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76-475: The word gens is sometimes translated as "race", or "nation", meaning a people descended from a common ancestor (rather than sharing a common physical trait). It can also be translated as "clan", "kin", or "tribe", although the word tribus has a separate and distinct meaning in Roman culture. A gens could be as small as a single family, or could include hundreds of individuals. According to tradition, in 479 BC

152-411: A will . Their personal property could formerly be disposed of by a testament , hence the hallowed legal merism last will and testament . Common law sharply distinguished between real property and chattels . Real property for which no disposition had been made by will passed by the law of kinship and descent ; chattel property for which no disposition had been made by testament was escheat to

228-456: A gens and acquire its nomen. A libertus , or " freedman ", usually assumed the nomen (and sometimes also the praenomen) of the person who had manumitted him, and a naturalized citizen usually took the name of the patron who granted his citizenship . Freedmen and newly enfranchised citizens were not technically part of the gentes whose names they shared, but within a few generations it often became impossible to distinguish their descendants from

304-574: A gens being admitted to the patriciate prior to the first century BC was when the Claudii were added to the ranks of the patricians after coming to Rome in 504 BC, five years after the establishment of the Republic. Numerous sources describe two classes amongst the patrician gentes, known as the gentes maiores , or major gentes, and the gentes minores , or minor gentes. No definite information has survived concerning which families were numbered amongst

380-470: A gens voluntarily left or were expelled from the patriciate, along with their descendants. In some cases, gentes that must originally have been patrician, or which were so regarded during the early Republic, were later known only by their plebeian descendants. By the first century BC, the practical distinction between the patricians and the plebeians was largely symbolic, with only a few priesthoods and ceremonial offices restricted to patricians. However, such

456-417: A limited number of personal names , or praenomina , the selection of which helped to distinguish members of one gens from another. Sometimes different branches of a gens would vary in their names of choice. The most conservative gentes would sometimes limit themselves to three or four praenomina, while others made regular use of six or seven. There were two main reasons for this limited selection: first, it

532-560: A patrician was being adopted into a plebeian family. By the late republic, each curia was represented by only one lictor , usually under the presidency of the pontifex maximus . According to the Roman tradition, Servius Tullius , the sixth king (traditionally r.  579 – 534 BC ), abolished the Romulean tribes (though not the curiae ) and re-divided the city into four urban tribes and twenty-six pagi which coalesced into seventeen rural tribes. The names of

608-410: A state within a state, governed by its own elders and assemblies, following its own customs, and carrying out its own religious rites. Certain cults were traditionally associated with specific gentes. The gentile assemblies had the responsibility of adoption and guardianship for their members. If a member of a gens died intestate and without immediate family, his property was distributed to the rest of

684-649: Is legally assigned) to the Crown (via the Bona vacantia division of the Treasury Solicitor ) or to the Duchy of Cornwall or Duchy of Lancaster when the deceased was a resident of either. In limited cases a discretionary distribution might be made by one of these bodies to persons who would otherwise be without entitlement under strict application of the rules of inheritance. These rules have been supplemented by

760-420: Is that all possible (blood) relatives can qualify for benefit (i.e. they are not limited to grandparents or their descendants). Once a class is 'exhausted', succession continues to the next line of ascendants, followed by siblings, and so on. In a complete absence of relatives of the whole or half-blood, the estate passes to the Crown (as ultimus haeres ). The Crown has a discretion to benefit people unrelated to

836-405: Is the condition of the estate of a person who dies without a legally valid will , resulting in the distribution of their estate under statutory intestacy laws rather than by their expressed wishes. Alternatively this may also apply where a will or declaration has been made, but only applies to part of the estate; the remaining estate forms the "intestate estate". Intestacy law, also referred to as

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912-440: Is uncertain. The enrollment of new citizens in particular tribes became a significant political issue during the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus in 312 BC. Those who wished to limit the voting power of the lower social orders, and particularly of freedmen, advocated enrolling them only in the four urban tribes. This effort was largely unsuccessful, except with respect to freedmen, who were nearly always enrolled in one of

988-405: The divisores coordinated gifts among tribesmen and were regularly implicated in electoral bribery during the late republic. Further officers included a curator tribuum , who served as the head of the tribe, and tribuni aerarii , or tribunes of the treasury, whose responsibility was for the tribe's financial obligations; they were responsible for collecting the war tax, and distributed pay to

1064-508: The Fabia gens alone were able to field a militia consisting of three hundred and six men of fighting age. The concept of the gens was not uniquely Roman, but was shared with communities throughout Italy, including those who spoke Italic languages such as Latin , Oscan , and Umbrian as well as the Etruscans , whose language was unrelated. All of these peoples were eventually absorbed into

1140-581: The Sabines under Titus Tatius attacked Rome, and successfully entered the city. After fierce fighting, the Sabine women themselves interceded, stepping between their husbands and their fathers to prevent further bloodshed. Peace was concluded, with Romulus and Tatius ruling jointly, and a large Sabine population relocating to Rome. The nascent city was thus evenly divided between Latins and Sabines. After this, traditionally dated to 750 BC, Romulus created

1216-406: The collegia of the pontifices , augures , and the decemviri sacrorum . The comitia could pass resolutions proposed by the tribunes of the plebs, or by the higher magistrates, on both domestic and foreign matters, such as the making of treaties or concluding of peace. Proposals had to be published before receiving a vote, and were passed or rejected as a whole, without modification. Although

1292-442: The comitia centuriata , which also presided over certain capital trials, and held the power to declare war, and to pass legislation presented by the senate. Lesser magistrates were elected by the comitia tributa , which also elected religious officials, presided over trials affecting the plebeians, and passed resolutions based on legislation proposed by the tribunes of the plebs and various magistrates. The comitia curiata retained

1368-443: The comitia tributa of the power to declare war or conclude peace; the early emperors further curtailed its power. Augustus removed the comitia's judicial function, and preserved its power to pass legislation only in form. He filled half of the available magistracies with his own candidates, and Tiberius transferred the comitia's remaining electoral authority to the senate. Although the emperors received many of their powers from

1444-546: The comitia tributa , this was only a formality. Although the comitia tributa continued to exist until the third century AD, its only remaining functions were symbolic; it took auspices and gave prayer; it conferred the emperor's legislative powers and other authority; and it proclaimed the laws presented to it for approval. But by this time voting was done not by ballot, but by acclamatio . intestate Sections Contest Property disposition Common types Other types Governing doctrines Intestacy

1520-538: The curiones was appointed or elected curio maximus , and presided over the assembly. Under the kings, the comitia curiata was summoned by the king or by an interrex , who would present questions upon which the comitia might vote. These included the election of a new king, as proposed by the interrex; the passing of a law conferring imperium on the king, known as a lex curiata de imperio ; whether to declare war; rulings on appeals; matters relating to arrogatio ; and whether to allow foreigners to be received among

1596-465: The law of descent and distribution , which vary by jurisdiction, refers to the body of law ( statutory and case law ), establish a hierarchy for inheritance, typically prioritizing close relatives such as spouses, children, and then extended family members and determines who is entitled to the property from the estate under the rules of inheritance . Intestacy has a limited application in those jurisdictions that follow civil law or Roman law because

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1672-407: The plebeians were included in voting, and this view now appears to have prevailed; the plebeians were included either from the beginning, or at least from an early date; certainly from the earliest years of the Republic. When the various curiae were assembled for voting, they formed the comitia curiata . It was founded under the kings and survived through to the end of the republic. One of

1748-467: The plebs , and pass resolutions on various proposals made by the tribunes of the plebs and the higher magistrates. Although the comitia tributa lost most of its legislative functions under the Empire , enrollment in a tribe remained an important part of Roman citizenship until at least the third century AD. According to the ancient Roman tradition, shortly after the founding of Rome , Romulus created

1824-409: The 2018 book Rise of Rome , attributes the popularity of the explanation to nationalist politics of the 19th and 20th centuries. These three tribes were in turn divided into thirty curiae , or wards, the organization of which is unclear. The etymology of the word may derive from co-viria – a gathering of men – with each group electing a leader, known as a curio . Among the curiones , one

1900-457: The Crown , or given to the Church for charitable purposes. This law became obsolete as England moved from being a feudal to a mercantile society, and chattels more valuable than land were being accumulated by townspeople. Where a person dies without leaving a will, the rules of succession of the person's place of habitual residence or of their domicile often apply, but it is also common for

1976-555: The Republic, it is not entirely certain which gentes were considered patrician and which plebeian. However, a series of laws promulgated in 451 and 450 BC as the Twelve Tables attempted to codify a rigid distinction between the classes, formally excluding the plebeians from holding any of the major magistracies from that time until the passage of the Lex Licinia Sextia in 367 BC. Another law promulgated as part of

2052-413: The Romulean tribes appear to be Etruscan. Although the theory that the Romulean tribes represented the city's original ethnic components continues to be represented in modern scholarship, it has never been universally accepted, and this view is rejected by many scholars. This is because "the idea that the three tribes were distinct ethnic groups has no support in the ancient sources". Kathryn Lomas, in

2128-623: The Sabine Women, but of the nine curiae whose names are known today, several are of geographical origin. The only curiae whose names are now known were: Acculeia, Calabra, Faucia, Foriensis, Rapta, Tifata , Titia , Veliensis , and Velitia . In the past, it was widely believed that membership in the curiae was limited to the patricians , and that statements to the contrary, indicating that clientes were admitted meant no more than that they were passive members with no voting rights. However, Mommsen argued convincingly that

2204-449: The addition of Volscian territory in 358 BC, two more tribes were formed, Pomptina and Publilia (also found as Poblilia). In 332, the censors Quintus Publilius Philo and Spurius Postumius Albinus enrolled two more tribes, Maecia (originally Maicia) and Scaptia. Ufentina (or Oufentina) and Falerina followed in 318, and in 299 Aniensis and Terentina were added. The last two tribes, Quirina and Velina, were established in 241 BC, bringing

2280-464: The beginning; but certainly there was a considerable Etruscan element in the Roman population by the sixth century BC; the fifth and seventh kings of Rome were Etruscan, and many of Rome's cultural institutions were of Etruscan origin. It may be to this period, rather than the time of Romulus, that the institution of the Luceres belongs; and indeed the names, if not the ethnic character, of all three of

2356-400: The citizens arranged by tribe. The first tribe to vote, known as the principium , was chosen by lot, and the result of its vote announced. The other tribes would then vote simultaneously, and the results of their votes announced in an order also determined by lot, before the final result was proclaimed. Laws passed by the comitia took effect as soon as the results were announced. Although

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2432-414: The common law, and has been essentially codified. The state of Washington also has codified its intestacy law. New York has perhaps the most complicated law of descent of distribution. Maryland's intestacy laws specify not only the distribution, but also the order of the distribution among family members. Florida's intestacy statute permits the heirs of a deceased spouse of the decedent to inherit, if

2508-409: The concept of a will is itself less important; the doctrine of forced heirship automatically gives a deceased person's next-of-kin title to a large part (forced estate) of the estate's property by operation of law , beyond the power of the deceased person to defeat or exceed by testamentary gift. A forced share (or legitime ) can often only be decreased on account of some very specific misconduct by

2584-499: The countryside, which later became seventeen rural tribes. After the formation of the republic, these tribes were assembled into a popular assembly called the comitia tributa . As the Roman population and its territory grew, fifteen additional tribes were enrolled, the last in 241 BC. All Roman citizens were enrolled in one of these tribes, through which they were entitled to vote on the election of certain magistrates, religious officials, judicial decisions in certain suits affecting

2660-682: The discretionary power of the court contained in the Inheritance (Provision for Family and Dependants) Act 1975 so that fair provision can be made for a dependent spouse or other relative where the strict divisions set down in the intestacy rules would produce an unfair result, for example by providing additional support for a dependent minor or disabled child vis-a-vis an adult child who has a career and no longer depends on their parent. The law on intestacy in Scotland broadly follows that of England and Wales with some variations. A notable difference

2736-516: The estate: typically the administrator is chosen by the court having jurisdiction over the decedent's property, and is frequently (but not always) a person nominated by a majority of the decedent's heirs. Federal law controls intestacy of Native Americans . Many states have adopted all or part of the Uniform Probate Code, but often with local variations, In Ohio , the law of intestate succession has been modified significantly from

2812-491: The first three tribes were established by Romulus ; each was divided into ten curiae , or wards, which were the voting units of the comitia curiata . Although the curiae continued throughout Roman history, the three original tribes that they constituted gradually vanished from history. Perhaps influenced by the original division of the people into tribes, as well as the number of thirty wards, Servius Tullius established four tribes dividing Rome and various pagi over

2888-623: The first three tribes: the Ramnes , Tities , and Luceres . The etymology of the Latin word tribus is unclear: it may relate to the word for three ( tres ) or a cognate in the Iguvine Tablets referring to the community as a whole. Others say the word instead is derived from tribuere , referring to divisions and distributions. Livy relates that after the Rape of the Sabine Women ,

2964-459: The forced heir . In matters of cross-border inheritance, the "laws of succession" is the commonplace term covering testate and intestate estates in common law jurisdictions together with forced heirship rules typically applying in civil law and Sharia law jurisdictions. After the Statute of Wills 1540, Englishmen (and unmarried or widowed women) could dispose of their lands and real property by

3040-403: The four urban tribes were based on the four regions of the city that they represented, while those of the rural tribes were likely based on the names of families that owned considerable tracts of land in those areas. Each tribe was both a territorial and administrative unit, with officials called tribules who counted and facilitated the votes of tribe members. Another group of officials,

3116-464: The gens. The decisions of a gens were theoretically binding on all of its members. However, no public enactment is recorded as having been passed by the assembly of a gens. As a group, the gentes had considerable influence on the development of Roman law and religious practices, but comparatively little influence on the political and constitutional history of Rome. Certain gentes were considered patrician, and others plebeian. According to tradition,

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3192-507: The gentes maiores, or even how many there were. However, they almost certainly included the Aemilii , Claudii , Cornelii , Fabii , Manlii , and Valerii . Nor is it certain whether this distinction was of any practical importance, although it has been suggested that the princeps senatus , or speaker of the Senate , was usually chosen from their number. For the first several decades of

3268-531: The institution of the tribunes of the plebs in 494 BC, the comitia tributa was normally summoned by the tribunes themselves. Magistrates could also convene the comitia , but only with the consent of the tribunes. The comitia was summoned by the proclamation of a praeco , a crier or herald, at least seventeen days before the meeting. The auspices would be taken, and the meeting could only proceed if they were favourable. The tribes convened at daybreak, and were obliged to adjourn at sunset. If summoned by one of

3344-550: The intestate, e.g. those with moral claims on the estate. In Canada the laws vary from province to province. As in England, most jurisdictions apply rules of intestate succession to determine next of kin who become legal heirs to the estate. Also, as in England, if no identifiable heirs are discovered, the property may escheat to the government. In the United States intestacy laws vary from state to state. Each of

3420-462: The jurisdiction where the property is located to govern its disposal, regardless of the decedent's residence or domicile. In certain jurisdictions such as France , Switzerland , the U.S. state of Louisiana , and much of the Islamic world , entitlements arise whether or not there was a will. These are known as forced heirship rights and are not typically found in common law jurisdictions, where

3496-648: The line of inheritance goes back up the family tree to the parents, the siblings, the siblings' descendants, the grandparents, the parents' siblings, and the parents' siblings' descendants, and usually so on further to the more remote degrees of kinship. The operation of these laws varies from one jurisdiction to another. The rules of succession are the Intestacy Rules set out in the Administration of Estates Act 1925 ( 15 & 16 Geo. 5 . c. 23) and associated legislation. For deaths after 1 October 2014,

3572-430: The names of the older rural tribes are those of patrician families, the tribes themselves were probably entirely plebeian until 449 BC, after which both patricians and plebeians were enrolled; before this time, many of the powers and responsibilities later held by the comitia tributa still belonged to the comitia curiata. While we know the origin of their names, the location of the territories which defined these tribes

3648-423: The number of tribes to thirty-five. The names of the various tribes vary, both due to scribal error and changes in Latin orthography. For example, the tribe Maecia must originally have been Maicia due to its abbreviation as Mai ; Crustumina and Clustumina are used interchangeably. With their usual abbreviations, the tribes were: The four urban tribes The rural tribes Although

3724-431: The order of voting was determined by lot, there was also an official order of the tribes, known as the ordo tribuum . The first four tribes were the urban tribes, in the order: Suburana, Palatina, Esquilina, Collina; the rural tribes followed, concluding with Aniensis. In the final years of the Republic, participation in the comitia was quite low, and its acts increasingly the result of corruption . Caesar deprived

3800-406: The orders over the next two centuries. Certain patrician families regularly opposed the sharing of power with the plebeians, while others favoured it, and some were divided. Many gentes included both patrician and plebeian branches. These may have arisen through adoption or manumission, or when two unrelated families bearing the same nomen became confused. It may also be that individual members of

3876-474: The original members. In practice this meant that a gens could acquire new members and even new branches, either by design or by accident. Different branches or stirpes of a gens were usually distinguished by their cognomina , additional surnames following the nomen, which could be either personal or hereditary. Some particularly large stirpes themselves became divided into multiple branches, distinguished by additional cognomina. Most gentes regularly employed

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3952-409: The patricians were descended from the "city fathers", or patres ; that is, the heads of the family at the time of its foundation by Romulus , the first King of Rome . Other noble families which came to Rome during the time of the kings were also admitted to the patriciate, including several who emigrated from Alba Longa after that city was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius . The last known instance of

4028-493: The patricians, and it was through this comitia that the collective will of the citizens could be exercised without regard to wealth or status. The comitia tributa elected all of the lower magistrates, including the tribunes of the plebs , the military tribunes , the plebeian aediles and the curule aediles . A committee of seventeen tribes, chosen by lot, nominated the Pontifex Maximus , and coöpted members of

4104-511: The patricians. Under Servius Tullius , the rights to declare war and to decide appeals were transferred to the comitia centuriata , another legislative assembly. After the downfall of the Roman monarchy, questions were presented to the comitia curiata by the Roman Senate . However, between 494 and 449 BC, most of its functions were relegated to the comitia tributa and the comitia centuriata. The higher magistrates were elected by

4180-477: The power to confer imperium on magistrates elected by the comitia centuriata , and to confirm alterations in the Roman constitution decided upon by the other two comitia; both of these, however, required the senate to propose them before the comitia could act. The comitia also retained the power to decide whether to admit a non-patrician into that order, and to oversee the process of arrogatio, particularly when

4256-644: The remaining tribes are all known. When the Sabine Appius Claudius removed to Rome together with his clientes , in 504 BC, he was admitted to the patriciate, and assigned lands in the region around the mouth of the Anio . These settlers became the basis of the tribus Claudia , which was admitted in 495 BC, during Claudius' consulship, and subsequently enlarged to become the tribus Crustumina or Clustumina . Four more tribes were added in 387 BC: Arniensis, Sabatina, Stellatina, and Tromentina. With

4332-423: The rules of succession without a will (intestate succession) play a back-up role where an individual has not (or has not fully) exercised their right to dispose of property in a will. In most contemporary common-law jurisdictions , the law of intestacy is patterned after the common law of descent. Property goes first or in major part to a spouse, then to children and their descendants; if there are no descendants,

4408-432: The rules where someone dies intestate leaving a spouse or civil partner are as follows: Where there is no spouse or civil partner, the assets pass in the following order of priority, such that no-one is entitled in any lower category if there is a living person entitled in a higher one: In the above "the statutory trusts" mean: Where no beneficiaries on the above list exist, the person's estate generally escheats (i.e.

4484-472: The senate and the people, decreed that citizens created by further territorial annexation would be registered in one of the rural tribes. Before this reform, the tribes had been relatively contiguous units; after it, they became geographically fragmented across Roman territory. After the Social War , which saw the enfranchisement of Rome's Italian allies and a massive increase in the citizen population, there

4560-443: The senate might review these resolutions, it could only reject them if they had been passed without the proper formalities. The comitia tributa also decided suits instituted by the plebeian tribunes and aediles, for offenses against the plebs or their representatives. In the later Republic, these suits typically involved charges of maladministration; the tribunes and aediles were entitled to levy substantial fines. Beginning with

4636-571: The separate states uses its own intestacy laws to determine the ownership of residents' intestate property. Attempts in the United States to make probate and intestate succession uniform from state to state, through efforts such as the Uniform Probate Code , have been met with limited success. The distribution of the property of an intestate decedent is the responsibility of the administrator (or personal representative ) of

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4712-458: The sphere of Roman culture. The oldest gentes were said to have originated before the foundation of Rome (traditionally 753 BC), and claimed descent from mythological personages as far back as the time of the Trojan War (traditionally ended 1184 BC). However, the establishment of the gens cannot long predate the adoption of hereditary surnames. The nomen gentilicium , or "gentile name",

4788-466: The tables forbade the intermarriage of patricians and plebeians, but this was repealed after only a few years, by the Lex Canuleia in 445 BC. Despite the formal reconciliation of the orders in 367, the patrician houses, which as time passed represented a smaller and smaller percentage of the Roman populace, continued to hold on to as much power as possible, resulting in frequent conflict between

4864-467: The title as a mark of distinction granted to individuals, rather than a class to which an entire family belonged. Roman tribe A tribus , or tribe , was a division of the Roman people for military, censorial, and voting purposes. When constituted in the comitia tributa , the tribes were the voting units of a legislative assembly of the Roman Republic . According to tradition,

4940-409: The tribe's soldiers. Membership in a tribe was prima facie proof of Roman citizenship and also formed the basis on which the army was levied. Toward the end of the Republic, the tribe became so important that it became an official part of a Roman's name, usually appearing, in the most formal documents and inscriptions, between a citizen's filiation and any cognomina. The dates of the creation of

5016-695: The tribes. Known as the three Romulean tribes , these first tribes have often been supposed to represent the major ethnic groups of early Rome with the Ramnes representing Rome's Latin population, the Tities representing the Sabines, and the Luceres probably representing the Etruscans . Rome lay on the Tiber , the traditional boundary of Etruria with Latium , and may have had a substantial Etruscan population from

5092-657: The tribunes, the tribes had to gather within the city, or within a one-mile radius of the city; this was the boundary of a tribune's authority. In the first centuries of the Republic, the comitia usually met on the Capitol , in the Forum , or at the Comitium . If summoned by one of the magistrates, the comitia typically met on the Campus Martius . After a prayer, unaccompanied by sacrifice, proposals would be read, and

5168-468: The urban tribes. A similar attempt to limit the power of newly enfranchised citizens followed the end of the Social War. It was also possible for one of the censors to punish an individual by expelling him from one of the rustic tribes, and assigning him to one of the urban tribes; this was known as tribu movere . After 241 BC, no further tribes were created. Legislation, passed concurrently by

5244-480: Was a vigorous debate at Rome as to whether further tribes should be created, but it was eventually decided to register the new citizens in the existing thirty-five. In imperial times, the enrollment of citizens in tribes along a geographic basis was resumed; for instance, easterners were typically enrolled in the tribes Collina and Quirina, while in Gallia Narbonensis enrollment in the tribus Voltinia

5320-591: Was because of traditions concerning disgraced or dishonoured members of the gens bearing a particular name. For example, the Junia gens avoided the praenomina Titus and Tiberius after two members with these names were executed for treason. A similar instance supposedly led the assembly of the Manlia gens to forbid its members from bearing the praenomen Marcus , although this prohibition does not seem to have been strictly observed. In theory, each gens functioned as

5396-439: Was its distinguishing feature, for a Roman citizen's nomen indicated his membership in a gens. The nomen could be derived from any number of things, such as the name of an ancestor, a person's occupation, physical appearance, character, or town of origin. Because some of these things were fairly common, it was possible for unrelated families to bear the same nomen, and over time to become confused. Persons could be adopted into

5472-424: Was not ratified by the senate until 286 BC, but even before this its resolutions were considered binding on the plebs. Because all citizens, whether patrician or plebeian, received the same vote in the comitia tributa , and because the assembly was much simpler to convene than the comitia centuriata , the comitia tributa was Rome's most democratic assembly. By the end of the Republic, the plebs greatly outnumbered

5548-465: Was preferred. Together, the Servian tribes constituted the concilium plebis , or plebeian council; as time passed and the council's authority to pass legislation developed, it was increasingly known as the comitia plebis tributa , or tribal assembly. A law passed in 449 BC made resolutions of the comitia tributa , known as plebi scita , or plebiscites, binding upon the whole Roman people; this law

5624-422: Was selected as head of all the curiae, with the title curio maximus . The members of the curiae were known as curiales . Each curia was attended by a priest, or curio , who assisted by another priest, known as the flamen curialis , undertook the religious obligations of the ward. Each also had its own place of meeting, also known as a curia . The curiae were said to have been named after thirty of

5700-443: Was their prestige that, beginning with the administration of Caesar , and continuing into imperial times, a number of families were raised to the patriciate, replacing older families that had become extinct or faded into obscurity, and which were no longer represented in the Roman senate . By the third century, the distinction between patricians and plebeians had lost its relevance. The emperor Constantine and his successors revived

5776-550: Was traditional to pass down family names from one generation to the next; such names were always preferred. Second, most patrician families limited themselves to a small number of names as a way of distinguishing themselves from the plebeians, who often employed a wider variety of names, including some that were seldom used by the patricians. However, several of the oldest and most noble patrician houses frequently used rare and unusual praenomina. Certain families also deliberately avoided particular praenomina. In at least some cases, this

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