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81-606: According to Speer himself, it was inspired not by the Circus Maximus in Rome but by the Panathenaic Stadium of Athens , which had impressed him greatly when he had visited it in 1935. Speer's stadium was a gigantic inflation of its Greco-Roman model, from which he borrowed the horseshoe configuration and the propylaeum , now transformed into a raised, pillared, temple-like structure ( Säulenvorhof ) attached to

162-762: A religious vow , such as the games in celebration of a triumph . In Roman tradition, the earliest triumphal ludi at the Circus were vowed by Tarquin the Proud to Jupiter in the late Regal era for his victory over Pometia . Ludi ranged in duration and scope from one-day or even half-day events to spectacular multi-venue celebrations held over several days, with religious ceremonies and public feasts, horse and chariot racing, athletics, plays and recitals, beast-hunts and gladiator fights. Some included public executions. The greater ludi (meaning sport or game in Latin ) at

243-504: A barrier has to be installed along the foundation of the landfill to contain the hazardous substances that may remain in the disposed waste. Some hazardous wastes can be recycled into new products. Examples may include lead–acid batteries or electronic circuit boards . When heavy metals in these types of ashes go through the proper treatment, they could bind to other pollutants and convert them into easier-to-dispose solids, or they could be used as pavement filling. Such treatments reduce

324-486: A basket-maker's workshop under the stands, on the Aventine side; the emperor Tiberius compensated various small businesses there for their losses. In AD 64 , during Nero 's reign, fire broke out at the semi-circular end of the Circus, swept through the stands and shops, and destroyed much of the city. Games and festivals continued at the Circus, which was rebuilt over several years to the same footprint and design. By

405-532: A comment he does not elucidate. When Speer remarked on the staggering cost of the building, Hitler, who laid its cornerstone on September 9, 1937, merely retorted that it would cost less than two battleships of the Bismarck class . Wolfgang Lotz , writing about the stadium in 1937, commented that it would contain twice the number of spectators originally accommodated by the Circus Maximus. Inevitably for

486-726: A company or at an industrial setting is not HHW. The following list includes categories often applied to HHW. It is important to note that many of these categories overlap and that many household wastes can fall into multiple categories: Historically, some hazardous wastes were disposed of in regular landfills . Hazardous wastes must often be stabilized and solidified in order to enter a landfill and must undergo different treatments in order to stabilize and dispose of them. Most flammable materials can be recycled into industrial fuel. Some materials with hazardous constituents can be recycled, such as lead acid batteries. Many landfills require countermeasures against groundwater contamination. For example,

567-492: A dividing barrier. The games' sponsor (Latin editor) usually sat beside the images of attending gods, on a conspicuous, elevated stand ( pulvinar ) but seats at the track's perimeter offered the best, most dramatic close-ups. In 494 BC (very early in the Republican era ) the dictator Manius Valerius Maximus and his descendants were granted rights to a curule chair at the southeastern turn, an excellent viewpoint for

648-493: A facility where hazardous waste is placed or on land and which is not a pile, a land treatment facility, a surface impoundment, an underground injection well , a salt dome formation, a salt bed formation, an underground mine, a cave, or a corrective action management unit (40 CFR 260.10)." Some hazardous waste types may be eliminated using pyrolysis in a high temperature not necessarily through electrical arc but starved of oxygen to avoid combustion. However, when electrical arc

729-499: A further 5,000 seats. Some repairs were unforeseen and extensive, such as those carried out in Diocletian 's reign, after the collapse of a seating section killed some 13,000 people. The southeastern turn of the track ran between two shrines which may have predated the Circus' formal development. One, at the outer southeast perimeter, was dedicated to the valley's eponymous goddess Murcia , an obscure deity associated with Venus ,

810-421: A god of grain storage and patron of the Circus. After the 6th century, the Circus fell into disuse and decay. The lower levels, ever prone to flooding, were gradually buried under waterlogged alluvial soil and accumulated debris, so that the original track is now buried six meters beneath the modern surface. In the 11th century, the Circus was "replaced by dwellings rented out by the congregation of Saint-Guy." In

891-537: A hazardous waste site, or more commonly, waste can be transported from a site to a permanent incineration facility. The ash and gases leftover from incineration can also be hazardous. Metals are not destroyed, and can either remain in the furnace or convert to gas and join the gas emissions. The ash needs to be stored in a hazardous waste landfill, although it takes less space than the original waste. Incineration releases gases such as carbon dioxide , nitrogen oxides, ammonia, and volatile organic compounds. Reactions in

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972-469: A large number of generators. Some of the most common "universal wastes" are: fluorescent light bulbs , some specialty batteries (e.g. lithium or lead containing batteries), cathode-ray tubes , and mercury-containing devices. Universal wastes are subject to somewhat less stringent regulatory requirements. Small quantity generators of universal wastes may be classified as "conditionally exempt small quantity generators" (CESQGs) which release them from some of

1053-603: A mountain of waste continued to grow until the dump was closed in 1962. The landfill, which contains 5,53 million m³ waste, was covered with a layer of earth and trees were planted on it. The new mountain was named "Silberbuck". Since the dump has no containment and is permeated by ground water, dangerous material is constantly leaking into the Silbersee. The lower layers of water in the lake contain extremely high amounts of hydrogen sulfide , which makes humans unconscious when breathed in. Approximately 50 people have already died in

1134-488: A new Egyptian Province. The pulvinar was built on monumental scale, a shrine or temple ( aedes ) raised high above the trackside seats. Sometimes, while games were in progress, Augustus watched from there, alongside the gods. Occasionally, his family would join him there. This is the Circus described by Dionysius of Halicarnassus as "one of the most beautiful and admirable structures in Rome", with "entrances and ascents for

1215-787: A permit under the RCRA. Generators and transporters of hazardous waste must meet specific requirements for handling, managing, and tracking waste. Through the RCRA, Congress directed the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to create regulations to manage hazardous waste. Under this mandate, the EPA has developed strict requirements for all aspects of hazardous waste management, including treating, storing, and disposing of hazardous waste. In addition to these federal requirements, states may develop more stringent requirements that are broader in scope than

1296-411: A series of arches 65 metres high resting on a podium of dark red granite. The arcade and podium again suggests a Roman, not a Greek, circus or stadium, which did not traditionally rest on a substructure. In order to deliver such a vast number of spectators to their seats quickly, express lifts were to be installed to take spectators 100 at a time to seats on the top three tiers. The short transverse axis of

1377-536: A specially built stage. With the advent of Christianity as the official religion of the Empire, ludi gradually fell out of favour. The last known beast-hunt at the Circus Maximus took place in 523, and the last known races there were held by Totila in 549. The Circus Maximus was sited on the level ground of the Valley of Murcia ( Vallis Murcia ) , between Rome's Aventine and Palatine Hills . In Rome's early days,

1458-665: A stadium to serve merely as a centre for German athletic sport. The restored Panathenaic Stadium had been used for the 1896 Summer Olympics and the 1906 Intercalated Games , held out of series. In 1936 these games were held in the Reichssportfeld in Berlin , but Hitler insisted that after 1940, when the games were to have been held in Tokyo , all future games were to be held in the Deutsches Stadion . This stadium

1539-478: A temporary stage, probably erected between the two central seating banks. Others were enlarged at enormous expense to fit the entire space. A venatio held there in 169 BC, one of several in the 2nd century, employed "63 leopards and 40 bears and elephants", with spectators presumably kept safe by a substantial barrier. As Rome's provinces expanded, existing ludi were embellished and new ludi invented by politicians who competed for divine and popular support. By

1620-432: Is toxic , reacts violently with other chemicals, or is corrosive , among other traits. As of 2022, humanity produces 300-500 million metric tons of hazardous waste annually. Some common examples are electronics, batteries, and paints. An important aspect of managing hazardous waste is safe disposal. Hazardous waste can be stored in hazardous waste landfills, burned, or recycled into something new. Managing hazardous waste

1701-462: Is an ancient Roman chariot-racing stadium and mass entertainment venue in Rome , Italy. In the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it was the first and largest stadium in ancient Rome and its later Empire . It measured 621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 118 m (387 ft) in width and could accommodate over 150,000 spectators. In its fully developed form, it became

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1782-484: Is important to achieve worldwide sustainability . Hazardous waste is regulated on national scale by national governments as well as on an international scale by the United Nations (UN) and international treaties. Universal wastes are a special category of hazardous wastes that (in the U.S.) generally pose a lower threat relative to other hazardous wastes, are ubiquitous and produced in very large quantities by

1863-533: Is uncertain, but was probably in the order of 150,000; Pliny the Elder 's estimate of 250,000 seating places is unlikely. The wooden bleachers were damaged in a fire of 31 BC, either during or after construction. The fire damage of 31 was probably repaired by Augustus (Caesar's successor and Rome's first emperor). He modestly claimed credit only for an obelisk and pulvinar at the site but both were major projects. Ever since its quarrying, long before Rome existed,

1944-441: Is used to generate the required ultra heat (in excess of 3000 degree C temperature) all materials (waste) introduced into the process will melt into a molten slag and this technology is termed Plasma not pyrolysis. Plasma technology produces inert materials and when cooled solidifies into rock like material. These treatment methods are very expensive but may be preferable to high temperature incineration in some circumstances such as in

2025-621: The Consualia festival, as a way of gathering his Sabine neighbours at a celebration that included horse-races and drinking. During these distractions, Romulus's men then abducted the Sabine daughters as brides. Thus the famous Roman myth of the Rape of the Sabine women had as its setting the Circus and the Consualia. In this quasi-legendary era, horse or chariot races would have been held at

2106-876: The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Hazardous wastes are defined under RCRA in 40 CFR 261 and divided into two major categories: characteristic and listed. The requirements of the RCRA apply to all the companies that generate hazardous waste and those that store or dispose of hazardous waste in the United States. Many types of businesses generate hazardous waste. Dry cleaners , automobile repair shops, hospitals, exterminators , and photo processing centers may all generate hazardous waste. Some hazardous waste generators are larger companies such as chemical manufacturers , electroplating companies, and oil refineries . A U.S. facility that treats, stores, or disposes of hazardous waste must obtain

2187-640: The altar of Consus , as one of the Circus' patron deities , was incorporated into the fabric of the south-eastern turning post. When Murcia's stream was partly built over, to form a dividing barrier (the spina or euripus ) between the turning posts, her shrine was either retained or rebuilt. In the Late Imperial period, both the southeastern turn and the circus itself were sometimes known as Vallis Murcia . The symbols used to count race-laps also held religious significance; Castor and Pollux , who were born from an egg , were patrons of horses, horsemen, and

2268-533: The equestrian order (equites) . Likewise, the later use of dolphin-shaped lap counters reinforced associations between the races, swiftness, and Neptune , as god of earthquakes and horses; the Romans believed dolphins to be the swiftest of all creatures. When the Romans adopted the Phrygian Great Mother as an ancestral deity, a statue of her on lion-back was erected within the circus, probably on

2349-464: The late Republic , ludi were held on 57 days of the year; an unknown number of these would have required full use of the Circus. On many other days, charioteers and jockeys would need to practise on its track. Otherwise, it would have made a convenient corral for the animals traded in the nearby Forum Boarium , just outside the starting gate. Beneath the outer stands, next to the Circus' entrances, were workshops and shops. When no games were being held,

2430-483: The myrtle shrub, a sacred spring, the stream that divided the valley, and the lesser peak of the Aventine Hill. The other was at the southeastern turning-post, where there was an underground shrine to Consus , a minor god of grain-stores, connected to the grain-goddess Ceres and to the underworld . According to Roman tradition, Romulus discovered this shrine shortly after the founding of Rome . He invented

2511-710: The right to life . A 1995 petition by the Research Foundation for Science, Technology, and Natural Resource Policy spurred the Supreme Court to create the High Powered Committee (HPC) of Hazardous Waste, since data from pre-existing government boards was not usable. This committee found studies linking pollution and improper waste treatment with higher amounts of hexavalent chromium, lead, and other heavy metals. Industries and regulators were effectively ignoring these studies. In addition,

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2592-402: The 12th century, a watercourse was dug there to drain the soil, and by the 16th century the area was used as a market garden . During the renaissance, the site was one of many used as a convenient quarry for good quality building stone. Many of the Circus's standing structures survived these changes; in 1587, two obelisks were removed from the central barrier by Pope Sixtus V , and one of these

2673-404: The Circus at the time of Catullus (mid-1st century BC) was probably "a dusty open space with shops and booths ... a colourful crowded disreputable area" frequented by "prostitutes, jugglers, fortune tellers and low-class performing artists". Rome's emperors met the growing popular demand for regular ludi and the need for more specialised venues, as obligations of their office and cult . Over

2754-601: The Circus began with a flamboyant parade ( pompa circensis ) , much like the triumphal procession , which marked the purpose of the games and introduced the participants. During the Roman Republic , the aediles organized the games. The most costly and complex of the ludi offered opportunities to assess an aedile's competence, generosity, and fitness for higher office . Some Circus events, however, seem to have been relatively small and intimate affairs. In 167 BC, "flute players, scenic artists and dancers" performed on

2835-542: The Circus entirely in stone, and provide a new pulvinar in the stands where Rome's emperor could be seen and honoured as part of the Roman community, alongside their gods. Under Trajan, the Circus Maximus found its definitive form, which was unchanged thereafter save for some monumental additions by later emperors, an extensive, planned rebuilding of the starting gate area under Caracalla , and repairs and renewals to existing fabric. Of these, Pliny claims that Trajan's works gained

2916-540: The Circus site. The track width may have been determined by the distance between Murcia's and Consus' shrines at the southeastern end, and its length by the distance between these two shrines and Hercules ' Ara Maxima , supposedly older than Rome itself and sited behind the Circus' starting place. The position of Consus' shrine at the turn of the track recalls the placing of shrines to Roman Neptune 's Greek equivalent, Poseidon , in Greek hippodromes . In later developments,

2997-702: The Hazardous Waste Rules in 1989. With these rules, companies are only permitted by the state to produce hazardous waste if they are able to dispose of it safely. However, state governments did not make these rules effective. There was around a decade delay between when hazardous waste landfills were requested and when they were built. During this time, companies disposed hazardous waste in various "temporary" hazardous waste locations, such as along roads and in canal pits, with no immediate plan to move it to proper facilities. The Supreme Court stepped in to prevent damage from hazardous waste in order to protect

3078-578: The Mohawk Nation at Akwesasne have suffered elevated levels of PCB [Polychlorinated Biphenyls] in their bloodstreams leading to higher rates of cancer. The UN has a mandate on hazardous substances and wastes with recommendations to countries for dealing with hazardous waste. 199 countries signed the 1992 Basel Convention , seeking to stop the flow of hazardous waste from developed countries to developing countries with less stringent environmental regulations. The international community has defined

3159-498: The P & U list were commercially used generated waste and shelf stable pesticides. Not only can mismanagement of hazardous wastes cause adverse direct health consequences through air pollution, mismanaged waste can also contaminate groundwater and soil. In an Austrian study, people who live near industrial sites are "more often unemployed, have lower education levels, and are twice as likely to be immigrants." This creates disproportionately larger issues for those who depend heavily on

3240-519: The US, Hazardous wastes are regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) , Subtitle C. By definition, EPA determined that some specific wastes are hazardous. These wastes are incorporated into lists published by the Agency. These lists are organized into three categories: F-list (non-specific source wastes) found in the regulations at 40 CFR 261.31, K-list (source-specific wastes) found in

3321-418: The cavernous stadium. After the war, the horseshoe-shaped foundation of the building quickly filled with groundwater and was named "Silbersee" (Silver lake) by locals. The site became a dump for debris of Nuremberg's destroyed buildings and any kind of other waste, including what today is considered hazardous waste . The southern part of the horseshoe was filled up to ground level with waste in 1951. After that

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3402-436: The central barrier, close to his temple and the finishing line. The Sun-god was the ultimate, victorious charioteer, driving his four-horse chariot ( quadriga ) through the heavenly circuit from sunrise to sunset. His partner Luna drove her two-horse chariot ( biga ); together, they represented the predictable, orderly movement of the cosmos and the circuit of time, which found analogy in the Circus track. Luna's temple, which

3483-461: The centuries of its development, the Circus Maximus became Rome's paramount specialist venue for chariot races. By the late 1st century AD, the Colosseum had been built for most of the city's gladiator shows and smaller beast-hunts, and most track-athletes competed at the purpose-designed Stadium of Domitian , though long-distance foot races were still held at the Circus. Eventually, 135 days of

3564-495: The destruction of concentrated organic waste types, including PCBs, pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants . Hazardous waste management and disposal comes with consequences if not done properly. If disposed of improperly, hazardous gaseous substances can be released into the air resulting in higher morbidity and mortality. These gaseous substances can include hydrogen chloride, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and some may also include heavy metals. With

3645-586: The dividing barrier. Sun and Moon cults were probably represented at the Circus from its earliest phases. Their importance grew with the introduction of Roman cult to Apollo, and the development of Stoic and solar monism as a theological basis for the Roman Imperial cult . In the Imperial era, the Sun-god was divine patron of the Circus and its games. His sacred obelisk towered over the arena, set in

3726-431: The earliest historically attested "Roman Games" ( Ludi Romani ) held at the Circus in honour of Jupiter in 366 BC. In the early Imperial era, Ovid describes the opening of Cerealia (mid to late April) with a horse race at the Circus, followed by the nighttime release of foxes into the stadium, their tails ablaze with lighted torches. Some early connection is likely between Ceres as goddess of grain crops and Consus as

3807-478: The environment. Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, contained gases, or sludges. They can be by-products of manufacturing processes or simply discarded commercial products, like cleaning fluids or pesticides. In regulatory terms, RCRA hazardous wastes are wastes that appear on one of the four hazardous wastes lists (F-list, K-list, P-list, or U-list), or exhibit at least one of the following four characteristics; ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity. in

3888-399: The federal regulations. Furthermore, RCRA allows states to develop regulatory programs that are at least as stringent as RCRA, and after review by EPA, the states may take over responsibility for implementing the requirements under RCRA. Most states take advantage of this authority, implementing their own hazardous waste programs that are at least as stringent and, in some cases, stricter than

3969-484: The first Etruscan king of Rome , Lucius Tarquinius Priscus , built raised, wooden perimeter seating at the Circus for Rome's highest echelons (the equites and patricians ), probably midway along the Palatine straight, with an awning against the sun and rain. His grandson, Tarquinius Superbus , added the first seating for citizen-commoners ( plebs , or plebeians), either adjacent or on the opposite, Aventine side of

4050-410: The furnace can also form hydrochloric acid gas and sulfur dioxide . To avoid releasing hazardous gases and solid waste suspended in those gases, modern incinerators are designed with systems to capture these emissions. Hazardous waste may be sequestered in a hazardous waste landfill or permanent disposal facility. "In terms of hazardous waste, a landfill is defined as a disposal facility or part of

4131-609: The lake. The small village of Achtel in Hirschbach, Bavaria is the site of a sports grandstand constructed as a prototype for part of the Deutsches Stadion . It was constructed mostly of wood, which was removed after the war and was used to reconstruct local buildings. Today only the concrete supports remain. 49°25′19.91″N 11°6′50.91″E  /  49.4221972°N 11.1141417°E  / 49.4221972; 11.1141417 Circus Maximus The Circus Maximus ( Latin for "largest circus"; Italian : Circo Massimo )

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4212-410: The land for harvests and streams for drinking water; this includes Native American populations. Though all lower-class and/or social minorities are at a higher risk for being exposed to toxic exposure, Native Americans are at a multiplied risk due to the facts stated above (Brook, 1998). Improper disposal of hazardous waste has resulted in many extreme health complications within certain tribes. Members of

4293-413: The late 1st century AD, the central dividing barrier comprised a series of water basins, or else a single watercourse open in some places and bridged over in others. It offered opportunities for artistic embellishment and decorative swagger, and included the temples and statues of various deities, fountains, and refuges for those assistants involved in more dangerous circus activities, such as beast-hunts and

4374-420: The level of threat of harmful chemicals, like fly and bottom ash , while also recycling the safe product. Incinerators burn hazardous waste at high temperatures (1600°-2500°F, 870°-1400°C), greatly reducing its amount by decomposing it into ash and gases. Incineration works with many types of hazardous waste, including contaminated soil , sludge , liquids, and gases. An incinerator can be built directly at

4455-540: The model for circuses throughout the Roman Empire. The site is now a public park . The Circus was Rome's largest venue for ludi , public games connected to Roman religious festivals . Ludi were sponsored by leading Romans or the Roman state for the benefit of the Roman people ( populus Romanus ) and gods . Most were held annually or at annual intervals on the Roman calendar . Others might be given to fulfil

4536-407: The obelisk had been sacred to Egyptian Sun-gods. Augustus had it brought from Heliopolis at enormous expense, and erected midway along the dividing barrier of the Circus. It was Rome's first obelisk, an exotically sacred object and a permanent reminder of Augustus' victory over his Roman foes and their Egyptian allies in the recent civil wars. Thanks to him, Rome had secured both a lasting peace and

4617-507: The open end of the stadium by an internally pillared courtyard. Since the stadium was not set like the Panathenaic Stadium structure at the bottom of a gully, but on a flat area of land (24 hectares), its five tiers of seats for 405,000 spectators had to be supported in the usual Roman manner by massive barrel vaults . The external façade of pink granite blocks, which would have risen to a height of about 90 metres, consisted of

4698-421: The period, he also emphasized the community feeling that such a building would engender between competitors and spectators: As in ancient Greece, the elite and most experienced men chosen from the mass of the nation will compete against each other here. An entire nation in sympathetic wonder is seated on the tiers. Spectators and competitors merge in one unity. The idea of staging Pan-Germanic athletic games here

4779-479: The prospect of gaseous material being released into the atmosphere, several organizations (RCRA, TSCA, HSWA, CERCLA) developed an identification scale in which hazardous materials and wastes are categorized in order to be able to quickly identify and mitigate potential leaks. F-List materials were identified as non-specific industrial practices waste, K-List materials were wastes generated from specific industrial processes - pesticides, petroleum, explosive industries, and

4860-667: The recovery of casualties during races. In AD 81 the Senate built a triple arch honoring Titus at the semi-circular end of the Circus, to replace or augment a former processional entrance. The emperor Domitian built a new, multi-storey palace on the Palatine, connected somehow to the Circus; he likely watched the games in autocratic style, from high above and barely visible to those below. Repairs to fire damage during his reign may already have been under way before his assassination. The risk of further fire-damage, coupled with Domitian's fate, may have prompted Trajan 's decision to rebuild

4941-482: The regulations at 40 CFR 261.32, and P-list and the U-list (discarded commercial chemical products) found in the regulations at 40 CFR 261.33. RCRA's record keeping system helps to track the life cycle of hazardous waste and reduces the amount of hazardous waste illegally disposed. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) was enacted in 1980. The primary contribution of CERCLA

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5022-426: The regulatory requirements for the handling and storage hazardous wastes. Universal wastes must still be disposed of properly. Household Hazardous Waste (HHW), also referred to as domestic hazardous waste or home generated special materials, is a waste that is generated from residential households. HHW only applies to waste coming from the use of materials that are labeled for and sold for "home use". Waste generated by

5103-642: The responsible management of hazardous waste and chemicals as an important part of sustainable development by including it in Sustainable Development Goal 12 . Target 12.4 of this goal is to "achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle". One of the indicators for this target is: "hazardous waste generated per capita; and proportion of hazardous waste treated, by type of treatment". Hazardous wastes are wastes with properties that make them dangerous or potentially harmful to human health or

5184-422: The scale, depth and waterlogging of the site. The Circus site now functions as a large park area, open to the public and often used for concerts, meetings, and celebrations. [REDACTED] Media related to Circus Maximus at Wikimedia Commons Hazardous waste Hazardous waste is waste that must be handled properly to avoid damaging human health or the environment. Waste can be hazardous because it

5265-416: The sky. Temples to several deities overlooked the Circus; most are now lost. The temples to Ceres and Flora stood close together on the Aventine, more or less opposite the Circus' starting gate, which remained under Hercules' protection. Further southeast along the Aventine was a temple to Luna , the moon goddess. Aventine temples to Venus Obsequens , Mercury and Dis (or perhaps Summanus ) stood on

5346-489: The slopes above the southeast turn. On the Palatine hill, opposite to Ceres's temple, stood the temple to Magna Mater and, more or less opposite Luna's temple, one to the sun-god Apollo . Several festivals, some of uncertain foundation and date, were held at the Circus in historical times. The Consualia, with its semi-mythical establishment by Romulus, and the Cerealia , the major festival of Ceres, were probably older than

5427-430: The spectators at every shop, so that the countless thousands of people may enter and depart without inconvenience." The site remained prone to flooding, probably through the starting gates, until Claudius made improvements there; they probably included an extramural anti-flooding embankment. Fires in the crowded, wooden perimeter workshops and bleachers were a far greater danger. A fire of 36 AD seems to have started in

5508-475: The stadium culminated at each of its ends in a raised Ehrentribüne ( Tribune of Honour) for the Führer , special guests and the press. Once more, Roman practice provided the architectural precedent. Speer apparently adopted a horseshoe shape for his building only after rejecting the oval shape of an amphitheatre . The latter plan, he claimed, would have intensified the heat and produced psychological discomfort,

5589-676: The state was also not acting in accordance with the Basel Convention , an international treaty on the transport of hazardous waste. The Supreme Court modified the Hazardous Waste Rules and began the Supreme Court Monitoring Committee to follow up on its decisions. With this committee, the Court has been able to force companies polluting hazardous wastes to close. In the United States, the treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste are regulated under

5670-417: The thrills and spills of chariot racing. In the 190s BC, stone track-side seating was built, exclusively for senators. Permanent wooden starting stalls were built in 329 BC. They were gated, brightly painted, and staggered to equalise the distances from each start place to the central barrier. In theory, they might have accommodated up to 25 four-horse chariots ( Quadrigas ) abreast but when team-racing

5751-470: The track perimeter and its seating protected spectators and help drain the track. The inner third of the seating formed a trackside cavea . Its front sections along the central straight were reserved for senators, and those immediately behind for equites . The outer tiers, two thirds of the total, were meant for Roman plebs and non-citizens. They were timber-built, with wooden-framed service buildings, shops and entrance-ways beneath. The total number of seats

5832-418: The track. Otherwise, the Circus was probably still little more than a trackway through surrounding farmland. By this time, it may have been drained but the wooden stands and seats would have frequently rotted and been rebuilt. The turning posts ( metae ), each made of three conical stone pillars, may have been the earliest permanent Circus structures; an open drainage canal between the posts would have served as

5913-467: The valley would have been rich agricultural land, prone to flooding from the river Tiber and the stream which divided the valley lengthwise. The stream was probably bridged at an early date, at the two points where the track had to cross it, and the earliest races would have been held within an agricultural landscape, "with nothing more than turning posts, banks where spectators could sit, and some shrines and sacred spots". In Livy 's History of Rome ,

5994-406: The year were devoted to ludi . Even at the height of its development as a chariot-racing circuit, the circus remained the most suitable space in Rome for religious processions on a grand scale and was the most popular venue for large-scale venationes ; in the late 3rd century, the emperor Probus laid on a spectacular Circus show in which beasts were hunted through a veritable forest of trees, on

6075-463: Was added, positioned well above the central dividing barrier (euripus) for maximum visibility. Julius Caesar 's development of the Circus, commencing around 50 BC, extended the seating tiers to run almost the entire circuit of the track, barring the starting gates and a processional entrance at the semi-circular end. The track measured approximately 621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 150 m (490 ft) in breadth. A canal between

6156-585: Was in all its dimensions far larger than the 1936 Olympic Stadium in Berlin, which held only 115,000 spectators. Hitler anticipated that after winning the war, the world would have no choice but to send its athletes to Germany every time the Olympic Games were held at which, no doubt, victors would have received their prizes from the Führer, surrounded by the party faithful on the pulvinar on the short axis of

6237-634: Was introduced, they were widened, and their number reduced. By the late Republican or early Imperial era, there were twelve stalls. Their divisions were fronted by herms that served as stops for spring-loaded gates, so that twelve light-weight, four-horse or two-horse chariots could be simultaneously released onto the track. The stalls were allocated by lottery, and the various racing teams were identified by their colors. Typically, there were seven laps per race. From at least 174 BC, they were counted off using large sculpted eggs. In 33 BC, an additional system of large bronze dolphin-shaped lap counters

6318-479: Was perhaps suggested by the Panathenaic Games , but Speer's stadium was, despite his own statement, stylistically more Roman than Greek in inspiration and with its huge barrel-vaulted substructures and arcaded exterior façade, more like the Circus Maximus than the Panathenaic Stadium. Nazi building exhibits a mixture of Greek and Roman elements, with Roman predominating. But Hitler did not want such

6399-517: Was probably built long before Apollo's, burned down in the Great Fire of 64 AD and was probably not replaced. Her cult was closely identified with that of Diana , who seems to have been represented in the processions that started Circus games, and with Sol Indiges , usually identified as her brother. After the loss of her temple, her cult may have been transferred to Sol's temple on the dividing barrier, or one beside it; both would have been open to

6480-589: Was re-sited at the Piazza del Popolo . In 1852, a gas works was built on the site by the Anglo-Italian Gas Society. It remained in situ until 1910 when it was relocated to the edge of Rome. Mid-19th century workings at the circus site uncovered the lower parts of a seating tier and outer portico. Since then, a series of excavations has exposed further sections of the seating, curved turn and central barrier but further exploration has been limited by

6561-663: Was to create a " Superfund " and provide for the clean-up and remediation of closed and abandoned hazardous waste sites. CERCLA addresses historic releases of hazardous materials, but does not specifically manage hazardous wastes. In 1984, a deadly methyl isocyanate gas leak known as the Bhopal disaster raised environmental awareness in India. In response, the Indian government produced the Environmental Act in 1986, followed by

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