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99-788: The George Mason Memorial is a memorial to Founding Father George Mason , the author of the Virginia Declaration of Rights that inspired the United States Bill of Rights . The Memorial is located in West Potomac Park within Washington, D.C. at 24 E Basin Drive SW, which is a part of the Tidal Basin . Authorized in 1990, with a groundbreaking in 2000 and dedication in 2002, the memorial includes

198-454: A Contrat Social; explaining the whole mystery of Government, and how it is contracted and bargained for,—to universal satisfaction? Theories of Government! Such have been, and will be; in ages of decadence. Acknowledge them in their degree; as processes of Nature, who does nothing in vain; as steps in her great process. Meanwhile, what theory is so certain as this, That all theories, were they never so earnest, painfully elaborated, are, and, by

297-473: A 1980 biography written about him by Robert A. Rutland. The memorial was authorized by Public Law 101-358 on August 10, 1990, to be developed by the board of regents of Gunston Hall , a museum at Mason's historic home in Mason Neck, Virginia . The memorial's landscape architect was Faye B. Harwell and the sculptor was Wendy M. Ross. The groundbreaking was October 18, 2000, and the completed memorial

396-714: A Virginian, but an American!". The delegates then began with a discussion of the Suffolk Resolves , which had just been approved at a town meeting in Milton, Massachusetts . Joseph Warren, chairman of the Resolves drafting committee, had dispatched Paul Revere to deliver signed copies to the Congress in Philadelphia. The Resolves called for the ouster of British officials, a trade embargo of British goods, and

495-491: A begrudging 34–32 vote. The Constitution officially took effect on March 4, 1789 (235 years ago)  ( 1789-03-04 ) , when the House and Senate met for their first sessions. On April 30, Washington was sworn in as the nation's first president. Ten amendments, known collectively as the United States Bill of Rights , were ratified on December 15, 1791. Because the delegates were sworn to secrecy, Madison's notes on

594-538: A committee to draft rules for governing the military, thus establishing the Continental Army . The next day, Samuel and John Adams nominated Washington as commander-in-chief, a motion that was unanimously approved. Two days later, on June 17, the militias clashed with British forces at Bunker Hill , a victory for Britain but a costly one. The Congress's actions came despite the divide between conservatives who still hoped for reconciliation with England and at

693-486: A constitutional lawyer and later a U.S. congressman , delivered an address, "Founders of the Republic", in which he connected the concepts of founders and fathers, saying: "It is well for us to remember certain human aspects of the founders of the republic. Let me first refer to the fact that these fathers of the republic were for the most part young men." The National Archives has identified three founding documents as

792-470: A cross-section of 18th-century American leadership. The vast majority were well-educated and prosperous, and all were prominent in their respective states with over 70 percent (40 delegates) serving in the Congress when the convention was proposed. Many delegates were late to arrive, and after eleven days' delay, a quorum was finally present on May 25 to elect Washington, the nation's most trusted figure, as convention president. Four days later, on May 29,

891-405: A judiciary. The lower house was to be elected by the people, with seats apportioned by state population. The upper house would be chosen by the lower house from delegates nominated by state legislatures. The executive, who would have veto power over legislation, would be elected by the Congress, which could overrule state laws. While the plan exceeded the convention's objective of merely amending

990-673: A new form in 1773 with Parliament's adoption of the Tea Act . The new tea tax, along with stricter customs enforcement, was not well-received across the colonies, particularly in Massachusetts. On December 16, 1773, 150 colonists disguised as Mohawk Indians boarded ships in Boston and dumped 342 chests of tea into the city's harbor , a protest that came to be known as the Boston Tea Party . Orchestrated by Samuel Adams and

1089-440: A part of our own species in the most abject and contemptible degree below us, we lose that idea of the dignity of man, which the hand of nature had implanted in us, for great and useful purposes.... George Mason, July 1773" "I recommend it to my sons.... never to let the motives of private interest or ambition to induce them to betray, nor the terrors of poverty and disgrace or the fear of danger or of death deter them from asserting

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1188-434: A peacetime army of 2600 men. He also favored the creation of a navy that could repel any European intruders. He approached Henry Knox, who accompanied Washington during most of his campaigns, with the prospect of becoming the future Secretary of War. After Washington's final victory at the surrender at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, more than a year passed before official negotiations for peace commenced. The Treaty of Paris

1287-621: A sculpture of Mason, a pool, trellis, circular hedges, and numerous inscriptions. It was the first memorial in the Tidal Basin area to be dedicated to someone who was not a former President of the United States. The memorial commemorates the contributions of Mason , a Founding Father who wrote the Virginia Declaration of Rights , served as a delegate to the 1787 Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia , and created much of

1386-594: A sitting Mason, his legs crossed, and a circular pool with a fountain. Mason leans back on his left hand to ponder something from Cicero 's 44 BC treatise De Officiis , which he holds closed on his right index finger. Two other volumes, John Locke 's 1706 posthumously published Of the Conduct of the Understanding and Jean-Jacques Rousseau 's Du Contract Social (1762), sit on the bench to Mason's left. Mason's walking stick leans on his hat which sits on

1485-547: A strong central government in America. Immanuel Kant, one of the most influential moral philosophers in Western philosophy , acknowledged his debt to Rousseau's work in political philosophy , of which The Social Contract is perhaps the closest to a complete statement. Kant wrote, "I myself am a researcher by inclination. I feel the entire thirst for cognition and the eager restlessness to proceed further in it, as well as

1584-520: A younger Josiah Quincy III , "I ought not to object to your Reverence for your Fathers as you call them ... but to tell you a very great secret ... I have no reason to believe We were better than you are." He also wrote, "Don't call me, ... Father ... [or] Founder ... These titles belong to no man, but to the American people in general." In Thomas Jefferson 's second inaugural address in 1805 , he referred to those who first came to

1683-486: Is a further step in the business; and betokens much. He advised: "In such prophesied Lubberland , of Happiness, Benevolence, and Vice cured of its deformity, trust not, my friends! . . . Is not Sentimentalism twin-sister to Cant , if not one and the same with it? Is not Cant the materia prima of the Devil; from which all falsehoods, imbecilities, abominations body themselves; from which no true thing can come? For Cant

1782-600: Is also a founding document. As a result, signers of three key documents are generally considered to be Founding Fathers of the United States: Declaration of Independence (DI), Articles of Confederation (AC), and U.S. Constitution (USC). The following table provides a list of these signers, some of whom signed more than one document. The 55 delegates who attended the Constitutional Convention are referred to as framers. Of these,

1881-656: Is currently administered as part of the National Park Service and is within the jurisdiction of the National Mall and Memorial Parks . The George Mason Memorial is one of three sites in the National Mall area where weddings are permitted; the nearby Jefferson Memorial and the District of Columbia War Memorial are the others. The memorial is one of many outdoor public art installations within Ward 2 of

1980-537: Is essential for the attainment of liberty, and concluded that legislation ought to preserve equality. Rousseau argues that the sovereign power must be separate from the government, which in Rousseau's terminology refers to the executive power . The division of sovereign from government is necessary because the sovereign cannot deal with particular matters like applications of the law. Doing so would undermine its generality, and therefore damage its legitimacy. Thus,

2079-466: Is one that establishes the people themselves as the rulers. Rousseau refers to the united will of the people as the general will . The general will, to be truly general, must only legislate laws with general form, i.e., laws that apply equally to all. For Rousseau, collective self-rule would increase freedom if the people to whom laws applied were also the ones prescribing them. Rousseau, who objected to extreme wealth inequality, also argued that equality

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2178-457: Is to say, the ability to coerce is not a legitimate power―might does not make right, and the people have no duty to submit to it. A state has no right to enslave a conquered people. Rousseau argues that legitimate authority must be compatible with individual freedom. Such authority can only be compatible with individual freedom if it is consented to, and hence there must be a social contract . However, Rousseau's conception of this social contract

2277-536: The Articles of Confederation , which was adopted in 1781 as the nation's first constitution. Historians have come to recognize others as founders, such as Revolutionary War military leaders as well as participants in developments leading up to the war, including prominent writers, orators, and other men and women who contributed to cause. Since the 19th century, the Founding Fathers have shifted from

2376-632: The Battles of Lexington and Concord in 1775. George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River was a major American victory over Hessian forces at the Battle of Trenton and greatly boosted American morale. The Battle of Saratoga and the Siege of Yorktown , which primarily ended the fighting between American and British, were also pivotal events during the war. The 1783 Treaty of Paris marked

2475-518: The Connecticut (or Great) Compromise . Sherman's proposal called for a House of Representatives elected proportionally and a Senate where all states would have the same number of seats. On July 16, the compromise was approved by the narrowest of margins, 5 states to 4. The proceedings left most delegates with reservations. Several went home early in protest, believing the convention was overstepping its authority. Others were concerned about

2574-711: The Declaration of Independence . It was presented to the Congress by the Committee on June 28, and after much debate and editing of the document, on July 2, 1776, Congress passed the Lee Resolution , which declared the United Colonies independent from Great Britain. Two days later, on July 4, the Declaration of Independence was adopted. The name "United States of America", which first appeared in

2673-642: The Republican National Convention of 1916 . Harding later repeated the phrase at his March 4, 1921, inauguration . While U.S. presidents used the terms "founders" and "fathers" in their speeches throughout much of the early 20th century, it was another 60 years before Harding's phrase would be used again during the inaugural ceremonies. Ronald Reagan referred to "Founding Fathers" at both his first inauguration on January 20, 1981 , and his second on January 20, 1985 . In 1811, responding to praise for his generation, John Adams wrote to

2772-671: The War of Independence from Great Britain , established the United States of America , and crafted a framework of government for the new nation. The Founding Fathers include those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence , the Articles of Confederation , the United States Constitution and other founding documents; it can also be applied to military personnel who fought in

2871-431: The general will of the people has the right to legislate, for only under the general will can the people be said to obey only themselves and hence be free. Although Rousseau's notion of the general will is subject to much interpretive controversy, it seems to involve a legislature consisting of all adult members of the political community who are restricted to legislating general laws for the common good. The epigraph of

2970-535: The " Charters of Freedom ": Declaration of Independence, United States Constitution , and Bill of Rights . According to the Archives, these documents "have secured the rights of the American people for nearly two and a half centuries and are considered instrumental to the founding and philosophy of the United States." In addition, as the nation's first constitution, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union

3069-475: The 16 listed below did not sign the document. Three refused, while the remainder left early, either in protest of the proceedings or for personal reasons. Nevertheless, some sources regard all framers as founders, including those who did not sign: (*) Randolph, Mason, and Gerry were the only three present at the Constitution's adoption who refused to sign. In addition to the signers and Framers of

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3168-627: The American Revolution. The single person most identified as "Father" of the United States is George Washington , a general in the American Revolution and the 1st President of the United States. In 1973, historian Richard B. Morris identified seven figures as key founders, based on what he called the "triple tests" of leadership, longevity, and statesmanship: John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , Alexander Hamilton , John Jay , Thomas Jefferson , James Madison , and Washington. Most of

3267-457: The Articles, most delegates were willing to abandon their original mandate in favor of crafting a new form of government. Discussions of the Virginia resolutions continued into mid-June, when William Paterson of New Jersey presented an alternative proposal. The New Jersey Plan retained most of the Articles' provisions, including a one-house legislature and equal power for the states. One of

3366-580: The Boston Committee of Correspondence , the protest was viewed as treasonous by British authorities. In response, Parliament passed the Coercive or Intolerable Acts , a series of punitive laws that closed Boston's port and placed the colony under direct control of the British government. These measures stirred unrest throughout the colonies, which felt Parliament had overreached its authority and

3465-618: The Congress of the Confederation, which forwarded the document to the states for ratification. In November, Pennsylvania's legislature convened the first of the conventions. Before it could vote, Delaware became the first state to ratify, approving the Constitution on December 7 by a 30–0 margin. Pennsylvania followed suit five days later, splitting its vote 46–23. Despite unanimous votes in New Jersey and Georgia, several key states appeared to be leaning against ratification because of

3564-559: The Congress would take over the army being formed in Boston. In answer to the first question, on June 9 the colony's leaders were directed to choose a council to govern within the spirit of the colony's charter. As for the second, Congress spent several days discussing plans for guiding the forces of all thirteen colonies. Finally, on June 14 Congress approved provisioning the New England militias, agreed to send ten companies of riflemen from other colonies as reinforcements, and appointed

3663-619: The Declaration, was formally approved by the Congress on September 9, 1776. In an effort to get this important document promptly into the public realm John Hancock , president of the Second Continental Congress, commissioned John Dunlap , editor and printer of the Pennsylvania Packet , to print 200 broadside copies of the Declaration, which came to be known as the Dunlap broadsides . Printing commenced

3762-649: The District . It is located near the intersection of Ohio Drive and East Basin Drive, The site is within the southwest quadrant of the District of Columbia, within West Potomac Park. It is located near the five 14th Street bridges across the Potomac River , one of which is also named for Mason. The design features a 72-foot (22 m) long stone wall with a one-third larger than life-sized statue of

3861-573: The First Congress with many of the same delegates in attendance. Among the new arrivals were Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and in June, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia. Hancock was elected president two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was recalled to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses as speaker, and Jefferson was named to replace him in

3960-609: The Founding Fathers were of English ancestry, though many had family roots extending across various regions of the British Isles , including Scotland , Wales , and Ireland . Additionally, some traced their lineage back to the early Dutch settlers of New York ( New Netherland ) during the colonial era, while others were descendants of French Huguenots who settled in the colonies, escaping religious persecution in France . Historian Richard Morris' selection of seven key founders

4059-507: The French and was almost entirely responsible for securing an alliance with them a few months after the start of the war, was greeted with high honors from the French council, while the others received due accommodations but were generally considered to be amateur negotiators. Communications between Britain and France were largely effected through Franklin and Lord Shelburne who was on good terms with Franklin. Franklin, Adams and Jay understood

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4158-612: The Intolerable Acts, British Army commander-in-chief Lieutenant General Thomas Gage was installed as governor of Massachusetts. In January 1775, Gage's superior, Lord Dartmouth, ordered the general to arrest those responsible for the Tea Party and to seize the munitions that had been stockpiled by militia forces outside of Boston. The letter took several months to reach Gage, who acted immediately by sending out 700 army regulars . During their march to Lexington and Concord on

4257-521: The New World as "forefathers". At his 1825 inauguration , John Quincy Adams called the U.S. Constitution "the work of our forefathers" and expressed his gratitude to "founders of the Union". In July of the following year, John Quincy Adams , in an executive order upon the deaths of his father John Adams and Jefferson, who died on the same day, paid tribute to them as both "Fathers" and "Founders of

4356-513: The Republic". These terms were used in the U.S. throughout the 19th century, from the inaugurations of Martin Van Buren and James Polk in 1837 and 1845 , to Abraham Lincoln 's Cooper Union speech in 1860 and his Gettysburg Address in 1863, and up to William McKinley 's first inauguration in 1897. At a 1902 celebration of Washington's Birthday in Brooklyn , James M. Beck ,

4455-493: The United States. Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Madison served as the first four presidents; Adams and Jefferson were the nation's first two vice presidents; Jay was the nation's first chief justice ; Hamilton was the first secretary of the treasury ; Jefferson was the first secretary of state ; and Franklin was America's most senior diplomat from the start of the Revolutionary War through its conclusion with

4554-433: The Virginia delegation. After adopting the rules of debate from the previous year and reinforcing its emphasis on secrecy, the Congress turned to its foremost concern, the defense of the colonies. The provincial assembly in Massachusetts, which had declared the colony's governorship vacant, reached out to the Congress for direction on two matters: whether the assembly could assume the powers of civil government and whether

4653-401: The bench to his right. The circular hedges and pool are supported by a 9 ft × 72 ft (2.7 m × 21.9 m) trellis that curves around the back of the memorial. Underneath the trellis are three walls with inscriptions that are 4 feet (1.2 m) high, which include the following quotes: "This was George Mason, a man of the first order of wisdom among those who acted on

4752-600: The colonies to enforce the boycott. The Declaration and its boycott directly challenged Parliament's right to govern in the Americas, bolstering the view of King George III and his administration under Lord North that the colonies were in a state of rebellion. Lord Dartmouth , the secretary of state for the colonies who had been sympathetic to the Americans, condemned the newly established Congress for what he considered its illegal formation and actions. In tandem with

4851-513: The concept of them as demigods who created the modern nation-state, to take into account their inability to address issues such as slavery and the debt owed after the American Revolutionary War. Scholars emphasize that the Founding Fathers' accomplishments and shortcomings be viewed within the context of their time. The phrase "Founding Fathers" was first used by U.S. Senator Warren G. Harding in his keynote speech at

4950-481: The concerns of the French at this uncertain juncture and, using that to their advantage, in the final sessions of negotiations convinced both the French and the British that American independence was in their best interests. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation had no power to collect taxes, regulate commerce, pay the national debt, conduct diplomatic relations, or effectively manage

5049-464: The convention adopted a rule of secrecy, a controversial decision but a common practice that allowed delegates to speak freely. Immediately following the secrecy vote, Virginia governor Edmund Randolph introduced the Virginia Plan , fifteen resolutions written by Madison and his colleagues proposing a government of three branches: a single executive, a bicameral (two-house) legislature, and

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5148-469: The day after the Declaration was adopted. They were distributed throughout the 13 colonies/states with copies sent to General Washington and his troops at New York with a directive that it be read aloud. Copies were also sent to Britain and other points in Europe. While the colonists were fighting the British to gain independence their newly formed government, with its Articles of Confederation, were put to

5247-449: The delegates turned to an even more contentious issue, legislative representation. Larger states favored proportional representation based on population, while smaller states wanted each state to have the same number of legislators. By mid-July, the debates between the large-state and small-state factions had reached an impasse. With the convention on the verge of collapse, Roger Sherman of Connecticut introduced what became known as

5346-489: The distribution of The Social Contract in France was prohibited, and Rousseau fled the country to avoid imprisonment. However, it was primarily Rousseau's chapter on civil religion, rather than his ideas on liberty and sovereignty, that caused the controversy. In America, Noah Webster borrowed heavily from The Social Contract to write Sketches of American Policy (1785), one of the earliest widely-published arguments for

5445-460: The formation of a militia throughout the colonies. Despite the radical nature of the resolves, on September 17 the Congress passed them in their entirety in exchange for assurances that Massachusetts' colonists would do nothing to provoke war. The delegates then approved a series of measures, including a Petition to the King in an appeal for peace and a Declaration and Resolves which introduced

5544-446: The founding documents and one of the seven notable leaders previously mentioned— John Jay —the following are regarded as founders based on their contributions to the creation and early development of the new nation: Historians have come to recognize the roles women played in the nation's early development, using the term "Founding Mothers". Among the women honored in this respect are: The following men and women are also recognized for

5643-411: The government must remain a separate institution from the sovereign body. When the government exceeds the boundaries set in place by the people, it is the mission of the people to abolish such government and begin anew. Rousseau claims that the size of the territory to be governed often decides the nature of the government. Since a government is only as strong as the people, and this strength is absolute,

5742-775: The guidance it provided during the armed struggle. Its authority remained ill-defined, and few of its delegates realized that events would soon lead them to decide policies that ultimately established a "new power among the nations". In the process the Congress performed many experiments in government before an adequate Constitution evolved. The First Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia's Carpenter's Hall on September 5, 1774. The Congress, which had no legal authority to raise taxes or call on colonial militias, consisted of 56 delegates, including George Washington of Virginia; John Adams and Samuel Adams of Massachusetts; John Jay of New York; John Dickinson of Pennsylvania; and Roger Sherman of Connecticut. Peyton Randolph of Virginia

5841-518: The idea that it would be subject to the authority of the British Empire. By 1774, however, letters published in colonial newspapers , mostly by anonymous writers, began asserting the need for a "Congress" to represent all Americans, one that would have equal status with British authority. The Continental Congress was convened to deal with a series of pressing issues the colonies were facing with Britain. Its delegates were men considered to be

5940-523: The ideas of natural law and natural rights, foreshadowing some of the principles found in the Declaration of Independence and Bill of Rights . The declaration asserted the rights of colonists and outlined Parliament's abuses of power. Proposed by Richard Henry Lee , it also included a trade boycott known as the Continental Association . The Association, a crucial step toward unification, empowered committees of correspondence throughout

6039-513: The lack of a Bill of Rights safeguarding individual liberties. Even Madison, the Constitution's chief architect, was dissatisfied, particularly over equal representation in the Senate and the failure to grant Congress the power to veto state legislation. Misgivings aside, a final draft was approved overwhelmingly on September 17, with 11 states in favor and New York unable to vote since it had only one delegate remaining, Hamilton. Rhode Island, which

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6138-467: The language used in developing the U.S. Constitution. The Federalist Papers , which advocated the ratification of the Constitution , were written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and Jay. George Washington was commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and later president of the Constitutional Convention . Each of these men held additional important roles in the early government of

6237-401: The language, inspiration, and groundwork for what became the United States Bill of Rights . Mason, an Anti-Federalist , did not sign the United States Constitution because it did not abolish the slave trade and because he did not think it had necessary protection for the individual from the federal government . He was sometimes known as the "reluctant statesman", which was also the title of

6336-453: The larger the territory, the more strength the government must be able to exert over the populace (cf. also Turner's frontier thesis for the case of America). In his view, a monarchical government is able to wield the most power over the people since it has to devote less power to itself, while a democracy the least. In general, the larger the bureaucracy , the more power required for government discipline. Normally, this relationship requires

6435-480: The liberty of their country, and endeavoring to transmit to their posterity those sacred rights to which themselves were born. George Mason, March 1773" "All men are born equally free and independent, and have certain inherent natural rights... among which are the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety. George Mason, May 1776" "The first declaration of rights which truly deserves

6534-747: The morning of April 19, 1775, the British troops encountered militia forces, who had been warned the night before by Paul Revere and another messenger on horseback, William Dawes . Even though it is unknown who fired the first shot, the Revolutionary War began. On May 10, 1775, less than three weeks after the Battles at Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental Congress convened in the Pennsylvania State House . The gathering essentially reconstituted

6633-419: The most intelligent and thoughtful among the colonialists. In the wake of the Intolerable Acts , at the hands of an unyielding British King and Parliament, the colonies were forced to choose between either totally submitting to arbitrary Parliamentary authority or resorting to unified armed resistance. The new Congress functioned as the directing body in declaring a great war and was sanctioned only by reason of

6732-410: The name is that of Virginia... and its author is entitled to the eternal gratitude of mankind. Marquis de Condorcet, Paris 1789" Founding Fathers of the United States The Founding Fathers of the United States , often simply referred to as the Founding Fathers or the Founders , were a group of late-18th-century American revolutionary leaders who united the Thirteen Colonies , oversaw

6831-407: The ninth state to ratify, making the Constitution the law of the land. Virginia followed suit four days later, and New York did the same in late July. After North Carolina's assent in November, another year-and-a-half would pass before the 13th state would weigh in. Facing trade sanctions and the possibility of being forced out of the union, Rhode Island approved the Constitution on May 29, 1790, by

6930-414: The notable contributions they made during the founding era: In the mid-1760s, Parliament began levying taxes on the colonies to finance Britain's debts from the French and Indian War , a decade-long conflict that ended in 1763. Opposition to Stamp Act and Townshend Acts united the colonies in a common cause. While the Stamp Act was withdrawn, taxes on tea remained under the Townshend Acts and took on

7029-409: The official end of the war. After the war, Washington was instrumental in organizing the effort to create a "national militia" made up of individual state units, and under the direction of the federal government. He also endorsed the creation of a military academy to train artillery offices and engineers. Not wanting to leave the country disarmed and vulnerable so soon after the war, Washington favored

7128-517: The omission of a Bill of Rights, particularly Virginia where the opposition was led by Mason and Patrick Henry, who had refused to participate in the convention claiming he "smelt a rat". Rather than risk everything, the Federalists relented, promising that if the Constitution was adopted, amendments would be added to secure people's rights. Over the next year, the string of ratifications continued. Finally, on June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became

7227-529: The other end of the spectrum, those who favored independence. To satisfy the former, Congress adopted the Olive Branch Petition on July 5, an appeal for peace to King George III written by John Dickinson. Then, the following day, it approved the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms , a resolution justifying military action. The declaration, intended for Washington to read to

7326-439: The plan's innovations was a "plural" executive branch, but its primary concession was to allow the national government to regulate trade and commerce. Meeting as a committee of the whole, the delegates discussed the two proposals beginning with the question of whether there should be a single or three-fold executive and then whether to grant the executive veto power. After agreeing on a single executive who could veto legislation,

7425-689: The ratification were not published until after his death in 1836. The Constitution, as drafted, was sharply criticized by the Anti-Federalists, a group that contended the document failed to safeguard individual liberties from the federal government. Leading Anti-Federalists included Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee, both from Virginia, and Samuel Adams of Massachusetts. Delegates at the Constitutional Convention who shared their views were Virginians George Mason and Edmund Randolph and Massachusetts representative Elbridge Gerry,

7524-421: The relation between population size and governmental structure, Rousseau argues that like his native Geneva , small city-states are the form of the nation in which freedom can best flourish. For states of this size, an elected aristocracy is preferable, and in very large states a benevolent monarch; but even monarchical rule, to be legitimate, must be subordinate to the sovereign rule of law. Upon publication,

7623-515: The rights of humanity." (Refl. 20:44) The French philosopher Voltaire used his publications to criticise and mock Rousseau, but also to defend free expression . In his Idées républicaines (1765), he reacted to the news that The Social Contract had been burned in Geneva , saying "The operation of burning it was perhaps as odious as that of writing it. […] To burn a book of argument is to say: 'We do not have enough wit to reply to it.'" The work

7722-425: The satisfaction at every acquisition. There was a time when I believed this alone could constitute the honour of humankind, and I despised the rabble who knows nothing. Rousseau has set me right. This blinding prejudice vanishes, I learn to honour human beings, and I would feel by far less useful than the common labourer if I did not believe that this consideration could impart a value to all others in order to establish

7821-454: The signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783. The list of Founding Fathers is often expanded to include the signers of the Declaration of Independence and individuals who later approved the U.S. Constitution . Some scholars regard all delegates to the Constitutional Convention as Founding Fathers whether they approved the Constitution or not. In addition, some historians include signers of

7920-414: The state to be an aristocracy or monarchy . When Rousseau uses the word democracy, he refers to an executive composed of all or most of the people (Bk. 3, Ch. 3, Para. 2) rather than to a representative democracy . Rousseau argues that it is the people themselves, not their representatives, who have supreme power, and that everyone taking part in legislation is a check against abuse of power. In light of

8019-469: The states by the federal Congress on September 25, 1789, was not ratified by Virginia's Senate until December 15, 1791. The Bill of Rights drew its authority from the consent of the people and held that, The Social Contract The Social Contract helped inspire political reforms or revolutions in Europe, especially in France . The Social Contract argued against the idea that monarchs were divinely empowered to legislate. Rousseau asserts that only

8118-408: The test, revealing the shortcomings and weaknesses of America's first Constitution. During this time Washington became convinced that a strong federal government was urgently needed, as the individual states were not meeting the organizational and supply demands of the war on their own individual accord. Key precipitating events included the Boston Tea Party in 1773, Paul Revere's Ride in 1775, and

8217-416: The theatre of the revolution, of expansive mind, profound judgment, cogent in argument.... Thomas Jefferson, 1821" "Regarding slavery.... that slow poison, which is daily contaminating the minds and morals of our people. Every gentlemen here is born a petty tyrant. Practiced in acts of despotism and cruelty, we become callous to the dictates of humanity, and all the finer feelings of the soul. Taught to regard

8316-459: The three delegates who refused to sign the final document. Henry, who derived his hatred of a central governing authority from his Scottish ancestry, did all in his power to defeat the Constitution, opposing Madison every step of the way. The criticisms are what led to the amendments proposed under the Bill of Rights. Madison, the bill's principal author, was originally opposed to the amendments, but

8415-620: The troops upon his arrival in Massachusetts, was drafted by Jefferson but edited by Dickinson who thought its language too strong. When the Olive Branch Petition arrived in London in September, the king refused to look at it. By then, he had already issued a proclamation declaring the American colonies in rebellion. Under the auspices of the Second Continental Congress and its Committee of Five , Thomas Jefferson drafted

8514-554: The very conditions of them, must be incomplete, questionable, and even false? Thou shalt know that this Universe is, what it professes to be, an infinite one. Attempt not to swallow it , for thy logical digestion; be thankful, if skilfully planting down this and the other fixed pillar in the chaos, thou prevent its swallowing thee . That a new young generation has exchanged the Sceptic Creed , What shall I believe? for passionate Faith in this Gospel according to Jean Jacques

8613-585: The western territories. Key leaders – George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and others – began fearing for the young nation's fate. As the Articles' weaknesses became more and more apparent, the idea of creating a strong central government gained support, leading to the call for a convention to amend the Articles. The Constitutional Convention met in the Pennsylvania State House from May 14 through September 17, 1787. The 55 delegates in attendance represented

8712-567: The work is "foederis aequas / dicamus leges" ("Let us set equal terms for the truce") ( Virgil , Aeneid XI.321–22). The stated aim of The Social Contract is to determine whether there can be a legitimate political authority, since people's interactions he saw at his time seemed to put them in a state far worse than the good one they were at in the state of nature , even though living in isolation. He concludes book one, chapter three with, "Let us then admit that force does not create right, and that we are obliged to obey only legitimate powers", which

8811-732: Was dedicated on April 9, 2002. The memorial was placed within an existing historic garden, at the site of the last remaining "national garden" of the four that had been established in Washington by the McMillan Plan of 1902. In 1929, the garden was redesigned as "the Pansy Garden". The designers of the George Mason Memorial researched and restored the original circular garden layout, and plantings drew from that heritage, as well as from Mason's own favored plants and those used at Gunston Hall. The George Mason Memorial

8910-842: Was also banned in Paris and was forbidden by the Church being listed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum . The work received a refutation called The Confusion of the Social Contract by Jean-Jacques Rousseau by the Jesuit Alfonso Muzzarelli in Italy in 1794. The influence of Rousseau on Maximilien Robespierre from his diary during the Estates General of 1789 : Divine man! It

9009-404: Was different to that of thinkers before him, such as Grotius , Hobbes , and Pufendorf . For Rousseau, since one's right to freedom is inalienable, the people cannot obligate themselves to obey someone other than themselves. Transferring rights to an authority involved renunciation of freedom and transformed the natural equality of men into subjection. Hence, the only legitimate social contract

9108-513: Was drafted in November 1782, and negotiations began in April 1783. The completed treaty was signed on September 3. Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, John Jay and Henry Laurens represented the United States, while David Hartley , a member of Parliament, and Richard Oswald , a prominent and influential Scottish businessman, represented Great Britain. Franklin, who had a long-established rapport with

9207-414: Was in a dispute over the state's paper currency, had refused to send anyone to the convention. Of the 42 delegates present, only three refused to sign: Randolph and George Mason, both of Virginia, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts. The U. S. Constitution faced one more hurdle: approval by the legislatures in at least nine of the 13 states. Within three days of the signing, the draft was submitted to

9306-407: Was influenced by the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights , primarily written by Mason, and the Declaration of Independence, by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson, while in France, shared Henry's and Mason's fears about a strong central government, especially the president's power, but because of his friendship with Madison and the pending Bill of Rights, he quieted his concerns. Alexander Hamilton, however,

9405-465: Was opposed to a Bill of Rights believing the amendments not only unnecessary but dangerous: Why declare things shall not be done, which there is no power to do ... that the liberty of the press shall not be restrained, when no power is given by which restrictions may be imposed? Madison had no way of knowing the debate between Virginia's two legislative houses would delay the adoption of the amendments for more than two years. The final draft, referred to

9504-637: Was posing a threat to the self-rule that had existed in the Americas since the 1600s. Intent on responding to the Acts, twelve of the Thirteen Colonies agreed to send delegates to meet in Philadelphia as the First Continental Congress , with Georgia declining because it needed British military support in its conflict with native tribes. The concept of an American union had been entertained long before 1774, but always embraced

9603-441: Was unanimously elected its first president. The Congress came close to disbanding in its first few days over the issue of representation, with smaller colonies desiring equality with the larger ones. While Patrick Henry , from the largest colony, Virginia, disagreed, he stressed the greater importance of uniting the colonies: "The distinctions between Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New Yorkers, and New Englanders are no more. I am not

9702-685: Was widely accepted through the 20th century. John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin were members of the Committee of Five that were charged by the Second Continental Congress with drafting the Declaration of Independence . Franklin, Adams, and John Jay negotiated the 1783 Treaty of Paris , which established American independence and brought an end to the American Revolutionary War . The constitutions drafted by Jay and Adams for their respective states of New York (1777) and Massachusetts (1780) proved influential in

9801-527: Was you who taught me to know myself. When I was young you brought me to appreciate the true dignity of my nature and to reflect on the great principles which govern the social order . . . . I saw you in your last days and for me the recollection of the time will always be a source of proud joy. I contemplated your august features and saw there the imprint of those dark griefs which the injustice of man inflicted on you. Thomas Carlyle assessed its impact: and now has not Jean Jacques promulgated his new Evangel of

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