The Botanical and Zoological Codes of nomenclature treat the concept of synonymy differently.
48-537: See text . Gesneriaceae , the gesneriad family , is a family of flowering plants consisting of about 152 genera and ca. 3,540 species in the tropics and subtropics of the Old World (almost all Didymocarpoideae ) and the New World (most Gesnerioideae ), with a very small number extending to temperate areas. Many species have colorful and showy flowers and are cultivated as ornamental plants. The family name
96-493: A nomen oblitum , and the junior name declared a nomen protectum . This rule exists primarily to prevent the confusion that would result if a well-known name, with a large accompanying body of literature, were to be replaced by a completely unfamiliar name. An example is the European land snail Petasina edentula ( Draparnaud , 1805). In 2002, researchers found that an older name Helix depilata Draparnaud, 1801 referred to
144-437: A junior subjective synonym. Objective synonyms are common at the rank of genera, because for various reasons two genera may contain the same type species; these are objective synonyms. In many cases researchers established new generic names because they thought this was necessary or did not know that others had previously established another genus for the same group of species. An example is the genus Pomatia Beck, 1837, which
192-554: A lack of widespread consensus within the scientific community for extended periods. The continual publication of new data and diverse opinions plays a crucial role in facilitating adjustments and ultimately reaching a consensus over time. The naming of families is codified by various international bodies using the following suffixes: The taxonomic term familia was first used by French botanist Pierre Magnol in his Prodromus historiae generalis plantarum, in quo familiae plantarum per tabulas disponuntur (1689) where he called
240-428: A listing of "synonyms", a "synonymy", often contains designations that for some reason did not make it as a formal name, such as manuscript names, or even misidentifications (although it is now the usual practice to list misidentifications separately ). Although the basic principles are fairly similar, the treatment of synonyms in botanical nomenclature differs in detail and terminology from zoological nomenclature, where
288-440: A species is moved to a different genus, a variety is moved to a different species, etc. Synonyms also come about when the codes of nomenclature change, so that older names are no longer acceptable; for example, Erica herbacea L. has been rejected in favour of Erica carnea L. and is thus its synonym. To the general user of scientific names, in fields such as agriculture, horticulture, ecology, general science, etc.,
336-434: A species, or simple ignorance about an earlier description, may lead a biologist to describe a newly discovered specimen as a new species. A common reason for objective synonyms at this level is the creation of a replacement name. A junior synonym can be given precedence over a senior synonym, primarily when the senior name has not been used since 1899, and the junior name is in common use. The older name may be declared to be
384-418: A synonym is a name that was previously used as the correct scientific name (in handbooks and similar sources) but which has been displaced by another scientific name, which is now regarded as correct. Thus Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the term as "a taxonomic name which has the same application as another, especially one which has been superseded and is no longer valid". In handbooks and general texts, it
432-418: A synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy, synonyms are not equals, but have a different status. For any taxon with a particular circumscription , position, and rank, only one scientific name is considered to be the correct one at any given time (this correct name is to be determined by applying the relevant code of nomenclature ). A synonym cannot exist in isolation: it
480-481: A taxon, some of this (including species descriptions, distribution, ecology and more) may well have been published under names now regarded as outdated (i.e., synonyms) and so it is again useful to know a list of historic synonyms which may have been used for a given current (valid) taxon name. Objective synonyms refer to taxa with the same type and same rank (more or less the same taxon, although circumscription may vary, even widely). This may be species-group taxa of
528-475: A tube and there is no one character that separates a gesneriad from any other member of Lamiales. Gesneriads differ from related families of the Lamiales in having an unusual inflorescence structure, the "pair-flowered cyme", but some gesneriads lack this characteristic, and some other Lamiales ( Calceolariaceae and some Scrophulariaceae ) share it. The ovary can be superior, half-inferior or fully inferior, and
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#1732782766273576-617: A uniform synapomorphy ). Gesnerioideae seedlings have normal cotyledons of the same size and shape (isocotylous). The cotyledons of Didymocarpoideae are usually, but not always, eventually different in size and shape (anisocotylous). One cotyledon ceases to grow and withers away, while the other continues to grow, and may even form a very large leaf that is the only one the plant has ( Monophyllaea , some Streptocarpus ). Gesnerioideae flowers usually have four fertile stamens , rarely two or five. Didymocarpoideae flowers usually have two fertile stamens, less often four, rarely one or five. On
624-493: Is always an alternative to a different scientific name. Given that the correct name of a taxon depends on the taxonomic viewpoint used (resulting in a particular circumscription, position and rank) a name that is one taxonomist's synonym may be another taxonomist's correct name (and vice versa ). Synonyms may arise whenever the same taxon is described and named more than once, independently. They may also arise when existing taxa are changed, as when two taxa are joined to become one,
672-530: Is an international horticultural society devoted to the promotion, cultivation, and study of Gesneriaceae. From about 1997 onwards, molecular phylogenetic studies led to extensive changes in the classification of the family Gesneriaceae and its genera, many of which have been re-circumscribed or synonymized . New species are still being discovered, particularly in Asia, and may further change generic boundaries. A consensus phylogeny used to build classifications of
720-503: Is based on the genus Gesneria , which honours Swiss naturalist and humanist Conrad Gessner . Most species are herbaceous perennials or subshrubs but a few are woody shrubs or small trees . The phyllotaxy is usually opposite and decussate , but leaves have a spiral or alternate arrangement in some groups. As with other members of the Lamiales the flowers have a (usually) zygomorphic corolla whose petals are fused into
768-499: Is commonly referred to as the "walnut family". The delineation of what constitutes a family— or whether a described family should be acknowledged— is established and decided upon by active taxonomists . There are not strict regulations for outlining or acknowledging a family, yet in the realm of plants, these classifications often rely on both the vegetative and reproductive characteristics of plant species. Taxonomists frequently hold varying perspectives on these descriptions, leading to
816-410: Is not correct for the circumscription , position, and rank of the taxon as considered in the particular botanical publication. It is always "a synonym of the correct scientific name", but which name is correct depends on the taxonomic opinion of the author. In botany the various kinds of synonyms are: In botany, although a synonym must be a formally accepted scientific name (a validly published name):
864-485: Is one of the eight major hierarchical taxonomic ranks in Linnaean taxonomy . It is classified between order and genus . A family may be divided into subfamilies , which are intermediate ranks between the ranks of family and genus. The official family names are Latin in origin; however, popular names are often used: for example, walnut trees and hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae , but that family
912-411: Is useful to have synonyms mentioned as such after the current scientific name, so as to avoid confusion. For example, if the much-advertised name change should go through and the scientific name of the fruit fly were changed to Sophophora melanogaster , it would be very helpful if any mention of this name was accompanied by "(syn. Drosophila melanogaster )". Synonyms used in this way may not always meet
960-485: The Genera Plantarum of George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker this word ordo was used for what now is given the rank of family. Families serve as valuable units for evolutionary, paleontological, and genetic studies due to their relatively greater stability compared to lower taxonomic levels like genera and species. Synonym (taxonomy) Unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy
1008-535: The International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants specifies this as the name to be used. It was published by Louis Claude Richard and Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in 1816. In 1829, Barthélemy Dumortier divided the family into two tribes, based on the number of stamens. However, the only genus he placed in his two-stamen tribe, Columellia , is now placed in the separate family Columelliaceae . Dumortier's publication has been treated as
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#17327827662731056-1018: The monophyly of all the subfamilies and tribes. It resolved Peltanthera as sister to a clade of Calceolariaceae and Gesneriaceae. Within the Gesnerioideae, Napeantheae rather than Titanotricheae was found to be sister to the remaining tribes. The position of Titanotricheae varied according to the method used to build the cladogram, which the authors suggested was due to incomplete lineage sorting following rapid divergence. The phylogenetic position of Titanotrichum remains unsettled. Napeantheae ( Napeanthus ) Titanotricheae ( Titanotrichum ) Beslerieae Coronanthereae Gesnerieae Napeantheae ( Napeanthus ) Beslerieae Titanotricheae ( Titanotrichum ) Coronanthereae Gesnerieae The genus Sanango has not always been included in Gesneriaceae. However, molecular phylogenetic studies published up to and including 2021 suggest that it does belong in
1104-793: The New World species (i.e. the subfamily Gesnerioideae) are co-adapted to bird pollination , particularly by hummingbirds in the Americas. Bird-pollinated species typically have two-lipped flowers in shades of red; examples are found in the genera Asteranthera , Columnea and Sinningia . Among Old World genera, Aeschynanthus has similar flowers. Some genera in the family are grown as ornamental plants , both as garden plants and as houseplants . Such genera include: Aeschynanthus , Achimenes , Columnea , Gesneria , Haberlea , Nematanthus (syn. Hypocyrta ), Ramonda , and Streptocarpus (Cape primroses, African violets). One of
1152-561: The World Online (PoWO) as of August 2024 are listed below, together with their placement in a subfamily and tribe by Weber et al. (2020). Three genera are listed by PoWO but not by Weber et al. : Coptocheile Hoffmanns. (now treated as a synonym of Sinningia ), Parakohleria Wiehler (now included in Pearcea ) and Peltanthera Benth. (excluded from Gesneriaceae by molecular phylogenetic studies). About half of
1200-488: The authors have inspected the original material; a . that they take on the responsibility for the act of synonymizing the taxa. The accurate use of scientific names, including synonyms, is crucial in biomedical and pharmacological research involving plants. Failure to use correct botanical nomenclature can lead to ambiguity, hinder reproducibility of results, and potentially cause errors in medicine. Best practices for publication suggest that researchers should provide
1248-585: The basis of molecular phylogenetic , morphological and biogeographical differences, the family has been divided into two major subfamilies: subfamily Didymocarpoideae (formerly Cyrtandroideae) with all but one species from the Old World , and subfamily Gesnerioideae native from the Americas west through the Pacific to Australia and southeastern China. The genus Sanango is placed in its own subfamily, Sanangoideae. The two main subfamilies are further divided into tribes and subtribes. Genera accepted by Plants of
1296-419: The beginning of § Zoology . The two are related, with only one word difference between their names.) For example, the scientific name of the red imported fire ant , Solenopsis invicta was published by Buren in 1972, who did not know that this species was first named Solenopsis saevissima wagneri by Santschi in 1916; as there were thousands of publications using the name invicta before anyone discovered
1344-421: The correct name is included among synonyms, although as first among equals it is the "senior synonym": Scientific papers may include lists of taxa, synonymizing existing taxa and (in some cases) listing references to them. The status of a synonym may be indicated by symbols, as for instance in a system proposed for use in paleontology by Rudolf Richter. In that system a v before the year would indicate that
1392-649: The currently accepted binomial with author citation, relevant synonyms, and the accepted family name according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III classification. This practice ensures clear communication, allows proper linking of research to existing literature, and provides insight into phylogenetic relationships that may be relevant to shared chemical constituents or physiological effects. Online databases now make it easy for researchers to access correct nomenclature and synonymy information for plant species. The traditional concept of synonymy
1440-540: The family as a rank intermediate between order and genus was introduced by Pierre André Latreille in his Précis des caractères génériques des insectes, disposés dans un ordre naturel (1796). He used families (some of them were not named) in some but not in all his orders of "insects" (which then included all arthropods ). In nineteenth-century works such as the Prodromus of Augustin Pyramus de Candolle and
1488-419: The family as the most basal member, and it is placed in its own subfamily. The studies also show the genus Peltanthera to be outside the family, although some sources still place it within the Gesneriaceae. The genus Rehmannia has also sometimes been included in the family but is now referred to the family Orobanchaceae . No single morphological feature absolutely divides two main subfamilies (i.e. forms
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1536-428: The family in 2013 and 2020 is shown below (to the level of tribes). The family Calceolariaceae is shown as the sister to Gesneriaceae. Peltanthera Calceolariaceae Sanangoideae ( Sanango ) Titanotricheae ( Titanotrichum ) Napeantheae ( Napeanthus ) Beslerieae Coronanthereae Gesnerieae Epithemateae Trichosporeae A phylogenomic study published in 2021 which used 418 nuclear genes confirmed
1584-481: The first for the family by some sources. Botanists who have made significant contributions to the systematics of the family are George Bentham , Robert Brown , B.L. Burtt , C.B. Clarke , Olive Mary Hilliard , Joseph Dalton Hooker , William Jackson Hooker , Karl Fritsch , Elmer Drew Merrill , Harold E. Moore Jr. , John L. Clark , Conrad Vernon Morton , Henry Nicholas Ridley , Laurence Skog , W.T. Wang , Anton Weber , and Hans Wiehler . The Gesneriad Society
1632-409: The fruit a dry or fleshy capsule or a berry . The seeds are always small and numerous. Gesneriaceae have traditionally been separated from Scrophulariaceae by having a unilocular rather than bilocular ovary, with parietal rather than axile placentation. "Gesneriaceae" is a conserved name ( nom. cons. ), meaning that although alternative, less well used names for the family were published earlier,
1680-401: The junior synonym. (Incidentally, this species has since been reclassified and currently resides in the genus Bubo , as Bubo scandiacus ). One basic principle of zoological nomenclature is that the earliest correctly published (and thus available ) name, the senior synonym, by default takes precedence in naming rights and therefore, unless other restrictions interfere, must be used for
1728-599: The most familiar members of the family to gardeners are the African violets in Streptocarpus section Saintpaulia . Gesneriads are divided culturally into three groups on the basis of whether, and how, their stems are modified into storage organs: rhizomatous , tuberous , and "fibrous-rooted", meaning those that lack such storage structures (although all gesneriads have fibrous roots). Family (biology) Family ( Latin : familia , pl. : familiae )
1776-536: The rules of nomenclature; as for example when an older name is (re)discovered which has priority over the current name. Speaking in general, name changes for nomenclatural reasons have become less frequent over time as the rules of nomenclature allow for names to be conserved, so as to promote stability of scientific names. In zoological nomenclature, codified in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , synonyms are different scientific names of
1824-408: The same taxonomic rank that pertain to that same taxon . For example, a particular species could, over time, have had two or more species-rank names published for it, while the same is applicable at higher ranks such as genera, families, orders, etc. In each case, the earliest published name is called the senior synonym , while the later name is the junior synonym . In the case where two names for
1872-409: The same rank with the same type specimen , genus-group taxa of the same rank with the same type species or if their type species are themselves objective synonyms, of family-group taxa with the same type genus, etc. In the case of subjective synonyms , there is no such shared type, so the synonymy is open to taxonomic judgement, meaning that there is room for debate: one researcher might consider
1920-534: The same species, but this name had never been used after 1899 and was fixed as a nomen oblitum under this rule by Falkner et al. 2002. Such a reversal of precedence is also possible if the senior synonym was established after 1900, but only if the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) approves an application. (Here the C in ICZN stands for Commission, not Code as it does at
1968-407: The same taxon have been published simultaneously, the valid name is selected accorded to the principle of the first reviser such that, for example, of the names Strix scandiaca and Strix noctua (Aves), both published by Linnaeus in the same work at the same date for the taxon now determined to be the snowy owl , the epithet scandiaca has been selected as the valid name, with noctua becoming
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2016-575: The seventy-six groups of plants he recognised in his tables families ( familiae ). The concept of rank at that time was not yet settled, and in the preface to the Prodromus Magnol spoke of uniting his families into larger genera , which is far from how the term is used today. In his work Philosophia Botanica published in 1751, Carl Linnaeus employed the term familia to categorize significant plant groups such as trees , herbs , ferns , palms , and so on. Notably, he restricted
2064-493: The strict definitions of the term "synonym" in the formal rules of nomenclature which govern scientific names (see below) . Changes of scientific name have two causes: they may be taxonomic or nomenclatural. A name change may be caused by changes in the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon, representing a change in taxonomic, scientific insight (as would be the case for the fruit fly, mentioned above). A name change may be due to purely nomenclatural reasons, that is, based on
2112-401: The synonymy, the ICZN, in 2001, ruled that invicta would be given precedence over wagneri . To qualify as a synonym in zoology, a name must be properly published in accordance with the rules. Manuscript names and names that were mentioned without any description ( nomina nuda ) are not considered as synonyms in zoological nomenclature. In botanical nomenclature , a synonym is a name that
2160-406: The taxon. However, junior synonyms are still important to document, because if the earliest name cannot be used (for example, because the same spelling had previously been used for a name established for another taxon), then the next available junior synonym must be used for the taxon. For other purposes, if a researcher is interested in consulting or compiling all currently known information regarding
2208-479: The two (or more) types to refer to one and the same taxon, another might consider them to belong to different taxa. For example, John Edward Gray published the name Antilocapra anteflexa in 1855 for a species of pronghorn , based on a pair of horns. However, it is now commonly accepted that his specimen was an unusual individual of the species Antilocapra americana published by George Ord in 1815. Ord's name thus takes precedence, with Antilocapra anteflexa being
2256-549: The use of this term solely within the book's morphological section, where he delved into discussions regarding the vegetative and generative aspects of plants. Subsequently, in French botanical publications, from Michel Adanson 's Familles naturelles des plantes (1763) and until the end of the 19th century, the word famille was used as a French equivalent of the Latin ordo (or ordo naturalis ). In zoology ,
2304-545: Was established for a group of terrestrial snails containing as its type species the Burgundy or Roman snail Helix pomatia —since Helix pomatia was already the type species for the genus Helix Linnaeus, 1758, the genus Pomatia was an objective synonym (and useless). On the same occasion, Helix is also a synonym of Pomatia , but it is older and so it has precedence. At the species level, subjective synonyms are common because of an unexpectedly large range of variation in
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