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113-833: Gerardo Huber graduated from military school in 1964, specializing as an engineer. Ten years later, after Augusto Pinochet's coup in 1973, he began working for the DINA intelligence agency and was sent to Argentina to infiltrate groups supporting the Chilean MIR faction in its struggle against Pinochet's dictatorship . When he returned to Chile, he worked with American-born DINA agent Michael Townley in producing chemical weapons , which were used against political dissidents; Townley served as DINA's lead international assassin between 1974 and 1978, but would eventually leave Chile and be reprimanded into U.S. custody in April 1978 for his role in

226-544: A farewell speech , telling the nation of the coup d'état and his refusal to resign his elected office under threat. Leigh ordered the presidential palace bombed but was told the Air Force's Hawker Hunter jet aircraft would take forty minutes to arrive from their base at Concepcion . Pinochet ordered an armoured and infantry force under General Sergio Arellano to advance upon the La Moneda presidential palace. When

339-483: A "purely military government including the military police." The hardline faction, consisting of Generals Oscar Bonilla, Sergio Arellano Stark , and Javier Palacios formed another group, joined by Augusto Pinochet , which posited that the Allende–Armed Forces phase was not necessary. On the day of the coup, the only high-ranking military officers to remain loyal to Chile's Constitution were Admiral Montero of

452-411: A better society. Long live Chile! Long live the people! Long live the workers!" According to official reports prepared after the return of democracy, at La Moneda only two people died: President Allende and the journalist Augusto Olivares (both by suicide). Two more were injured, Antonio Aguirre and Osvaldo Ramos, both members of President Allende's entourage; they would later be allegedly kidnapped from

565-401: A bystander or a co-felon, regardless their intent—or lack thereof—to kill, and even when the death results from the actions of a co-defendant or third party who is reacting to the crime. The preterintentional killing occurs when a person, with actions aimed at hitting or harming, unintentionally causes the death of a person: the agent will be liable for objective responsibility (or fault, for

678-418: A civilian court convicted Generals Lizárraga and Krum and Colonels Provis and Munoz of the murder of Huber. Lizárraga and Provis were also convicted of conspiracy, receiving ten and eight years' imprisonment respectively. Krum was convicted of conspiracy and received 541 days imprisonment. Munoz was sentenced to 600 days in prison for murder. General Covarrubias was found not guilty of all charges. This brought to

791-637: A close the proceedings against the officers, as well as others; eleven men had already been convicted and sentenced by a military court in June 2009 for their part in the arrangement of the arms deal. The identity of the actual gunman was not disclosed by the court. The Berríos murder case , involving the DINA biochemist found dead in Uruguay, has been linked by investigating magistrates to the Huber case. In both cases,

904-556: A concept to define certain large-scale killings of non-combatants by state actors. Some medium- and large-scale mass killings by state actors have been termed massacres , though not all such killings have been so named. The term " democide " was coined by American political scientist Rudolph Rummel to describe "murder by government" in general, which included both extrajudicial killings and widespread systematic acts of homicide. Killings committed by state actors might be called "murder" or "mass murder" in general usage, especially if seen by

1017-437: A confrontation with the armed forces". President Allende's efforts to re-organize the military and the police forces were characterised as "notorious attempts to use the armed and police forces for partisan ends, destroy their institutional hierarchy, and politically infiltrate their ranks". It can be argued that the resolution called upon the armed forces to overthrow the government if it did not comply, as follows: "To present

1130-479: A counter- coup d'état ; the president rejected the proposition. According to Tanya Harmer, Allende's refusal to lead an insurgency against the coup is evidence of his unrelenting desire to bring about change through non-violent methods. The military attempted more negotiations with Allende, but the President refused to resign, citing his constitutional duty to remain in office. Finally, at 9:10  am, Allende gave

1243-695: A coup against Allende, as justification for the imposition of military rule. Peter Kornbluh asserts that the CIA destabilized Chile and helped create the conditions for the coup, citing documents declassified by the Clinton administration . Other authors point to the involvement of the Defense Intelligence Agency , agents of which allegedly secured the missiles used to bombard the La Moneda Palace . The U.S. Government's hostility to

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1356-418: A coup d'état or a civil war with a declaration full of affirmations that had already been refuted beforehand and which in substance and process (directly handing it to the ministers rather than directly handing it to the president) violated a dozen articles of the then-current constitution. He further argued that the legislature was usurping the government's executive function. Allende wrote: "Chilean democracy

1469-729: A group of military officers, led by General Augusto Pinochet , seized power in a coup, ending civilian rule. Following the coup, a military junta was established, and suspended all political activities in Chile and suppressed left-wing movements, particularly communist and socialist parties, such as the Communist Party of Chile and the Socialist Party of Chile , as well as the Revolutionary Left Movement (MIR). Pinochet swiftly consolidated power and

1582-470: A homicide that occurs during the commission of a dangerous crime may constitute murder, regardless of the actor's intent to commit homicide. In the United States , this is known as the felony murder rule . In simple terms, under the felony murder rule a person who commits a felony may be guilty of murder if someone dies as a result of the commission of the crime, including the victim of the felony,

1695-537: A house or apartment was the most common location of homicide (41%); followed by a street or highway (22%); a motor vehicle (10%); and a parking lot, public garage, or public transport (4.5%). Precipitating circumstances were identified in 69% of homicides. One-third of homicides with known circumstances were precipitated by an argument or conflict (34%), and 15% of homicides with known circumstances were related to intimate partner violence . Homicides also were commonly precipitated by another crime (23%); in 66% of those cases,

1808-690: A near "crisis point" in Central America and the Caribbean . Of all homicides worldwide, 82 percent of the victims were men, and 18 percent were women. On a per-capita scaled level, "the homicide rate in Africa and the Americas (at 17 and 16 per 100,000 population, respectively) is more than double the global average (6.9 per 100,000), whereas in Asia, Europe and Oceania (between 3 and 4 per 100,000) it

1921-416: A number significantly in excess of the 89,000 killed in armed conflicts during the same period. Murder is the most serious crime that can be charged following a homicide. In many jurisdictions, murder may be punished by life in prison or even capital punishment . Although categories of murder can vary by jurisdiction, murder charges fall under two broad categories , or degrees : In some jurisdictions,

2034-464: A private meeting with Pinochet upon returning from a trip to Israel . General Lizárraga, the number two man at DINE, had previously denied this meeting took place. Eventually, both General Lizárraga and General Covarrubias admitted to the magistrate that Pinochet personally headed the BIE, which the former dictator declared his nescience of. According to Pavez' investigations, between his "disappearance" and

2147-481: A state of law to their ultimate consequences...Congress has made itself a bastion against the transformations ... and has done everything it can to perturb the functioning of the finances and of the institutions, sterilizing all creative initiatives." Adding that economic and political means would be needed to relieve the country's current crisis, and that the Congress was obstructing said means; having already paralyzed

2260-418: A way to justify the coup, which occurred two weeks later. On 24 August 1973, two days after the resolution, Allende responded. He accused the opposition of trying to incite a military coup by encouraging the armed forces to disobey civilian authorities. He described the Congress's declaration as "destined to damage the country's prestige abroad and create internal confusion", and predicted: "It will facilitate

2373-711: Is a centralized database of relevant information from death certificates , coroner and medical examiner records, and law enforcement reports, which emerged from the National Violent Injury Statistics System . This public health surveillance tool began collecting data in 2003 and is analyzed by the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control at the CDC to provide nationally representative data. In 2020, there were 18,439 cases of single homicide (28.6% of all violent deaths) in

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2486-415: Is a conquest by all of the people. It is neither the work nor the gift of the exploiting classes, and it will be defended by those who, with sacrifices accumulated over generations, have imposed it ... With a tranquil conscience ... I sustain that never before has Chile had a more democratic government than that over which I have the honor to preside ... I solemnly reiterate my decision to develop democracy and

2599-533: Is no intent to cause harm. It is separate from suicide . Homicides can be divided into many overlapping legal categories, such as murder , manslaughter , justifiable homicide , assassination , killing in war (either following the laws of war or as a war crime ), euthanasia , and capital punishment , depending on the circumstances of the death. These different types of homicides are often treated very differently in human societies ; some are considered crimes , while others are permitted or even ordered by

2712-524: Is roughly half". In its 2013 global report, UNODC estimated the total number of homicides worldwide had dropped to 437,000 in 2012. The Americas accounted for 36 percent of all homicides globally, Africa 21 percent, Asia 38 percent, Europe five percent and Oceania 0.3%. The world's average homicide rate stood at 6.2 per 100,000 population in 2012, but the Southern Africa region and Central America had intentional homicide rates four times higher than

2825-646: Is sometimes said to have first been made by the ancient Athenian lawmaker Draco in the 7th century BC. The penalty for manslaughter is normally less than the penalty for murder. The two broad categories of manslaughter are: Another form of manslaughter in some jurisdictions is constructive manslaughter , which may be charged if a person causes a death without intention but as the result of violating an important safety law or regulation. Not all homicides are crimes, or subject to criminal prosecution. Some are legally privileged, meaning that they are not criminal acts at all. Others may occur under circumstances that provide

2938-622: The Algerian War and Soviet–Afghan War , terrorist mass killings such as strategic bombing during World War II and the blockade of Biafra , and German and Japanese imperialism during World War II as examples of imperialist mass killings. A 2011 study by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime brought together a wide variety of data sources to create a worldwide picture of trends and developments. Sources included multiple agencies and field offices of

3051-451: The Church committee , states that: Although CIA did not instigate the coup that ended Allende's government on 11 September 1973, it was aware of coup-plotting by the military, had ongoing intelligence collection relationships with some plotters, and—because CIA did not discourage the takeover and had sought to instigate a coup in 1970—probably appeared to condone it. The report stated that

3164-741: The Dirección de Inteligencia del Ejército (DINE, or the Military Intelligence Directorate, DINA's successor) in 1992; General Víctor Lizárraga , then Deputy-Director of DINE; General Krumm; Brigadier Manuel Provis Carrasco , then head of the Batallón de Inteligencia del Ejército (BIE, or the Military Intelligence Agency); and Captain Julio Muñoz , a friend of Huber and former member of

3277-723: The Holodomor , Great Leap Forward and Cambodian genocide for communist mass killings, the White Terror , the Holocaust and Dirty War for fascist mass killings, the Armenian and Rwandan genocides for ethnic mass killings and the American Indian Wars and Herero and Nama genocide for territorial mass killings. He also included examples of coercive mass killings, including counterinsurgency killings during

3390-777: The Orlando Letelier-Ronnie Monfitt assassination . At the beginning of the 1980s, Huber was sent to the military chemical installation in Talagante . He served as governor of Talagante Province from 1987 to 1989. Colonel Huber was nominated in March 1991 to the Army's Directorate of Logistics , where he was tasked with the buying and selling of weapons abroad. According to his widow, he met with Pinochet in May 1991 to inform him of various irregularities occurring in

3503-912: The United Nations , the World Health Organization , and national and international sources from 207 countries. The report estimated that in 2010, the total number of homicides globally was 468,000. More than a third (36%) occurred in Africa , 31 percent in the Americas , 27 percent in Asia , five percent in Europe and one percent in Oceania . Since 1995, the homicide rate has been falling in Europe, North America, and Asia, but has risen to

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3616-487: The legal system . Criminal homicide takes many forms, including accidental killing and murder. Criminal homicide is divided into two broad categories— murder and manslaughter —based upon the state of mind and intent of the person who commits the homicide. A report issued by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in July 2019 documented that nearly 464,000 people around the world were killed in homicides in 2017,

3729-545: The "Chilean Way to Socialism". In 1972, Economics Minister Pedro Vuskovic adopted monetary policies that increased the amount of circulating currency and devalued the escudo , which increased inflation to 140 percent in 1972 and engendered a black market economy. In October 1972, Chile suffered the first of many strikes. Among the participants were small-scale businessmen, some professional unions, and student groups. Its leaders – Vilarín, Jaime Guzmán , Rafael Cumsille, Guillermo Elton, Eduardo Arriagada – expected to depose

3842-495: The 1973 coup as one of the most violent events in Chilean history. The coup led to a series of human rights abuses in Chile under Pinochet , who initiated a brutal and long-lasting campaign of political suppression through torture, murder, and exile, which significantly weakened leftist opposition to the military dictatorship of Chile (1973–1990). The internationally supported 1989 Chilean constitutional referendum held under

3955-453: The 20th century, the homicide rate fell to 1.4 per 100,000. Police forces seldom existed outside the cities; prisons only became common after 1800. Before then, harsh penalties were imposed for homicide (severe whipping or execution) but they proved ineffective at controlling or reducing the insults to honor that precipitated most of the violence. The decline does not correlate with economics or measures of state control. Most historians attribute

4068-458: The 2nd Army Division; General Guillermo Skinner; and General Krumm all attended the meeting. Captain Araya, who had been sentenced to five years in prison for his involvement in the arms deal, turned state's evidence in 2005 and declared that he had acted under orders from the military hierarchy. He also stated that Pinochet "had full knowledge of this sale, since he was in close communication with

4181-513: The 48 states and DC, a rate of 6.7 per 100,000 inhabitants. There were 695 cases of multiple homicide (1%) and 571 cases (<1%) of homicide followed by suicide with an overall homicide rate of 7.5 per 100,000 population. The weapons most commonly used in homicides were firearms, used in 76.7% of homicides overall; followed by a sharp instrument (9%); a blunt instrument (3%); personal weapons (e.g., hands, feet, or fists; 2.5%); and hanging, strangulation, or suffocation (1.5%). Among all homicide victims,

4294-623: The Air Force, did not answer Allende's telephone calls to them. The General Director of the Carabineros (uniformed police), José María Sepúlveda , and the head of the Investigations Police (plain clothes detectives), Alfredo Joignant answered Allende's calls and immediately went to the La Moneda presidential palace. When Defense Minister Letelier arrived at the Ministry of Defense, controlled by Adm. Patricio Carvajal , he

4407-542: The Allende regime’s consolidation. — William Colby , September 16, 1973, in a memorandum to Henry Kissinger Historian Peter Winn found "extensive evidence" of United States complicity in the coup. He states that its covert support was crucial to engineering the coup, as well as for the consolidation of power by the Pinochet regime following the takeover. Winn documents an extensive CIA operation to fabricate reports of

4520-609: The Americas . On 29 June 1973, Colonel Roberto Souper surrounded La Moneda presidential palace with his tank regiment and failed to depose the Allende Government. That failed coup d'état – known as the Tanquetazo tank putsch – had been organized by the nationalist " Fatherland and Liberty " paramilitary group. In August 1973, a constitutional crisis occurred; the Supreme Court publicly complained about

4633-519: The BIE. General Krumm testified to Magistrate Pavez that the arms deal had been directly approved by President Pinochet. Following statements made by Captain Pedro Araya, Krumm confirmed a meeting was held prior to the deal. According to Araya, Richard Quass , director of Operations of the Army; General Florienco Tejos , chief of War Materiel ; General Jaime Concha , Commandant of Military Institutions; General Guido Riquelme , Chief Commandant of

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4746-485: The CIA "actively supported the military Junta after the overthrow of Allende but did not assist Pinochet to assume the Presidency." After a review of recordings of telephone conversations between Nixon and Henry Kissinger , Robert Dallek concluded that both of them used the CIA to actively destabilize the Allende government. In one particular conversation about the news of Allende's overthrow, Kissinger complained about

4859-446: The Chile station on 16 October 1970 stated: It is firm and continuing policy that Allende be overthrown by a coup. It would be much preferable to have this transpire prior to 24 October but efforts in this regard will continue vigorously beyond this date. We are to continue to generate maximum pressure toward this end utilizing every appropriate resource. It is imperative that these actions be implemented clandestinely and securely so that

4972-511: The Chilean Famae ( Fábricas y Maestranzas del Ejército , Factories and Arsenals of the Army of Chile), the quasi-military firm in charge of producing the weapons. The agreement was worth more than US$ 6 million; the weaponry purchased included 370 tons of weaponry, including SG 542 firearms, Blowpipe surface-to-air missiles , Mamba anti-tank missiles , rockets, grenades, mortars , and loads of 7.62mm ammunition . The illegal arms deal

5085-466: The Chilean military junta claimed its troops suffered another 16 dead and 100 injured by gunfire in mopping-up operations against Allende supporters, and Pinochet said: "sadly there are still some armed groups who insist on attacking, which means that the military rules of wartime apply to them." A press photographer also died in the crossfire while attempting to cover the event. On 23 October 1973, 23-year-old army corporal Benjamín Alfredo Jaramillo Ruz, who

5198-588: The Chileans vote in a new election where he would not be a candidate. The first, non-military, approach involved attempting a constitutional coup. This was known as the Track I approach, in which the CIA, with the approval of the 40 Committee , attempted to bribe the Chilean legislature, tried to influence public opinion against Allende, and provided funding to strikes designed to coerce him into resigning. It also attempted to get congress to confirm Jorge Alessandri as

5311-561: The DINE was involved. Like Huber, Berríos probably was seen as knowing too much, as he had been implicated both in the Letelier case and in production of black cocaine and sarin for Pinochet. Berríos escaped from Chile in 1992, assisted by a Special Unit of the DINE known as Operación Silencio (Operation Silence). Furthermore, Main Cargo, the firm which worked with Famae to export the weapons,

5424-718: The Navy and General Sepúlveda of the Carabineros. "Like Caesar peering into the colonies from distant Rome, Nixon said the choice of government by the Chileans was unacceptable to the president of the United States. The attitude in the White House seemed to be, "If in the wake of Vietnam I can no longer send in the Marines, then I will send in the CIA."—Senator Frank Church , 1976 Many people in different parts of

5537-605: The Navy's actions; immediately, the president went to the presidential palace with his bodyguards, the " Group of Personal Friends " (GAP). By 8:00 am, the Army had closed most radio and television stations in Santiago city; the Air Force bombed the remaining active stations; the President received incomplete information and was convinced that only a sector of the Navy conspired against him and his government. President Allende and Defense Minister Orlando Letelier were unable to communicate with military leaders. Admiral Montero,

5650-410: The Navy's commander and an Allende loyalist, was rendered incommunicado; his telephone service was cut, and his cars were sabotaged before the coup d'état , to ensure he could not thwart the opposition. Leadership of the Navy was transferred to José Toribio Merino , planner of the coup d'état and executive officer to Adm. Montero. Augusto Pinochet , General of the Army, and Gustavo Leigh , General of

5763-577: The President of the Republic, Ministers of State, and members of the Armed and Police Forces with the grave breakdown of the legal and constitutional order ... it is their duty to put an immediate end to all situations herein referred to that breach the Constitution and the laws of the land with the aim of redirecting government activity toward the path of Law". The resolution was later used by Pinochet

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5876-538: The USG and American hand be well hidden." False flag operatives contacted senior Chilean military officers and informed them that the U.S. would actively support a coup, but would revoke all military aid if such a coup did not happen. In addition, the CIA gave extensive support for black propaganda against Allende, channeled mostly through El Mercurio . Financial assistance was also given to Allende's political opponents, and for organizing strikes and unrest to destabilize

5989-404: The armed institutions, which neither can nor ought to assume either political functions or the representation of the popular will." Allende argued that he had obeyed constitutional means for including military men to the cabinet at the service of civic peace and national security, defending republican institutions against insurrection and terrorism. In contrast, he said that Congress was promoting

6102-567: The arms deal. The magistrate called Gerardo Huber as a witness; Huber declared that he had been following orders from General Krumm, the logistics chief. On 29 January 1992, Huber, who was vacationing in San Alfonso, Cajón del Maipo , " disappeared ". His body was found on 20 February 1992, with the skull shattered. Chilean police at first declared Huber's death to be a suicide . In 1996, Magistrate María Soledad Espina , in charge of investigations concerning Huber's case, categorically excluded

6215-692: The commentator as unethical, but the domestic legal definitions of murder, manslaughter, etc., usually exclude killings carried out by lawful government action. Dartmouth College professor Benjamin Valentino outlines two major categories of mass killings: dispossessive mass killing and coercive mass killing. The first category includes four subcategories: communist, fascist, ethnic and territorial mass killings, while second category includes counterinsurgency , terrorist and imperialist mass killings. Valentino included several prominent examples of dispossessive mass killing to include his arguments, including

6328-538: The constitution during his presidency trying to shore up support for his candidacy. Congress then decided on Allende. The U.S. feared the example of a "well-functioning socialist experiment" in the region and exerted diplomatic, economic, and covert pressure upon Chile's elected socialist government. At the end of 1971, the Cuban Prime Minister Fidel Castro made a four-week state visit to Chile , alarming American observers worried about

6441-421: The coup d'état wave that swept through the region. The poor conditions of the Chilean military contrasted with the change of fortune the military of neighboring countries experienced as they came to power in coups. During the decades prior to the coup, the military became influenced by the United States' anti-communist ideology in the context of various cooperation programs, including the U.S. Army School of

6554-764: The crime of intentional homicide in 2012 was 43 percent. The 2011 Global Study on Homicide reported that "[W]here homicide rates are high and firearms and organized crime in the form of drug trafficking play a substantial role, 1 in 50 men aged 20 will be murdered before they reach the age of 31. At the other, the probability of such an occurrence is up to 400 times lower. [H]omicide is much more common in countries with low levels of human development, high levels of income inequality and weak rule of law than in more equitable societies , where socioeconomic stability seems to be something of an antidote to homicide. In cases of intimate partner and family-related homicide cases, women murdered by their past or present male partner make up

6667-753: The crime was in progress at the time of the incident like assault or homicide (38.9%), robbery (32.9%), drug trade (14.5%), burglary (11%), motor vehicle theft (5%), rape or sexual assault (2%). A larger proportion of homicides of females than males resulted from caregiver abuse or neglect (9.0% versus 2.7%) or were perpetrated by a suspect with a mental health problem (e.g., schizophrenia or other psychotic conditions, depression, or posttraumatic stress disorder ) (6.3% versus 1.7%). Homicide rates are known to be higher in males and in communities with concentrated poverty, stressed economies, residential instability, neighborhood disorganization, low community cohesion, and informal controls. The overall firearm homicide rate in 2020

6780-604: The defendant with a full or partial defense to criminal prosecution. Common defenses include: The availability of defenses to a criminal charge following a homicide may affect the homicide rate. For example, it has been suggested that the availability of " stand your ground " defense has resulted in an increase in the homicide rate in U.S. jurisdictions that recognize the defense, including Florida. Homicides committed by state actors may be considered lawful or unlawful according to: Types of state killings include: The term mass killing has been proposed by genocide scholars as

6893-493: The director of Famae and made available on the army's part the arms that were sold by Famae." Further, official documents state that money from the arms deal was funneled into Pinochet's personal bank accounts abroad. Evidence presented suggested that Famae head General Letelier may have been complicit in laundering the funds. Another witness and defendant in the case, Jorge Molina Sanhueza , testified in March 2006 that on 22 January 1992, shortly before Huber's assassination, he had

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7006-633: The discovery of his corpse, Colonel Huber had been detained in a secret military installation operated by Chilean intelligence. Pavez has suggested that Huber had been kidnapped by BIE agents and transferred to a secret detention center of the Escuela de Inteligencia del Ejército (EIE, School of Army Intelligence) in Nos, which was also the location of the Laboratorio de Guerra Bacteriológica del Ejército (Bacteriological Warfare Army Laboratory). The laboratory

7119-492: The economy, and maintain a proper relationship with the Chilean military until local militias could be established and consolidated. Allende attempted to follow Castro's advice, but the latter two recommendations proved difficult. Prior to the coup, the Chilean military had undergone a process of de-politicization since the 1920s, when military officers had held cabinet positions. Subsequently, most military officers remained under-funded, having only subsistence salaries. Because of

7232-588: The elected government. Other than damaging the national economy, the principal effect of the 24-day strike was drawing Army head, General Carlos Prats , into the government as Interior Minister, an appeasement to the right wing. This replaced General René Schneider , who had been assassinated (Schneider had been shot on 22 October 1970 by a group led by General Roberto Viaux , whom the Central Intelligence Agency had not attempted to discourage, and died three days later.) General Prats supported

7345-539: The election of Allende in 1970 in Chile was substantiated in documents declassified during the Clinton administration, which show that CIA covert operatives were inserted in Chile in order to prevent a Marxist government from arising and for the purpose of spreading anti-Allende propaganda. As described in the Church Committee report, the CIA was involved in multiple plots designed to remove Allende and then let

7458-595: The extremist workers from rebelling." This idea had the support of Generals Joaquin Lagos Osorio, Herman Brady Roche, Washington Carrasco Fernandez, Hector Bravo Munoz, Mario Sepulveda Squella, Guillermo Pickering, and Orlando Urbina Herrera, but with variations. While Lagos Osorio and Urbina Herrera did not object to the Prats plan, the other five generals thought the Allende–Armed Forces government ought to be "transitional" and of "short duration," to prepare conditions for

7571-462: The goal of establishing a totalitarian system", claiming it had made "violations of the Constitution ... a permanent system of conduct". Essentially, most of the accusations were about the government disregarding the separation of powers, and arrogating legislative and judicial prerogatives to the executive branch of government. Finally, the resolution condemned the "creation and development of government-protected armed groups, which ... are headed towards

7684-472: The goal of redirecting government activity toward the path of Law and ensuring the Constitutional order of our Nation, and the essential underpinnings of democratic co-existence among Chileans". The resolution declared that the Allende government sought "to conquer absolute power with the obvious purpose of subjecting all citizens to the strictest political and economic control by the state ... [with]

7797-714: The government's inability to enforce the law of the land. On 22 August, the Christian Democrats united with the National Party of the Chamber of Deputies accused the government of unconstitutional acts and called upon the military to enforce constitutional order. For months, the government had feared calling upon the Carabineros national police, suspecting them of disloyalty. On 9 August, Allende appointed General Carlos Prats as Minister of Defense. He

7910-469: The government. By 1970, the U.S. manufacturing company ITT Corporation owned 70% of Chitelco (the Chilean Telephone Company), and also funded El Mercurio . The CIA used ITT as a means of disguising the source of the illegitimate funding Allende's opponents received. On 28 September 1973, the Weather Underground bombed ITT's headquarters in New York City in retaliation. According to an article written by lifelong CIA operative Jack Devine , although it

8023-496: The hospital and disappeared. In November 2006, the Associated Press noted that more than 15 bodyguards and aides were taken from the palace during the coup and are still unaccounted for; in 2006 Augusto Pinochet was indicted for two of their deaths. On the military side, there were 34 deaths: two army sergeants , three army corporals , four army privates , two navy lieutenants, one navy corporal, four naval cadets, three navy conscripts and fifteen carabineros. In mid-September,

8136-412: The infirmary of La Moneda stated that they witnessed the suicide, and an autopsy labelled Allende's death a suicide. Vice Admiral Patricio Carvajal, one of the primary instigators of the coup, claimed that "Allende committed suicide and is dead now." Patricio Guijon, one of the president's doctors, had testified to witnessing Allende shoot himself under the chin with the rifle while seated on a sofa. At

8249-558: The lack of recognition of the American role in the overthrow of a "communist" government, upon which Nixon remarked, "Well, we didn't – as you know – our hand doesn't show on this one." A later CIA report contended that US agents maintained close ties with the Chilean military to collect intelligence but no effort was made to assist them and "under no circumstances attempted to influence them." Since Allende’s inauguration, U.S. policy has been to maintain maximum covert pressure to prevent

8362-415: The laws that require it) for the death event. Manslaughter is a form of homicide in which the person who commits the homicide either does not intend to kill the victim, or kills the victim as the result of circumstances that would cause a reasonable person to become emotionally or mentally disturbed to the point of potentially losing control of their actions. The distinction between murder and manslaughter

8475-519: The legalist Schneider Doctrine and refused military involvement in a coup d'état against President Allende. Despite the declining economy, President Allende's Popular Unity coalition increased its vote to 43.2% in the March 1973 parliamentary elections ; but, by then, the informal alliance between Popular Unity and the Christian Democrats ended. The Christian Democrats allied with the right-wing National Party, who were opposed to Allende's government;

8588-608: The logistics service of the Army. Huber's widow alleges that Pinochet's reaction was to send him to a military hospital so he could see a psychiatrist . Ives Marziale, representative of Ivi Finance & Management Incorporated, a firm directed by German Gunter Leinthauser , arrived in Chile in October 1991 in hopes of buying second-hand weapons from the Chilean Army to sell to the Croatian Army . At that time, Croatia

8701-423: The low salaries, the military spent much time in military leisure-time facilities (e.g., country clubs ) where they met other officers and their families. The military remained apart from society and was to some degree an endogamous group as officers frequently married the sisters of their comrades or the daughters of high-ranked older officers. Many officers also had relatives in the military. In 1969, elements of

8814-593: The military junta led to the peaceful Chilean transition to democracy . Due to the coup's coincidental occurrence on the same date as the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States, it has sometimes been referred to as "the other 9/11". Allende contested the 1970 Chilean presidential election with Jorge Alessandri Rodríguez of the National Party and Radomiro Tomic of the Christian Democratic Party . Allende received 36.6% of

8927-641: The military made their first act of rebellion in 40 years when they participated in the Tacnazo insurrection . The Tacnazo was not a proper coup, but a protest against under-funding. In retrospect General Carlos Prats considered that Christian Democrats who were in power in 1969 committed the error of not taking the military's grievances seriously. Throughout the 1960s, the governments of Ecuador ( 1963 ), Brazil ( 1964 ), Argentina ( 1966 ), Peru ( 1968 ), and Bolivia ( 1969 ) were overthrown and replaced by military governments. In June 1973, Uruguay joined

9040-441: The nation one final time and stated hope for Chile in the future and wishing for the people to stay strong willed and overcome the darkness. In his own words he said: "Workers of my country, I have faith in Chile and its destiny. Other men will overcome this dark and bitter moment when treason seeks to prevail. Keep in mind that, much sooner than later, the great avenues will again be opened through which will pass free men to construct

9153-526: The palace, the exact circumstances of Allende's death are still disputed. In 2023, declassified documents showed that Nixon, Henry Kissinger , and the United States government, which had described Allende as a dangerous communist, were aware of the military's plans to overthrow Allende in the days before the coup d'état. Chile had previously been regarded as a symbol of democracy and political stability in South America, while other countries in

9266-570: The possibility of suicide. Despite this, the case remained dormant until Magistrate Claudio Pavez took over the case in September 2005; he subsequently found the death of Huber to be a homicide . Pavez has since accused the civilian police of obstruction of justice in relation to the investigation. On 7 March 2006, Magistrate Pavez indicted five retired high-ranking military officers on charges of conspiracy to cover up Huber's assassination. They included General Eugenio Covarrubias , head of

9379-532: The presidential palace . There, Allende refused to surrender, despite the military's declaring they would bomb the La Moneda if he resisted being deposed. The military would turn to negotiating with Allende where they would offer to fly him and his family out of Chile, which Allende would refuse. The Socialist Party along with his Cuban advisors proposed to Allende that he escape to the San Joaquín industrial zone in southern Santiago, to later re-group and lead

9492-491: The region suffered under military juntas and caudillismo ; the Chilean period prior to the coup is known as the Presidential Republic (1925–1973) era. At the time, Chile was a middle-class country, with about 30% or 9 million Chileans being middle class. The collapse of Chilean democracy marked the end of a series of democratic governments that had held elections since 1932. Historian Peter Winn described

9605-421: The rising cost and increasing shortages of food and fuels, but they were dispersed with tear gas. On 23 August 1973, with the support of the Christian Democrats and National Party members, the Chamber of Deputies passed 81–47 a resolution that asked "the President of the Republic, Ministers of State, and members of the Armed and Police Forces" to "put an immediate end" to "breach[es of] the Constitution . . . with

9718-441: The seditious intention of certain sectors." He observed that the declaration (passed 81–47 in the Chamber of Deputies) had not obtained the two-thirds Senate majority "constitutionally required" to convict the president of abuse of power , thus the Congress was "invoking the intervention of the armed forces and of Order against a democratically elected government" and "subordinat[ing] political representation of national sovereignty to

9831-477: The state, they sought to destroy it. He concluded by calling upon the workers and all democrats and patriots to join him in defending the Chilean constitution and the revolutionary process. In mid-July, a month before the resolution of the Chamber of Deputies, there was general agreement in the heart of the Army's high command on the desirability of terminating the Unidad Popular "experiment." How to do it

9944-559: The three following months as a result of continued resistance, and tens of thousands of people were arrested during the coup and held in the National Stadium. An estimated 40,000 Chileans were tortured under the Pinochet regime in the years following the coup. President Allende died in La Moneda during the coup. The junta officially declared that he committed suicide with a rifle given to him by Fidel Castro, two doctors from

10057-606: The time of the coup, according to a book of 2005 by Jonathan Haslam , but the use of brute military force, especially the use of Hawker Hunters, may have handicapped many GAP fighters from further action. Which was the case of some GAP members during the Hawker Hunters attack against Allende's residence in Tomás Moro. Allende would be found in his inner office dead, from a self inflicted bullet wound done between 2:00 and 2:30 p.m. Prior to Allende's suicide, he addressed

10170-486: The time, few of Allende's supporters believed the explanation that Allende had killed himself. Allende's body was exhumed in May 2011. The exhumation was requested by members of the Allende family, including his daughter Isabel who viewed the question of her father's death as "an insult to scientific intelligence." A scientific autopsy was performed, and the autopsy team delivered a unanimous finding on 19 July 2011 that Allende committed suicide using an AK-47 rifle. The team

10283-563: The trend in homicides to a steady increase in self-control of the sort promoted by Protestantism , and necessitated by schools and factories. Eisner argues that macro-level indicators for societal efforts to promote civility , self-discipline, and long-sightedness are strongly associated with fluctuations in homicide rates over the past six centuries. In the US, the National Violent Death Reporting System

10396-667: The troops moved forward, they were forced to retreat after coming under fire from GAP snipers perched on rooftops. General Arellano called for helicopter gunship support from the commander of the Chilean Army Puma helicopter squadron and the troops were able to advance again. Chilean Air Force aircraft soon arrived to provide close air support for the assault (by bombing the Palace), but the defenders did not surrender until nearly 2:30 pm. Allende's Cuban-trained guard would have had about 300 elite commando-trained GAP fighters at

10509-660: The two right-wing parties formed the Confederation of Democracy (CODE). The internecine parliamentary conflict between the legislature and the executive branch paralyzed the activities of government. Allende began to fear his opponents, convinced they were plotting his assassination. Using his daughter Beatriz as a messenger, he explained the situation to Fidel Castro . Castro gave four pieces of advice: convince technicians to stay in Chile, sell only copper for US dollars, do not engage in extreme revolutionary acts which would give opponents an excuse to wreck or seize control of

10622-493: The vast majority of homicide victims worldwide." In the mid-second millennium, local levels of violence in Europe were extremely high by the standards of modern developed countries. Typically, small groups of people would battle their neighbors using the farm tools at hand, such as knives, sickles, hammers, and axes. Mayhem and death were deliberate. The vast majority of Europeans lived in rural areas till 1800. Cities were few, and small in size, but their concentration of population

10735-563: The vote, while Alessandri was a very close second with 35.3%, and Tomic third with 28.1%, in what was a close three-way election. Although Allende received the highest number of votes, according to the Chilean constitution and since none of the candidates won by an absolute majority, the National Congress had to decide among the candidates. The Chilean Constitution of 1925 did not allow a person to be president for consecutive terms. The incumbent president, Eduardo Frei Montalva ,

10848-486: The winner of the presidential election. Alessandri, who was an accessory to the conspiracy, was ready to then resign and call for fresh elections. This approach completely failed in 1970 and was not attempted again. The other approach of the CIA in 1970 (but not later), also known as the Track II approach, was an attempt to encourage a military coup by creating a climate of crisis across the country. A CIA telegram sent to

10961-505: The world average. They were the most violent regions globally, outside of regions experiencing wars and religious or sociopolitical terrorism. Asia exclusive of West Asia and Central Asia, Western Europe, Northern Europe, as well as Oceania had the lowest homicide rates in the world. About 41 percent of the homicides worldwide occurred in 2012 with the use of guns, 24 percent by stabbing with sharp objects such as knife, and 35 percent by other means such as poison. The global conviction rate for

11074-597: The world immediately suspected the U.S. of foul play. In early newspaper reports, the U.S. denied any involvement or previous knowledge of the coup. Prompted by an incriminating New York Times article, the U.S. Senate opened an investigation into U.S. interference in Chile. A report prepared by the United States Intelligence Community in 2000, at the direction of the National Intelligence Council , that echoed

11187-413: Was a military overthrow of the democratic socialist president of Chile Salvador Allende and his Popular Unity coalition government. Allende, who has been described as the first Marxist to be democratically elected president in a Latin American liberal democracy , faced significant social unrest, political tension with the opposition-controlled National Congress of Chile . On 11 September 1973,

11300-434: Was arrested as the first prisoner of the coup d'état . Despite evidence that all branches of the Chilean armed forces were involved in the coup, Allende hoped that some units remained loyal to the government. Allende was convinced of Pinochet's loyalty, telling a reporter that the coup d'état leaders must have imprisoned the general. Only at 8:30 am, when the armed forces declared their control of Chile and that Allende

11413-446: Was composed of international forensic experts to assure an independent evaluation. Homicide Note: Varies by jurisdiction Note: Varies by jurisdiction Homicide is an act in which a person causes the death of another person . A homicide requires only a volitional act, or an omission, that causes the death of another, and thus a homicide may result from accidental , reckless , or negligent acts even if there

11526-437: Was conducive to violence and their trends resembled those in rural areas. Across Europe, homicide trends show a steady long-term decline. Regional differences were small, except that Italy's decline was later and slower. From about 1200 AD through 1800 AD, homicide rates from violent local episodes, not including military actions, declined by a factor of ten, from approximately 32 deaths per 100,000 people to 3.2 per 100,000. In

11639-443: Was deposed, did the president grasp the magnitude of the military's rebellion. Despite the lack of any military support, Allende refused to resign his office. At approx. 9:00 the carabineros of the La Moneda left the building. By 9:00 am, the armed forces controlled Chile, except for the city centre of the capital, Santiago. Originally, the military had planned to arrest Allende at his residence but he had made it to La Moneda,

11752-475: Was forced to resign both as defense minister and as the Army commander-in-chief on 24 August 1973, embarrassed by the Alejandrina Cox incident and a public protest of the wives of his generals at his house. General Augusto Pinochet replaced him as Army commander-in-chief the same day. In late August 1973, 100,000 Chilean women congregated at Plaza de la Constitución to protest against the government for

11865-475: Was headed in 1992 by General Covarrubias. Along with Manuel Provis, one of the main suspects in the Huber assassination, Covarrubias also allegedly detained DINA biochemist Eugenio Berríos in September 1991 before sending him to Argentina and then Uruguay . Covarrubias was also indicted for the kidnapping and murder of Berríos, who was killed in Uruguay in 1995. Investigations into the murder officially ended in July 2007. Following their trial, on 5 October 2009

11978-479: Was officially declared president of Chile in late 1974. The Nixon administration , which had played a role in creating favorable conditions for the coup, promptly recognized the junta government and supported its efforts to consolidate power. During the air raids and ground attacks preceding the coup, Allende delivered his final speech, expressing his determination to remain at Palacio de La Moneda and rejecting offers of safe passage for exile. Although he died in

12091-639: Was owned by Marianne Cheyre Stevenson , the sister of Juan Carlos Cheyre . Stevenson also owned the restaurant Les Assassins, where Berríos met with drug-dealers and former DINA agents in the early 1990s. The Cheyres are distant relatives of Juan Emilio Cheyre , Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army from 2002 to 2006. Augusto Pinochet%27s coup Coup successful [REDACTED] Chilean Government [REDACTED] Revolutionary Left Movement Other working-class militants [REDACTED] Chilean Armed Forces The 1973 Chilean coup d'état ( Spanish : Golpe de Estado en Chile de 1973 )

12204-519: Was preparing for the defense of Bosnia ahead of a Serbian offensive to capture Sarajevo , the Bosnian capital. However, the UN had imposed an arms embargo on the region to try to quell the fighting, and Croatia was thus hampered in its efforts to secure weapons and ordnance. On 19 November 1991, Marziale closed the deal with General Guillermo Letelier Skinner , a close associate of Pinochet's and head of

12317-605: Was revealed in December 1991, when the weapons, disguised as " humanitarian aid " from a Chilean military hospital, were discovered in Budapest . On 7 December 1991, a Hungarian newspaper published the scoop, and on 2 January 1992, General Letelier was forced to resign. Two days later, at the request of Minister of Defence Patricio Rojas , the Chilean Supreme Court nominated Magistrate de la Cerda to investigate

12430-535: Was serving with the Cazadores , became the first fatal casualty of the counterinsurgency operations in the mountainous area of Alquihue in Valdivia after being shot by a sniper. The Chilean Army suffered 12 killed in various clashes with MIR guerrillas and GAP fighters in October 1973. While fatalities in the battle during the coup might have been relatively small, the Chilean security forces sustained 162 dead in

12543-532: Was still nebulous. The constitutional generals, gathered around Army Commander-in-Chief General Carlos Prats , were facing pressure from an increasingly hardline anti-Allende faction within the Army. Prats had coined the idea of an Allende–Armed Forces government, including a "political peace treaty" with the Christian Democrats and restricted participation of the Chilean Communist party and a group of Socialists. Prats argued that "only thus will we prevent

12656-412: Was therefore ineligible as a candidate. The CIA 's "Track I" operation was a plan to influence the Congress to choose Alessandri, who would resign after a short time in office, forcing a second election. Frei would then be eligible to run. Alessandri announced on 9 September that if Congress chose him, he would resign. Allende signed a Statute of Constitutional Guarantees, which stated that he would follow

12769-465: Was widely reported that the CIA was directly involved in orchestrating and carrying out the coup, subsequently released sources suggest a much reduced role of the US government. By 6:00 am on 11 September 1973, a date chosen to match a historical 1924 coup , the Navy captured Valparaíso , strategically stationing ships and marine infantry in the central coast and closed radio and television networks. The Province Prefect informed President Allende of

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