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89-718: The 15th Army was activated in occupied France on 15 January 1941 with General Curt Haase in command. It was tasked with occupation and defensive duties in the Pas de Calais area. The Allies landed further west, in Operation Overlord , during June 1944. Afterwards, the 15th Army was withdrawn to the Netherlands, where it fought the Allies during Operation Market Garden in September 1944. It suffered defeat against

178-736: A central office known as the Höheres Kommando der Marinedienststellen in Groß-Paris (Supreme Command for Naval Services in the Greater Paris Area) who in turn answered to a senior commander for all of France known as the Admiral Frankreich . After Case Anton , the "Admiral Frankreich" naval command was broken apart into smaller offices which answered directly to the operational command of Navy Group West . In order to suppress partisans and resistance fighters,

267-436: A couple living together (opposite-sex or same-sex). De facto unions are defined in the federal Family Law Act 1975 . De facto relationships provide couples who are living together on a genuine domestic basis with many of the same rights and benefits as married couples. Two people can become a de facto couple by entering into a registered relationship (i.e.: civil union or domestic partnership) or by being assessed as such by

356-410: A court order awards custody, either sole or joint. A de facto monopoly is a system where many suppliers of a product are allowed but the market is so completely dominated by one that the other players are unable to compete or even survive. The related terms oligopoly and monopsony are similar in meaning and this is the type of situation that antitrust laws are intended to eliminate. In finance,

445-427: A de facto national language but no official, de jure national language. Some countries have a de facto national language in addition to an official language. In Lebanon and Morocco , Arabic is an official language (in addition to Tamazight in the case of Morocco), but an additional de facto language is also French. In New Zealand, the official languages are Māori and New Zealand Sign Language ; however, English

534-767: A famous bordello on the Rue Lauriston, which was near the Carlingue headquarters and was often frequented by German troops. The curfew in Paris was not upheld as strictly as in other cities. The Django Reinhardt song " Nuages ", performed by Reinhardt and the Quintet of the Hot Club of France in the Salle Pleyel , gained notoriety among both French and German fans. Jean Reinhardt was even invited to play for

623-430: A power above the forms of law, claim to act and do really act in their stead. In politics, a de facto leader of a country or region is one who has assumed authority, regardless of whether by lawful, constitutional, or legitimate means; very frequently, the term is reserved for those whose power is thought by some faction to be held by unlawful, unconstitutional, or otherwise illegitimate means, often because it had deposed

712-477: A previous leader or undermined the rule of a current one. De facto leaders sometimes do not hold a constitutional office and may exercise power informally. Not all dictators are de facto rulers. For example, Augusto Pinochet of Chile initially came to power as the chairperson of a military junta , which briefly made him de facto leader of Chile, but he later amended the nation's constitution and made himself president until new elections were called, making him

801-672: A state in Australia. This is because the power to legislate on de facto matters relies on referrals by States to the Commonwealth in accordance with Section 51(xxxvii) of the Australian Constitution , where it states the new federal law can only be applied back within a state. There must be a nexus between the de facto relationship itself and the Australian state. If an Australian de facto couple moves out of

890-604: A state, they do not take the state with them and the new federal law is tied to the territorial limits of a state. The legal status and rights and obligations of the de facto or unmarried couple would then be recognised by the laws of the country where they are ordinarily resident. This is unlike marriage and "matrimonial causes" which are recognised by sections 51(xxi) and (xxii) of the Constitution of Australia and internationally by marriage law and conventions, Hague Convention on Marriages (1978). A de facto relationship

979-457: A subsequent legitimate government. That doctrine was nullified by the constitutional reform of 1994 . Article 36 states: Two examples of de facto leaders are Deng Xiaoping of the People's Republic of China and general Manuel Noriega of Panama . Both of these men exercised nearly all control over their respective nations for many years despite not having either legal constitutional office or

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1068-541: A substitute to gasoline, and wooden soles for shoes were used instead of leather. Soap was rare and made in some households from fats and caustic soda . Coffee was replaced by toasted barley mixed with chicory , and sugar with saccharin . The Germans seized about 80 percent of the French food production, which caused severe disruption to the household economy of the French people . French farm production fell in half because of lack of fuel, fertilizer and workers; even so

1157-608: Is a museum: Musée du 5 juin 1944  [ fr ] . This article about a specific German military unit is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . German military administration in occupied France during World War II The Military Administration in France ( German : Militärverwaltung in Frankreich ; French : Administration militaire en France ) was an interim occupation authority established by Nazi Germany during World War II to administer

1246-465: Is a third de facto language. Russian was the de facto official language of the central government and, to a large extent, republican governments of the former Soviet Union , but was not declared de jure state language until 1990. A short-lived law, effected April 24, 1990, installed Russian as the sole de jure official language of the Union prior to its dissolution in 1991. In Hong Kong and Macau ,

1335-438: Is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with de jure ('by law'). In jurisprudence , a de facto law (also known as a de facto regulation ) is a law or regulation that is followed but "is not specifically enumerated by a law." By definition, de facto 'contrasts' de jure which means "as defined by law" or "as a matter of law." For example, if a particular law exists in one jurisdiction, but

1424-416: Is comparable to non-marital relationship contracts (sometimes called "palimony agreements") and certain limited forms of domestic partnership, which are found in many jurisdictions throughout the world. A de facto Relationship is not comparable to common-law marriage , which is a fully legal marriage that has merely been contracted in an irregular way (including by habit and repute). Only nine U.S. states and

1513-406: Is followed in another where it has no legal effect (such as in another country), then the law could be considered a de facto regulation (a " de facto regulation" is not an officially prescribed legal classification for a type of law in a particular jurisdiction, rather, it is a concept about law(s). A de facto regulation may be followed by an organization as a result of the market size of

1602-459: Is not a marriage and has significant differences socially, financially and emotionally." The above sense of de facto is related to the relationship between common law traditions and formal (statutory, regulatory, civil) law, and common-law marriages . Common law norms for settling disputes in practical situations, often worked out over many generations to establishing precedent , are a core element informing decision making in legal systems around

1691-531: Is used for both: to contrast obligatory standards (also known as "de jure standards"); or to express a dominant standard, when there is more than one proposed standard. In social sciences , a voluntary standard that is also a de facto standard, is a typical solution to a coordination problem . Several countries, including Australia, Japan, Mexico, the United Kingdom and the United States, have

1780-758: The Oberkommando der Wehrmacht . The use and abuse of Paris in the visitations of German forces during the Second World War led to a backlash; the intensive prostitution during the occupation made way for the Loi de Marthe Richard in 1946, which closed the bordellos and reduced raunchy stage shows to mere dancing events. During the German occupation, a forced labour policy, called Service du Travail Obligatoire ("Obligatory work service, STO"), consisted of

1869-514: The Alps border, and a 50-kilometre (31 mi) demilitarised zone along the same. It was expanded to all territory on the left bank of the Rhône river after its invasion together with Germany of Vichy France on 11 November 1942, except for areas around Lyon and Marseille , which were added to Germany's zone sud , and Corsica . The Italian occupation zone was also occupied by Germany and added to

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1958-610: The Armistice of 22 June 1940 after the blitzkrieg success of the Wehrmacht leading to the Fall of France ; at the time both French and Germans thought the occupation would be temporary and last only until Britain came to terms, which was believed to be imminent. For instance, France agreed that its soldiers would remain prisoners of war until the cessation of all hostilities. The "French State" ( État français ) replaced

2047-678: The Ascq massacre . Large maquis where significant military operations were conducted included the maquis du Vercors , the maquis du Limousin , the maquis des Glières , the maquis du Mont Mouchet , and the maquis de Saint-Marcel . Major round-up operations included the Round up of Marseille and the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup . Although the majority of the French population did not take part in active resistance, many resisted passively through acts such as listening to

2136-463: The Family Court or Federal Circuit Court . Couples who are living together are generally recognised as a de facto union and thus able to claim many of the rights and benefits of a married couple, even if they have not registered or officially documented their relationship, although this may vary by state. It has been noted that it is harder to prove de facto relationship status, particularly in

2225-812: The First Canadian Army in the Battle of the Scheldt during which the Army Headquarters at Dordrecht was subject to a mass attack by Hawker Typhoons of the Second Tactical Air Force on 24 October 1944. Two generals and 70 other staff officers were killed in the attack. During October 1944 the 15th Army continued to resist against the Canadian First Army and British Second Army as they pushed west from

2314-732: The Free French forces. Some 40,000 malgré-nous ("against our will"), citizens of re-annexed Alsace-Lorraine drafted into the Wehrmacht, became casualties. Civilian casualties amounted to around 150,000 (60,000 by aerial bombing, 60,000 in the resistance, and 30,000 murdered by German occupation forces). Prisoners of war and deportee totals were around 1.9 million. Of this, around 240,000 died in captivity. An estimated 40,000 were prisoners of war, 100,000 racial deportees, 60,000 political prisoners and 40,000 died as slave labourers. Military propaganda for European countries under occupation

2403-580: The French Third Republic that had dissolved in defeat. Though nominally extending its sovereignty over the whole country, it was in practice limited in exercising its authority to the free zone. As Paris was located in the occupied zone, its government was seated in the spa town of Vichy in Auvergne , and therefore it was more commonly known as Vichy France . While the Vichy government

2492-758: The Nijmegen / Eindhoven salient in Operation Pheasant . The British Second Army cleared the 15th Army from the Roer Triangle during Operation Blackcock , pushing it back over the Rur and Wurm rivers. It was involved in the Battle of Hurtgen Forest before finally surrendering along the Ruhr river in 1945. Today, the former HQ of the 15th Army, in Tourcoing , which is just north of Lille in France,

2581-590: The SS security service when captured and liable to be summarily executed . As the war went on, garrisoning the Atlantic Wall and suppressing the resistance became heavier and heavier duties. Some notable units and formations stationed in France during the occupation: The " Appeal of 18 June " by de Gaulle's Free France government in exile in London had little immediate effect, and few joined its French Forces of

2670-458: The World Bank has a pertinent definition: A "de facto government" comes into, or remains in, power by means not provided for in the country's constitution, such as a coup d'état, revolution, usurpation, abrogation or suspension of the constitution. In engineering, de facto technology is a system in which the intellectual property and know-how is privately held. Usually only the owner of

2759-422: The jurisdiction imposing the regulation as a proportion of the overall market; wherein the market share is so large that it results in the organization choosing to comply by implementing one standard of business with respect to the given de facto law instead of altering standards between different jurisdictions and markets (e.g. data protection, manufacturing, etc.). The decision to voluntarily comply may be

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2848-406: The ligne de démarcation between the north zone and the south zone also required an Ausweis , which was difficult to acquire. People could write only to their family members, and this was only permissible using a pre-filled card where the sender checked off the appropriate words (e.g. 'in good health', 'wounded', 'dead', 'prisoner'). The occupied zone was on German time, which was one hour ahead of

2937-527: The special administrative regions of China , the official languages are English and Portuguese respectively, together with Chinese. However, no particular variety of Chinese referred to in law is specified. Cantonese ( Hong Kong Cantonese ) in traditional Chinese characters is the de facto standard in both territories. A de facto government is a government wherein all the attributes of sovereignty have, by usurpation, been transferred from those who had been legally invested with them to others, who, sustained by

3026-472: The zone sud after Italy's surrender in September 1943 , except for Corsica, which was liberated by the landings of Free French forces and local Italian troops that became co-belligerents of the Allies. After Germany and France agreed on an armistice following the defeats of May and June, Colonel General Wilhelm Keitel and General Charles Huntzinger , representatives of the Third Reich and of

3115-426: The 20th century, the phrase de facto state of war refers to a situation where two nations are actively engaging, or are engaged, in aggressive military actions against the other without a formal declaration of war . A domestic partner outside marriage is referred to as a de facto husband or wife by some authorities. In Australian law , a de facto relationship is a legally recognized, committed relationship of

3204-568: The Atlantic coast, became the zone libre ("free zone"), where the Vichy regime remained sovereign as an independent state, though under heavy German influence due to the restrictions of the Armistice (including a heavy tribute) and economic dependency on Germany. It constituted a land area of 246,618 square kilometres, approximately 45 percent of France, and included approximately 33 percent of

3293-587: The District of Columbia still permit common-law marriage; but common law marriages are otherwise valid and recognised by and in all jurisdictions whose rules of comity mandate the recognition of any marriage that was legally formed in the jurisdiction where it was contracted. De facto joint custody is comparable to the joint legal decision-making authority a married couple has over their child(ren) in many jurisdictions (Canada as an example). Upon separation, each parent maintains de facto joint custody, until such time

3382-748: The First World War. It was re-annexed by the Third Reich (thus subjecting their male population to German military conscription .) The departments of Nord and Pas-de-Calais were attached to the military administration in Belgium and Northern France , which was also responsible for civilian affairs in the 20-kilometre (12 mi) wide zone interdite along the Atlantic coast. Another "forbidden zone" were areas in north-eastern France , corresponding to Lorraine and roughly about half each of Franche-Comté , Champagne and Picardie . War refugees were prohibited from returning to their homes, and it

3471-625: The French government of Marshal Philippe Pétain respectively, signed it on 22 June 1940 at the Rethondes clearing in Compiègne Forest . As it was done at the same place and in the same railroad carriage where the armistice ending the First World War when Germany surrendered, it is known as the Second Compiègne armistice . France was roughly divided into an occupied northern zone and an unoccupied southern zone, according to

3560-741: The German authorities with the propaganda and control of the French press and of publishing during the Occupation of France. Sections ( Staffel , "squadron") in each important town. After their victory in June 1940 , the occupation authorities first relied on the German embassy in Paris ( Hôtel Beauharnais ) to monitor publications, shows, and radio broadcasts. They then set up the Propaganda-Abteilung Frankreich (France Propaganda Department), which developed Nazi propaganda and censorship services called Propagandastaffel in

3649-634: The German military's control and free zones for the maquisards , so-called after the maquis shrubland that provided ideal terrain for guerrilla warfare . The most important anti-partisan action was the Battle of Vercors . The most infamous one was the Oradour-sur-Glane massacre . Other notable atrocities committed were the Tulle massacre , the Le Paradis massacre , the Maillé massacre , and

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3738-609: The Germans seized half the meat, 20 percent of the produce, and 80 percent of the Champagne . Supply problems quickly affected French stores which lacked most items. Faced with these difficulties in everyday life, the government answered by rationing , and creating food charts and tickets which were to be exchanged for bread, meat, butter and cooking oil. The rationing system was stringent but badly managed, leading to malnourishment, black markets , and hostility to state management of

3827-653: The Gestapo in seizing members of the resistance and minorities including Jews for shipment to detention centres, such as the Drancy internment camp , en route to Auschwitz , and other German concentration camps, including Dachau , Buchenwald and Mauthausen . Some Frenchmen also volunteered directly in German forces to fight for Germany and/or against Bolsheviks , such as the Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism . Volunteers from this and other outfits later constituted

3916-708: The Interior beyond those that had already gone into exile to join the Free French. After the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the French communist party , hitherto under orders from the Comintern to remain passive against the German occupiers, began to mount actions against them. De Gaulle sent Jean Moulin back to France as his formal link to the irregulars throughout the occupied country to coordinate

4005-740: The Liberation. One month after the occupation, the bi-monthly soldiers' magazine Der Deutsche Wegleiter für Paris  [ fr ] ( The German Guide to Paris ) was first published by the Paris Kommandantur , and became a success. Further guides, such as the Guide aryien , counted e.g. the Moulin Rouge among the must-see locations in Paris. Famous clubs such as the Folies-Belleville or Bobino were also among

4094-637: The STO, going underground to avoid imprisonment and subsequent deportation to Germany. For the most part, those "work dodgers" ( réfractaires ) became maquisards . There were German reprisals against civilians in occupied countries; in France, the Nazis built an execution chamber in the cellars of the former Ministry of Aviation building in Paris. Many Jews were victims of the Holocaust in France . Approximately 49 concentration camps were in use in France during

4183-478: The Two Sicilies ). The de facto boundaries of a country are defined by the area that its government is actually able to enforce its laws in, and to defend against encroachments by other countries that may also claim the same territory de jure. The Durand Line is an example of a de facto boundary. As well as cases of border disputes , de facto boundaries may also arise in relatively unpopulated areas in which

4272-599: The United States (outside of the South) until the 1950s and 1960s was simply discrimination that was not segregation by law (de jure). " Jim Crow laws ", which were enacted in the 1870s, brought legal racial segregation against black Americans residing in the American South . These laws were legally ended in 1964 by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . Most commonly used to describe large scale conflicts of

4361-417: The allied forces. German anti-partisan operations claimed around 13,000-16,000 French victims, including 4,000 to 5,000 innocent civilians. At the end of the war, some 580,000 French had died (40,000 of these by the western Allied forces during the bombardments of the first 48 hours of Operation Overlord). Military deaths were 92,000 in 1939–40. Some 58,000 were killed in action from 1940 to 1945 fighting in

4450-412: The armistice convention "in order to protect the interests of the German Reich". The French colonial empire remained under the authority of Marshal Pétain's Vichy regime. French sovereignty was to be exercised over the whole of French territory, including the occupied zone, Alsace and Moselle, but the third article of the armistice stipulated that French authorities in the occupied zone would have to obey

4539-419: The banned BBC's Radio Londres , or giving collateral or material aid to Resistance members. Others assisted in the escape of downed US or British airmen who eventually found their way back to Britain, often through Spain. By the eve of the liberation, numerous factions of nationalists, anarchists, communists, socialists and others , counting between 100,000 and up to 400,000 combatants, were actively fighting

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4628-505: The border was never formally established or in which the agreed border was never surveyed and its exact position is unclear. The same concepts may also apply to a boundary between provinces or other subdivisions of a federal state . In South Africa, although de jure apartheid formally began in 1948, de facto racist policies and practices discriminating against black South Africans, People of Colour, and Indians dated back decades before. De facto racial discrimination and segregation in

4717-625: The cadre of the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French) . Stanley Hoffmann in 1974, and after him, other historians such as Robert Paxton and Jean-Pierre Azéma have used the term collaborationnistes to refer to fascists and Nazi sympathisers who, for ideological reasons, wished a reinforced collaboration with Hitler's Germany, in contrast to "collaborators", people who merely cooperated out of self-interest. Examples of these are PPF leader Jacques Doriot , writer Robert Brasillach or Marcel Déat . A principal motivation and ideological foundation among collaborationnistes

4806-435: The case of the death of one of the partners. In April 2014, an Australian federal court judge ruled that a heterosexual couple who had a child and lived together for 13 years were not in a de facto relationship and thus the court had no jurisdiction to divide up their property under family law following a request for separation. In his ruling, the judge stated "de facto relationship(s) may be described as 'marriage like' but it

4895-586: The convicted person to "live out the vast majority of their life in jail prior to their release." A de facto standard is a standard (formal or informal) that has achieved a dominant position by tradition, enforcement, or market dominance. It has not necessarily received formal approval by way of a standardization process, and may not have an official standards document. Technical standards are usually voluntary, such as ISO 9000 requirements, but may be obligatory, enforced by government norms, such as drinking water quality requirements. The term "de facto standard"

4984-404: The countryside and barter against cigarettes were also frequent practices during this period. These activities were strictly forbidden, however, and thus carried out at the risk of confiscation and fines. During the day, numerous regulations, censorship and propaganda made the occupation increasingly unbearable. At night, inhabitants had to abide a curfew and it was forbidden to go out during

5073-436: The eight major Résistance groups into one organisation. Moulin got their agreement to form the National Council of the Resistance ( Conseil National de la Résistance ). Moulin was eventually captured, and died under brutal torture by the Gestapo . The resistance intensified after it became clear the tide of war had shifted after the Reich's defeat at Stalingrad in early 1943 and, by 1944, large remote areas were out of

5162-488: The end of summer of 1940: "And so the alien presence, increasingly hated and feared in private, could seem so permanent that, in the public places where daily life went on, it was taken for granted". At the same time France was also marked by disappearances as buildings were renamed, books banned, art was stolen to be taken to Germany and as time went on, people started to vanish. With nearly 75,000 inhabitants killed and 550,000 tons of bombs dropped, France was, after Germany,

5251-455: The food supply. The official ration provided starvation level diets of 1,300 or fewer calories a day, supplemented by home gardens and, especially, black market purchases. Hunger prevailed, especially affecting youth in urban areas. The queues lengthened in front of shops. In the absence of meat and other foods including potatoes, people ate unusual vegetables, such as Swedish turnip and Jerusalem artichoke . Food shortages were most acute in

5340-571: The formal and legal ruler of Chile. Similarly, Saddam Hussein 's formal rule of Iraq is often recorded as beginning in 1979, the year he assumed the Presidency of Iraq . However, his de facto rule of the nation began earlier: during his time as vice president ; he exercised a great deal of power at the expense of the elderly Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr , the de jure president. In Argentina , the successive military coups that overthrew constitutional governments installed de facto governments in 1930–1932 , 1943–1946 , 1955–1958 , 1966–1973 and 1976–1983 ,

5429-401: The help of notable French collaborators like Paul Touvier and Maurice Papon , along with collaborationists French auxiliaries like the Milice , the Franc-Gardes and the Legionary Order Service . The two main collaborationist political parties were the French Popular Party (PPF) and the National Popular Rally (RNP), each with 20,000 to 30,000 members. The Milice participated with

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5518-484: The huge swastika flags draped over the Hôtel de Ville and flying on top of the Eiffel Tower. The British historian Ian Ousby wrote: Even today, when people who are not French or did not live through the Occupation look at photos of German soldiers marching down the Champs Élysées or of Gothic-lettered German signposts outside the great landmarks of Paris, they can still feel a slight shock of disbelief. The scenes look not just unreal, but almost deliberately surreal, as if

5607-463: The large cities. In the more remote country villages, however, clandestine slaughtering, vegetable gardens and the availability of milk products permitted better survival. Some people benefited from the black market , where food was sold without tickets at very high prices. Farmers diverted especially meat to the black market, which meant that much less for the open market. Counterfeit food tickets were also in circulation. Direct buying from farmers in

5696-499: The last of which combined the powers of the presidential office with those of the National Congress . The subsequent legal analysis of the validity of such actions led to the formulation of a doctrine of the de facto governments , a case law ( precedential ) formulation which essentially said that the actions and decrees of past de facto governments, although not rooted in legal legitimacy when taken, remained binding until and unless such time as they were revoked or repealed de jure by

5785-809: The legal authority to exercise power. These individuals are today commonly recorded as the "leaders" of their respective nations; recording their legal, correct title would not give an accurate assessment of their power. Another example of a de facto ruler is someone who is not the actual ruler but exerts great or total influence over the true ruler, which is quite common in monarchies. Some examples of these de facto rulers are Empress Dowager Cixi of China (for son Tongzhi Emperor and nephew Guangxu Emperor ), Prince Alexander Menshikov (for his former lover Empress Catherine I of Russia ), Cardinal Richelieu of France (for Louis XIII ), Queen Elisabeth of Parma (for her husband, King Philip V ) and Queen Maria Carolina of Naples and Sicily (for her husband King Ferdinand I of

5874-473: The military administration and that Germany would exercise rights of an occupying power within it: In the occupied region of France, the German Reich exercises all of the rights of an occupying power . The French government undertakes to facilitate in every way possible the implementation of these rights, and to provide the assistance of the French administrative services to that end. The French government will immediately direct all officials and administrators of

5963-470: The military administration cooperated closely with the Gestapo , the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) , the intelligence service of the SS , and the Sicherheitspolizei (SiPo) , its security police. It also had at its disposal the support of the French authorities and police forces, who had to cooperate per the conditions set in the armistice, to round up Jews , anti-fascists and other dissidents, and vanish them into Nacht und Nebel , "Night and Fog". It also had

6052-409: The night without an Ausweis . They had to close their shutters or windows and turn off any light, to prevent Allied aircraft using city lights for navigation. The experience of the Occupation was a deeply psychologically disorienting one for the French as what was once familiar and safe suddenly become strange and threatening. Many Parisians could not get over the shock experienced when they first saw

6141-417: The occupation forces. Supported by the Special Operations Executive and the Office of Strategic Services that air-dropped weapons and supplies, as well as infiltrating agents like Nancy Wake who provided tactical advice and specialist skills like radio operation and demolition , they systematically sabotaged railway lines, destroyed bridges, cut German supply lines , and provided general intelligence to

6230-777: The occupation, the largest of them at Drancy . In the occupied zone, as of 1942, Jews were required to wear the yellow badge and were only allowed to ride in the last carriage of the Paris Métro . 13,152 Jews residing in the Paris region were victims of a mass arrest by pro-Nazi French authorities on 16 and 17 July 1942, known as the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup , and were transported to Auschwitz where they were killed. De facto De facto ( / d eɪ ˈ f æ k t oʊ , d i -, d ə -/ day FAK -toh, dee -⁠, də -⁠ ; Latin: [deː ˈfaktoː] ; lit.   ' in fact ' ) describes practices that exist in reality, regardless of whether they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It

6319-462: The occupied territory to comply with the regulations of, and to collaborate fully with, the German military authorities. The military administration was responsible for civil affairs in occupied France. It was divided into Kommandanturen (singular Kommandantur ), in decreasing hierarchical order Oberfeldkommandanturen , Feldkommandanturen , Kreiskommandanturen , and Ortskommandanturen . German naval affairs in France were coordinated through

6408-571: The occupied zone (with 14.2m in the unoccupied zone). This does not include the 1,600,000 prisoners of war, nor the 60,000 French workers in Germany or the departments of Alsace-Lorraine. The life of the French during the German occupation was marked, from the beginning, by endemic shortages. They are explained by several factors: Ersatz , or makeshift substitutes, took the place of many products that were in short supply; wood gas generators on trucks and automobiles burned charcoal or wood pellets as

6497-463: The occupied zone in areas of northern and western France . This so-called zone occupée was established in June 1940, and renamed zone nord ("north zone") in November 1942, when the previously unoccupied zone in the south known as zone libre ("free zone") was also occupied and renamed zone sud ("south zone"). Its role in France was partly governed by the conditions set by

6586-476: The requisition and transfer of hundreds of thousands of French workers to Germany against their will, for the German war effort. In addition to work camps for factories, agriculture, and railroads, forced labour was used for V-1 launch sites and other military facilities targeted by the Allies in Operation Crossbow . Beginning in 1942, many refused to be drafted to factories and farms in Germany by

6675-486: The result of: a desire to simplify manufacturing processes & cost-effectiveness ( such as adopting a one size fits all approach ), consumer demand & expectation, or other factors known only to the complier. In prison sentences , the term de facto life sentence (also known as a "virtual" life sentence ) is used to describe a "non-life sentence" that is long enough to end after the convicted person would have likely died due to old age, or one long enough to cause

6764-580: The second most severely bomb-devastated country on the Western Front of World War II . Allied bombings were particularly intense before and during Operation Overlord in 1944. The Allies' Transportation Plan aiming at the systematic destruction of French railway marshalling yards and railway bridges, in 1944, also took a heavy toll on civilian lives. For example, the 26 May 1944 bombing hit railway targets in and around five cities in south-eastern France, causing over 2,500 civilian deaths. Crossing

6853-424: The sought-after venues. A wide array of German units were rotated to France to rest and refit; the Germans used the motto "Jeder einmal in Paris" ("everyone once in Paris") and provided "recreational visits" to the city for their troops. Various famous artists, such as Yves Montand or later Les Compagnons de la chanson , started their careers during the occupation. Edith Piaf lived above L'Étoile de Kléber ,

6942-427: The technology manufactures the related equipment. Meanwhile, a standard technology consists of systems that have been publicly released to a certain degree so that anybody can manufacture equipment supporting the technology. For instance, in cell phone communications, CDMA1X is a de facto technology, while GSM is a standard technology. Examples of a de facto General Manager in sports include Syd Thrift who acted as

7031-457: The total French labor force. The demarcation line between the free zone and the occupied zone was a de facto border, necessitating special authorisation and a laissez-passer from the German authorities to cross. These restrictions remained in place after Vichy was occupied and the zone renamed zone sud ("south zone"), and also placed under military administration in November 1942. The Italian occupation zone consisted of small areas along

7120-426: The unexpected conjunction of German and French, French and German, was the result of a Dada prank and not the sober record of history. This shock is merely a distant echo of what the French underwent in 1940: seeing a familiar landscape transformed by the addition of the unfamiliar, living among everyday sights suddenly made bizarre, no longer feeling at home in places they had known all their lives. Ousby wrote that by

7209-580: The unoccupied zone. Other policies implemented in the occupied zone but not in the free zone were a curfew from 10 p.m to 5 a.m, a ban on American films, the suppression of displaying the French flag and singing the Marseillaise , and the banning of Vichy paramilitary organizations and the Veterans' Legion. Schoolchildren were made to sing " Maréchal, nous voilà ! " ("Marshall, here we are!"). The portrait of Marshal Philippe Pétain adorned

7298-500: The various regions of France . Each Propagandastaffel was led by a commander and employed some thirty people. There were Sonderführers (special directors) in charge of particular areas: censorship of shows and plays, publishing and press, cinematographic works, and public advertising and speeches. The directors, chosen for their skills in civil matters, wore military dress and were subject to military regulation. The census for 1 April 1941 show 25,071,255 inhabitants in

7387-572: The walls of classrooms, thus creating a personality cult . Propaganda was present in education to train the young people with the ideas of the new Vichy regime . However, there was no resumption in ideology as in other occupied countries, for example in Poland , where the teaching elite was liquidated. Teachers were not imprisoned and the programs were not modified overall. In the private Catholic sector, many school directors hid Jewish children (thus saving their life) and provided education for them until

7476-656: The world. Because its early forms originated in England in the Middle Ages , this is particularly true in Anglo-American legal traditions and in former colonies of the British Empire , while also playing a role in some countries that have mixed systems with significant admixtures of civil law. Due to Australian federalism , de facto partnerships can only be legally recognised whilst the couple lives within

7565-882: Was anti-communism . The Wehrmacht maintained a varying number of divisions in France . 100,000 Germans were in the whole of the German-zone in France in December 1941. When the bulk of the Wehrmacht was fighting on the eastern front , German units were rotated to France to rest and refit. The number of troops increased when the threat of Allied invasion began looming large, with the Dieppe raid marking its real beginning. The actions of Canadian and British Commandos against German troops brought Hitler to condemn them as irregular warfare . In his Commando Order he denied them lawful combatant status, and ordered them to be handed over to

7654-583: Was headquartered in Potsdam . There was one Propaganda battalion in each occupied country, headquartered in the main town or capital. This was further subdivided at the regional level. Headquarters for France was at the Hotel Majestic in Paris, with propaganda sections ( Staffel ) in Bordeaux , Dijon , and other towns. A Propagandastaffel ("propaganda squadron") was a service charged by

7743-399: Was intended for German settlers and annexation in the coming Nazi New Order ( Neue Ordnung ). The occupied zone ( French : zone occupée , French pronunciation: [zon ɔkype] , German : Besetztes Gebiet ) consisted of the rest of northern and western France, including the two forbidden zones. The southern part of France, except for the western half of Aquitaine along

7832-632: Was nominally in charge of all of France, the military administration in the occupied zone was a de facto Nazi dictatorship, where the actual sovereignty of the French government was seriously limited. Nazi rule was extended to the free zone when it was invaded by Germany and Italy during Case Anton on 11 November 1942 in response to Operation Torch , the Allied landings in French North Africa on 8 November 1942. The Vichy government remained in existence, even though its authority

7921-665: Was now severely reduced. The German military administration in France ended with the Liberation of France after the Normandy and Provence landings . It formally existed from May 1940 to December 1944, though most of its territory had been liberated by the Allies by the end of summer 1944. Alsace-Lorraine had been annexed after the Franco-Prussian war in 1871 by the German Empire and returned to France after

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