of revival under

16577-425: The rudder made steering easier than did the steering oar of the knarr, especially for larger vessels; and cogs were cheaper to build. The latter was due to the cog's use of sawn rather than split planks which was less wasteful. Fore and stern castles would later be added for defense against pirates , or to enable the use of these vessels as warships. The stern castle also afforded more cargo space below by keeping

16714-449: The same year the island of Sardinia, a Piedmontese dependency for more than a century, lost its own residual autonomy to the mainland through the so-called Perfect fusion issued by Charles Albert; as a result, the kingdom's fundamental institutions were deeply transformed, assuming the shape of a constitutional and centralized monarchy on the French model; under the same pressure, Charles Albert declared war on Austria. After initial success,

16851-567: The sides. The pointed ends (called Block locally) of the log would be cut off and attached separately to the widened hull which resulted in so-called Blockkahnen , variants of which are still in use. The earliest evidence of a cog-like craft is a clay model found in Leese on the middle Weser from the grave of an adult male who died around 200 BC. Fragments of similar clay models have been found in nearby regions. Trade from Germania in Roman times

16988-466: The southern Apennines in the name of the Kingdom of Sardinia. He quickly toppled the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies , which was the largest of the states in the region, stretching from Abruzzo and Naples on the mainland to Messina and Palermo on Sicily. He then marched to Gaeta in the central peninsula. Cavour was satisfied with the unification, while Garibaldi, who was too revolutionary for

17125-438: The territory to the Kingdom of Sardinia to avoid "embarrassing" the defeated Austrians. Cavour angrily resigned from office when it became clear that Victor Emmanuel would accept this arrangement. On 5 March 1860, Piacenza , Parma , Tuscany, Modena , and Romagna voted in referendums to join the Kingdom of Sardinia. This alarmed Napoleon III, who feared a strong Savoyard state on his south-eastern border and he insisted that if

17262-655: The threat posed by the Fatimid navy and saw some successes, with the fleet succeeding in trapping a Fatimid fleet in Beirut Harbor during the First Crusade. The Genoese Embriaco family became famous for their exploits in the Holy Land during this time, most notably for their leading of a Genoese seaborne attack during the Siege of Tripoli . In addition to receiving large amounts of loot from crusader commanders,

17399-491: The two types. The transition from cogs to hulks was not linear, according to some interpretations, both vessels coexisted for many centuries but followed diverse lines of evolution. The first archaeological find that was identified as a cog, was a ship wreck discovered in 1944 by P. J. R. Modderman in the Noordoostpolder near Emmeloord (plot NM 107). The wreck was reburied in situ and a 2008 re-excavation confirmed

17536-477: The viceroy's army in the 1470s, but was later crushed at the Battle of Macomer in 1478, ending any further revolts in the island. The unceasing attacks from north African pirates and a series of plagues (in 1582, 1652 and 1655) further worsened the situation. Although the " Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica " could be said to have started as a questionable and extraordinary de jure state in 1297, its de facto existence began in 1324 when, called by their allies of

17673-542: The war took a turn for the worse and Charles Albert was defeated by Marshal Radetzky at the Battle of Custozza (1848) . Like all the various duchies and city-states on the Apennine peninsula and associated islands, the Kingdom of Sardinia was troubled with political instability under alternating governments. After a short and disastrous renewal of the war with Austria in 1849, Charles Albert abdicated on 23 March 1849 in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel II . In 1852,

17810-418: The war. The tide of the war reversed when in 1353 the Genoese navy suffered a defeat at the Battle of Alghero . The loss of a fleet at Alghero sparked civil unrest in Genoa, further hampering the Republic's war effort. To combat this discord, the republic was temporarily dissolved and Genoa came under the rule of the Duke of Milan . In November 1354 a Genoese fleet commanded by Admiral Paganino Doria surprised

17947-478: The wars in the Holy Land, the navy played a vital role in the Genoese rivalry with the nearby Republic of Pisa , which competed with Genoa for influence in Corsica and Sardinia . It was common for the Italian maritime states to prey on their rival's merchant shipping, and the Genoese navy was known to both suppress and participate in this practice. In 1119 a Genoese squadron raided a Pisan merchant convoy, beginning

18084-703: Was a country in Southern Europe from the late 13th until the mid-19th century; officially 1297 to 1768 for the Corsican part of this kingdom. The kingdom was a member of the Council of Aragon and initially consisted of the islands of Corsica and Sardinia , sovereignty over both of which was claimed by the papacy , which granted them as a fief, the regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae ("kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica" ), to King James II of Aragon in 1297. Beginning in 1324, James and his successors conquered

18221-593: Was mostly carried on Mediterranean-style sailing vessels and controlled by Roman merchants. After Roman power collapsed in the middle of the first millennium AD, transports on the large river estuaries and the sheltered waters of the Wadden Sea was taken over by Frisians who used vessels based on indigenous, flat-bottomed designs that were precursors of later medieval cogs. These had much lower sides than later cogs and would have been very similar to contemporary Scandinavian craft, such as knarrs . The oldest depiction of

18358-520: Was mostly, but not always, in the south and east, in the Judicates of Cagliari and Arborea. That was the cause of conflicts leading to a long war between the Judges, who regarded themselves as kings fighting against rebellious nobles. Later, the title of King of Sardinia was granted by the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire to Barisone II of Arborea and Enzio of Sardinia . The first could not reunify

18495-447: Was set forward of amidships, stepped into the keel-plank and equipped with a single large, rectangular, square-rigged sail . The masts of larger vessels would be of composite construction. Complicated systems of rigging were developed to support the mast and to operate the sail. Cordage was usually hemp or flax and the sail hemp-based canvas . From the 13th century cogs would be decked and larger vessels would be fitted with

18632-494: Was the previous realm, but was now under the influence of the papacy , which claimed sovereignty over the entire island, and in particular of the Italian states of Genoa and Pisa, that through alliances with the "judges" (the local rulers), secured their political and economic zones of influence. While Genoa was mostly, but not always, in the north and west regions of Sardinia, that is, in the Judicates of Gallura and Logudoro; Pisa

18769-616: Was thus the legal predecessor of the Kingdom of Italy, which in turn is the predecessor of the present-day Italian Republic . In 238 BC Sardinia became, along with Corsica, a province of the Roman Empire . The Romans ruled the island until the middle of the 5th century when it was occupied by the Vandals , who had also settled in north Africa. In 534 AD it was reconquered by the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire . It remained

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